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Plants Used for Treatment of Malaria inCommunities Around the Bobiri ForestReserve in GhanaAlex Asase a & Tonny Asafo-Agyei aa Department of Botany , University of Ghana , Legon, GhanaPublished online: 10 Jun 2011.

To cite this article: Alex Asase & Tonny Asafo-Agyei (2011) Plants Used for Treatment of Malaria inCommunities Around the Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana, Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants,17:2, 85-106, DOI: 10.1080/10496475.2011.581132

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Journal of Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants, 17:85–106, 2011Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1049-6475 print/1540-3580 onlineDOI: 10.1080/10496475.2011.581132

Plants Used for Treatment of Malariain Communities Around the Bobiri Forest

Reserve in Ghana

ALEX ASASE and TONNY ASAFO-AGYEIDepartment of Botany, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana

The study collected and analyzed information on the diversityof plants used for the treatment of malaria in communities liv-ing near the Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana, using a structuredquestionnaire to interview 150 individuals. Forty-two plant speciesbelonging to 27 families were identified as being used locally intreating malaria. The plant leaves were the most commonly usedplant part, and the majority (92.9%) of the medicinal preparationswere decoctions obtained by boiling the plant parts. About 75%of the people collected plants for treatment of malaria from theirimmediate surroundings (within 100 m of their homes), whereasthe others were collected in the wild. Respondents indicated asmajor threats to the medicinal species of plants: drought (49.3%)followed by farming (15.7%), over-harvesting (13%), and brushfires (11%). The results of the study suggest a need for conservationand sustainable harvesting strategies.

KEYWORDS antimalarial, conservation, medicinal plant, tradi-tional medicine

Received October 19, 2009.The authors are very grateful to the study communities for sharing their knowledge

about medicinal plants with us. Thanks also to Prof. Lyle E. Craker (immediate past editor ofthis journal) for his comments and support. This study received financial support from theInternational Foundation of Science (IFS).

Address correspondence to Alex Asase, Department of Botany, University of Ghana,P. O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana. E-mail: aasase@ug.edu.gh

85

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86 A. Asase and T. Asafo-Agyei

INTRODUCTION

Malaria is the single most important cause of ill health, death, and povertyin sub-Saharan Africa (68). Estimates suggest as many as 300 million acutecases of malaria occurring worldwide each year, resulting in 1 million deaths.Approximately 90% of these deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa, and most ofthe victims are children younger than 5 years of age (86). The major prob-lems associated with the management of malaria are the parasites that causemalaria (Plasmodium sp.), developing resistance to the most widely avail-able, affordable, and safest first-line treatments such as Chloroquine andFansidar (49, 70); difficulty in control of mosquitoes that transmit malariadue to their resistance to a wide range of insecticides; the widespreadproduction and marketing of “new” ineffective antimalarial drugs, such asartesunate blister packs that contain no active ingredients (59); and thelack of infrastructure and resources to manage and control malaria in manyAfrican countries (86).

Most communities in Ghana depend on the use of herbal remediesfor the treatment of malaria (6). Not many publications on the details ofplant species used by populations living near the reserve for treatment ofmalaria exist. The people living in the area are mainly from the Ashanti andEwe ethnic groups, and most of the populations use plants for treatment ofmalaria. Documentation of traditional ethno-medicinal knowledge on use ofplants is considered a high priority to support drug discoveries for treatingdiseases, including malaria (65).

The effective antimalarial activity of two plant-based drugs, quinineand artemisinin, illustrate the potential importance of investigating plantsfor developing pharmaceutical antimalarial drugs. A number of other plantspecies have been traditionally used for the treatment of malaria in differ-ent parts of the world (76, 26), and the diversity of species used for thetreatment of malaria by different communities living in Ghana is yet to becompleted (6). More complete information on the species of plants used forthe treatment of malaria by different communities in Ghana is needed fordeveloping a strategy for effective control of this disease in the sub-SaharanAfrica.

The objective of the present study was to collect and analyze informa-tion on plants used for the treatment of malaria by the communities livingnear the Bobiri Forest Reserve in southern Ghana.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

The current study was done in three communities, Kubease, Duampopo,and New Koforidua, near Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana (Figure 1), with

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Plants Used for Treatment of Malaria in Ghana 87

FIGURE 1 Map of Bobiri Forest Reserve in Ghana showing the locations of the studycommunities (color figure available online).

estimated populations of 1,913 (Kubease), 720 (Duampopa), and 2,320 (NewKoforidua). Along with most other parts of Ghana, malaria is endemic inthese places and the other communities near the Bobiri Forest Reserve.The majority of the people living in the test communities are subsistencefarmers growing cassava, maize, and plantain as main food crops. A smallportion of the farmers also grow cash crops such as cocoa, oil palm, andorange. Other economic activities, such as charcoal production and sell-ing of food stuff along the Accra-Kumasi major road, are common in thearea.

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88 A. Asase and T. Asafo-Agyei

The Bobiri Forest Reserve covers an area of about 54.6 km2 andlies within the Sekyere East and Ejisu Juabeng Districts in the AshantiRegion of Ghana (see Figure 1). Vegetation in the study area, which fallswithin the southeast subtype of moist, semi-deciduous forest (39), containsmore than, 2000 species of plants. The rainy season is between May andOctober, and the dry season (rainfall < 100 mm) is from November throughFebruary/March.

Methodology

Ethno-medical data on plant species used for the treatment of malariawere collected from August 2008 to February 2009, by interviewing 150people from the three test communities—Kubease, Duampopo, and NewKoforidua—using a questionnaire. The choice of people interviewed wasbased on availability and willingness to participate. Prior to conductinginterviews, the objectives of the study were explained to the respondentsto obtain their consent to participate in the study. When asked, respondentsassociated malaria with a bite from the anopheles mosquito. Symptoms ofthe disease described included fevers, chills, and strong headaches.

The questionnaire was pretested to 20 individuals, and adjustmentswere made to the questionnaire before detailed interviews were conducted.After being validated, the forms were used to collect data on the socioeco-nomic status of the respondent, plant names, plant parts used, preparationmethods, administration, collection sites, and plant threats. Respondentswere interviewed separately, primarily in their homes and, in a few cases,in the field. Voucher specimens of all plant species mentioned by eachrespondent were collected from the field at locations where the respondentsnormally collected them.

Preliminary field identifications of the plants were confirmed using theFlora of West Tropical Africa (43) and by comparison with herbarium vouch-ers at Ghana Herbarium. The nomenclature of the species was confirmedusing the International Plant Names Index (44) and Catalogue of Life (18).Voucher specimens of each collected species were deposited at the GhanaHerbarium, Department of Botany, University of Ghana, Legon.

Data Analysis

The difference in the knowledge (mean ± standard error ) of medicinalplants used for the treatment of malaria due to gender of the respondentswas compared using Student’s t-test (p < 0.05). A one-way analysis of vari-ance (ANOVA) was used to compare differences within age groups, religiousgroups, educational background, and housing type.

The diversity of species used for the treatment of malaria was evaluatedusing the Shannon-Wiener index (H ′ = ∑s

i=1 pi ln pi), where s is the total

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Plants Used for Treatment of Malaria in Ghana 89

number of species and p is the relative abundance of i species (53). The rel-ative abundance of each species was estimated from the total citations fromamong the total number of interviews. The total citation of a single specieswas assumed to be a measure of the relative importance of that particularplant species within the communities. Similarity of species of plants usedbetween the communities was estimated using the Jaccard similarity indexwith species present or absent for two sample sets (communities), calculatedas J = S/(M+N), where S is the number of species being used in any twocommunities, M and N are the number of species being used in communitiesM and N.

Frequency of citation (FC) of the species of plants being used for thetreatment of malaria was evaluated using the formula: (number of times aparticular species was mentioned/total number of times that all species werementioned) × 100%.

RESULTS

Socioeconomic Impacts

There was no difference in the number of medicinal plants due to gender,with a score of 17.7 ± 8.0 for males and 29.7 ± 8.0 for females. More peoplereported on antimalarial uses of plants were within the age group 18 to 37years (26.7 ± 2.8) than in the age group 38 to 57 years (18.3 ± 2.6), andthe age group beyond 58 years (4.0 ± 1.9). Familiarity with antimalarialuses of plants was exhibited by people from all religious groups, althoughit differed in the number of plant species mentioned. For Christianity, 36.7± 2.6 plants were reported; for Islam, 7.3 ± 3.7 plants were reported; fortraditional spiritual believers, 5.7 ± 3.7 were reported, and for other non-religious people, 0.67 ± 3.7 plants were reported as antimalarial.

Most of the respondents were knowledgeable about antimalarial usesof the plants but had no formal education (19.0 ± 3.2) or only primaryeducation (17.7 ± 4.5), whereas only a few have had secondary (3.0 ± 4.5)and tertiary education (0.67 ± 3.5), exhibiting differences in awareness ofthe antimalarial plant materials due to difference in the level of educationachieved.

About 15.7 ± 8.6 of the respondents lived in permanent houses builtwith blocks and metal roof; 26.7 ± 9.4 resided in semi-temporary houses(mud house with metal roofing); and 8.0 ± 9.3 lived in temporary housesbuilt with mud and grass-thatch roofing. However, the type of housing inwhich people lived had no effect on knowledge about antimalarial plants.

Plant Species

A total of 42 species of plants belonging to 25 families were identified asbeing used for the treatment of malaria (Table 1). Trees were the most

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TAB

LE1

List

ofPla

ntSp

ecie

sU

sed

for

Tre

atm

entofM

alar

iaby

Com

muniti

esLi

ving

Aro

und

BobiriFo

rest

Res

erve

inG

han

a

Fam

ily

Gen

us,

spec

ies,

and

auth

ority

(Com

mon

nam

e-Vouch

ersp

ecim

enN

o.)

Gro

wth

form

Par

tuse

dPre

par

atio

n

Phyt

och

emic

alco

nst

ituen

tsan

din

dic

atio

ns

(Ref

eren

ces)

Tre

atm

ent

Cita

tion

freq

uen

cy

Aca

nth

acea

eJu

stic

iafl

ava

Kurz

(Afa

ma-

TAA

7)

Her

bLe

aves

Cru

shle

aves

with

leav

esof

Jatr

oph

ago

ssip

ifol

lia,

Tec

ton

agr

an

dis

,an

dA

fra

mom

um

mel

equ

eta

Lign

ans

(64)

Add

wat

eran

ddrink

thre

etim

esdai

ly

1.32

Am

aran

thac

eae

Am

ara

nth

us

spin

osu

sL.

(Nan

twib

irni-TA

A-3

7)

Her

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Cym

bopo

gon

citr

atu

s,A

zad

ira

chta

ind

ica,

and

Bid

ens

pilo

sa

β-c

yanin

san

dphen

ols

(42)

;A

ntip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(42)

Drink

thre

etim

esdai

lyw

ithm

ediu

msi

zecu

p

0.83

An

acar

dia

ceae

Ma

ngi

fera

ind

ica

L.(A

man

go-T

AA

27)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Ca

rica

papa

ya,

An

an

as

rom

osu

s

Phen

olic

s(8

);A

ntip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(93)

Drink

1 / 2m

ediu

mcu

pof

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

2/96

An

no

nac

eae

An

non

am

uri

cata

L.(A

pple

-TA

A20

)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Bid

ens

pilo

sa,

Am

ara

nth

us

spin

osu

s,an

dC

ari

capa

paya

Ace

toge

nin

(33)

Drink

thre

etim

esdai

ly0.

83

90

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nloa

ded

by [

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vers

ite L

aval

] at

20:

14 1

0 Ju

ly 2

014

An

no

nac

eae

Cle

isto

phol

ispa

ten

s(B

enth

)Engl

.an

dD

iels

(Ngo

,N

enky

ene-

TAA

32)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Aza

dir

ach

iain

dic

a,

Spa

thod

eaca

mpa

nu

lata

,st

emof

Sacc

ha

rum

offi

cin

aru

m,an

dfr

uit

of

Cit

rus

au

rati

foli

a

Terp

enoid

san

dal

kalo

ids

(85)

;A

ntip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(2)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

4.13

Ap

ocy

nac

eae

Als

ton

iabo

onei

De

Wild

(Nya

med

ua-

TAA

18)

Tre

eLe

aves

and

stem

bar

k

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Cle

isto

hol

ispa

ten

s,R

icin

us

com

min

us,

and

Sen

na

ala

ta

Terp

enoid

s(5

6)an

dal

kalo

ids

(60)

;A

ntip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(94)

Drink

full

cup

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.83

Ap

ocy

nac

eae

Fun

tum

iael

ast

ica

Stap

f.(f

untu

m-T

AA

2)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Lan

tan

aca

ma

ra,an

dfr

uit

of

Cit

rus

au

ran

tifo

lia

Alk

aloid

s(2

0);

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(16)

Drink

1 / 2cu

pth

ree

times

dai

ly

0.50

Ast

erac

eae

Bid

ens

plos

aL.

(Gry

inan

twi-A

A8

Her

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Ecl

ipta

alb

aan

dA

non

am

uri

cata

Flav

onoid

s(7

0)an

dte

rpen

oid

s(9

5);

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(16)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

1.65

Ast

erac

eae

Ch

rom

ola

ena

odor

ata

(L.)

Kin

gan

dH

.E.Rob.

(Aky

ampon-T

AA

-11)

Her

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Cym

bogo

nci

tra

tus,

fruit

of

Cit

rus

au

rafo

lia,an

dTet

rapl

eura

tetr

apt

era

Flav

onoid

s(9

,87)

and

alka

loid

s(1

5)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

with

med

ium

size

cup

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.83

(Con

tin

ued

)

91

Dow

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ded

by [

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vers

ite L

aval

] at

20:

14 1

0 Ju

ly 2

014

TAB

LE1

(Contin

ued

)

Fam

ily

Gen

us,

spec

ies,

and

auth

ority

(Com

mon

nam

e-Vouch

ersp

ecim

enN

o.)

Gro

wth

form

Par

tuse

dPre

par

atio

n

Phyt

och

emic

alco

nst

ituen

tsan

din

dic

atio

ns

(Ref

eren

ces)

Tre

atm

ent

Cita

tion

freq

uen

cy

Ast

erac

eae

Ecl

lipt

aa

lba

(L.)

Has

sk(N

tum

-TA

A-6

)

Her

bLe

aves

Mas

hin

wat

erG

lyco

sides

(89)

Drink

thre

etim

esdai

ly1.

83

Ast

erac

eae

Ver

non

iaa

myg

da

lin

aD

elile

(Anw

onw

ono-T

AA

9)

Shru

bLe

aves

Cru

shle

aves

inw

ater

Terp

enoid

s(1

,28)

,st

eroid

gluco

side

(47)

,an

dflav

onoid

s(6

3);

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(79)

Drink

thre

etim

esdai

ly3.

47

Big

no

nia

ceae

Spa

thod

eaca

mpa

nu

lata

P.B

eauv

(Koko

anis

uo-T

AA

31)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithfr

uit

of

Tet

rapl

eura

tetr

apt

era

and

pal

mnuts

tom

ake

soup

Irdoid

s(3

4)D

rink

soup

asre

quired

3.14

Bro

mel

iace

aeA

na

na

sco

mos

us

(L.)

Mer

r.(A

bro

de-

TAA

42)

Her

bFr

uit

Boil

fruit

pee

lw

ithfr

uit

pee

lof

Afr

am

omu

mm

eleg

uet

aan

dst

emof

Sacc

ha

rum

offi

cin

aru

m

Phen

ols

(51)

Drink

one

full

cup

thre

etim

esdai

ly

3.31

Car

icac

eae

Ca

rica

papa

yaL.

(Bro

fre-

AA

22)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

from

Ba

mbu

savu

lga

ris,

Alc

hor

nea

cord

ifol

ia,an

dP

erse

aa

mer

ica

no

Phen

ols

(19,

58)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

5.45

Co

mb

reta

ceae

Ter

min

ali

aca

tapa

L.(A

bro

fonka

tie-T

AA

12)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Ph

ylla

nth

us

nir

uri

and

Psi

diu

mgu

aja

va

Terp

enoid

s(3

0)D

rink

thre

etim

esdai

ly2.

15

92

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ite L

aval

] at

20:

14 1

0 Ju

ly 2

014

Cu

curb

itac

eae

Mom

rdic

ach

ara

nti

aL.

(Nya

nya

-TA

A39

)

Her

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Afr

am

omu

mm

eleg

uet

a,pee

lsof

An

an

as

com

osu

s,an

dst

ems

of

Sacc

ha

rum

offc

ina

riu

m

Terp

enoid

s(2

1,22

)an

dphen

ols

(50)

Drink

thre

etim

esdai

ly2.

31

Eu

ph

orb

iace

aeA

lch

orn

eaco

rdif

olia

(Sch

um

ach

and

Thorn

)M

ull.

Arg

.(O

gyam

a-TA

A33

).

Shru

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Per

sea

am

eric

an

a,

Ba

mbu

savu

lga

ris,

and

Ca

rica

papa

ya

Phen

ols

(5);

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(81)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.66

Eu

ph

orb

iace

aeJa

trop

ha

goss

ypif

olia

L.(Y

esu

mogy

a-TA

A25

)

Shru

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

and

stem

bar

kof

Als

ton

iabo

onei

and

leav

esof

Bid

ens

pilo

saan

dT

ecto

na

gra

nd

is

Terp

noid

s(6

7)D

rink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

1.82

Eu

ph

orb

iace

aeM

are

yasp

ica

taB

aill.

(Odubra

fo-T

AA

72)

Shru

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Mu

sasa

pien

tum

,A

ma

ran

thu

ssp

inos

us,

and

Th

eobr

oma

taca

o

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(93)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

asre

quired

0.83

(Con

tin

ued

)

93

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ite L

aval

] at

20:

14 1

0 Ju

ly 2

014

TAB

LE1

(Contin

ued

)

Fam

ily

Gen

us,

spec

ies,

and

auth

ority

(Com

mon

nam

e-Vouch

ersp

ecim

enN

o.)

Gro

wth

form

Par

tuse

dPre

par

atio

n

Phyt

och

emic

alco

nst

ituen

tsan

din

dic

atio

ns

(Ref

eren

ces)

Tre

atm

ent

Cita

tion

freq

uen

cy

Eu

ph

orb

iace

aeP

hyl

lan

thu

sn

iru

riL.

(Bom

ma

gum

akyi

(TA

A10

)

Her

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Th

eobt

oma

caca

o,C

ymbo

pago

nci

tra

tus,

and

Ter

min

ali

aca

tapa

Phen

ols

(45)

and

terp

enoid

s(7

3)D

rink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.83

Eu

ph

orb

iace

aeR

icin

us

com

min

us

L.(T

waa

ben

kum

-TA

A5)

Shru

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

and

stem

bar

kof

Jatr

oph

ago

ssyp

ifol

ia,

and

leav

esof

Spa

thod

eaca

mpa

nu

lata

,an

dst

embar

kof

Als

ton

eabo

onei

Alk

alods

(ric

inin

e)(5

7)D

rink

dec

oct

ion

asre

quired

0.99

Fab

acea

eSe

nn

aa

lata

(L.)

Roxb

.(N

sem

pi-TA

A13

)

Shru

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Cle

isto

phol

ispa

ten

san

dC

ari

capa

paya

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(93)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

asre

quired

0.66

Fab

acea

eSe

nn

aoc

cid

enta

lis

(L.)

Link

(Nkw

ada

ankw

adaa

bro

die

TAA

1)

Shru

bLe

aves

,flow

ers,

and

fruit

Boil

leav

es,flow

ers,

and

fruit

with

leav

esan

dfr

uit

of

Cit

rus

au

ran

tifo

lia,an

dle

aves

of

Am

ara

nth

us

spin

osu

s,an

dSp

ath

odea

cam

pan

ula

ta

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(48)

Drink

1 / 2cu

pfu

lofdec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

1.65

Fab

acea

eTet

rapl

eura

tetr

apt

era

Tau

b.

(Pre

kese

-TA

A30

)

Tre

eFr

uit

Boil

fruit

with

leav

esof

Ch

rom

olea

na

odor

ata

and

Cym

bopo

gon

citr

atu

s

Terp

enoid

s(3

,54,

61);

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(52)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.66

94

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ite L

aval

] at

20:

14 1

0 Ju

ly 2

014

Lam

iace

aeO

cim

um

basi

licu

mL.

(Ako

kom

esa-

TAA

16)

Her

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Ca

rica

papa

ya,

Aza

dir

ach

tain

dic

a,

and

Ma

ngi

fera

ind

ica

Flav

onoid

s(9

,36)

,an

des

sentia

loils

(35,

92)

Drink

cupfu

lth

ree

times

dai

ly

0.33

Lam

iace

aeO

cim

um

gra

tiss

imu

mL.

(Nunum

-TA

A3)

Shru

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Ter

min

ali

aca

tapa

stem

bar

k,le

aves

of

Tec

ton

agr

an

dis

,an

dM

an

gife

rain

dic

a

Flav

onoid

s(3

6)D

rink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.50

Lau

race

aeP

erse

aa

mer

ica

na

Mill

.(P

ear-

TAA

24)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Ca

rica

papa

ya,

Aza

dir

ach

tain

dic

a,

and

Ma

ngi

fera

ind

ica

Car

ote

noid

s(3

7)D

rink

cupfu

lth

ree

times

dai

ly

3.30

Mel

iace

aeA

zad

ira

chta

ind

ica

A.Ju

ss(N

im-T

AA

36)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Ca

rica

papa

ya,

Just

icia

lfla

va,an

dst

embar

kof

Tec

ton

agr

an

dis

Terp

enoid

s(7

2)U

seas

stea

mbat

h7.

74

Mel

iace

aeK

ha

yasp

.(K

ube-

TAA

40)

Her

bSt

embar

kB

oil

stem

bar

kw

ithle

aves

of

Th

eobr

oma

caca

o,A

zad

ira

chta

ind

ica,an

dpee

lsof

An

an

as

com

osu

s

Gen

eral

ly,

conta

inlim

onoid

s(9

1),

and

trite

rpen

oid

s(7

8)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.66

Mu

sace

aeM

usa

para

dis

iaca

L.(B

rodie

-TA

A29

)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

and

stem

bar

kof

Als

ton

iabo

onei

,le

aves

of

Jatr

oph

ago

ssyp

ifol

ia,an

dle

aves

and

fruit

of

Sen

na

occi

den

tia

lis

Flav

onoid

s(8

3)D

rink

dec

oct

ion

asre

quired

1.65

(Con

tin

ued

)

95

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ite L

aval

] at

20:

14 1

0 Ju

ly 2

014

TAB

LE1

(Contin

ued

)

Fam

ily

Gen

us,

spec

ies,

and

auth

ority

(Com

mon

nam

e-Vouch

ersp

ecim

enN

o.)

Gro

wth

form

Par

tuse

dPre

par

atio

n

Phyt

och

emic

alco

nst

ituen

tsan

din

dic

atio

ns

(Ref

eren

ces)

Tre

atm

ent

Cita

tion

freq

uen

cy

Mu

sace

aeM

usa

sapi

entu

mL.

(Kw

adu-T

AA

15)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Cym

bopo

gon

citr

ate

s,Th

eobr

oma

caca

o,an

dA

zad

rach

tain

dic

a

Phen

olic

s(9

0)D

rink

one

cupfu

lofdec

oct

ion

dai

ly

1.16

My

rtac

eae

Psi

diu

imgu

aja

vaL.

(Guav

a-TA

A4)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Sen

na

ala

ta,

Oci

mu

mba

sili

cum

,an

dA

ma

ran

thu

ssp

inos

us

Phen

ols

,flav

onoid

s,ca

rote

noid

s,an

dte

rpen

oid

s(3

8)

Drink

1 / 2cu

pdec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.99

Pip

erac

eae

Pip

ergu

inee

nse

L.(E

sro

visa

-TA

A28

)

Clim

ber

Fruit

Boil

fruit

with

leav

esof

Tec

ton

agr

an

dis

,C

itru

sa

ura

lifo

lia,an

dst

ems

of

Sacc

ha

rum

offi

cin

aru

m

Alk

aloid

s(3

,4);

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(13)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.33

Po

acea

eB

am

busa

vula

gari

sSc

hra

d.

exJ.C.W

endl.

(Mpam

puro

-TA

A-3

8)

Gra

ssLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Alc

hor

nea

cord

ifol

ia,

Ca

rica

papa

ya,an

dP

erse

aa

mer

ica

na

No

info

rmat

ion

avai

lable

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

1.49

Po

acea

eC

ymbo

pogo

nci

tra

tus

Stap

f.(E

sre

or

nan

twiw

idie

-TA

A19

)

Gra

ssLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

and

fruit

of

Cit

rus

au

ran

tifo

lia,le

aves

of

Cle

isto

phol

ispa

ten

s,an

dTh

eobr

oma

caca

o

Flav

onoid

s(3

2)D

rink

dec

oct

ion

asre

quired

7.60

96

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ite L

aval

] at

20:

14 1

0 Ju

ly 2

014

Po

acea

eSa

cch

aru

mof

fici

na

rum

L.(A

hw

edie

-TA

A41

)

Gra

ssSt

ems

Boil

stem

sw

ithle

aves

of

Alc

hor

nea

cord

ifol

ia,

stem

bar

kof

Kh

aya

sp.

fruit

of

Pip

ergu

inea

se,

and

fruit

pee

lof

An

an

as

com

osu

s

Ster

ols

(17)

,te

rpen

oid

s(1

7,25

),an

dflav

onoid

s(3

1)

Drink

1 / 2m

ediu

mcu

pfu

lof

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

1.82

Ru

bia

ceae

Mor

ind

alu

cid

aB

enth

.(K

onkr

om

a-TA

A35

)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Mu

sasa

pien

tum

,A

nn

ona

mu

rica

ta,an

dC

ari

capa

paya

Anth

raquin

ones

(74,

80);

Antip

lasm

odia

lac

tivity

(74,

80)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

0.99

Ru

tace

aeC

itru

sa

ura

nti

foli

aL.

(Anka

atw

asie

-TA

A17

)

Tre

eLe

aves

and

fruit

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Oci

mu

mba

sili

cum

,R

icin

us

com

min

us,

and

Lan

tan

aca

ma

ra,

Flav

onoid

s(1

2)D

rink

thre

etim

esdai

ly7.

44

Ster

culi

acea

eTh

eobr

oma

caca

oL.

(Coco

a-TA

A23

)

Tre

eLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Per

sea

am

eric

an

aan

dle

aves

and

stem

bar

kof

Tec

ton

agr

an

dis

Alk

aloid

(7),

pro

anth

o-

cyan

din

,an

dpoly

phen

ols

(40,

84)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

4.13

Ver

ben

acea

eLa

nta

na

cam

ara

L.(A

nan

sedoko

no-T

AA

21)

Her

bLe

aves

Boil

leav

esw

ithle

aves

of

Am

ara

nth

us

spin

osu

s,Se

nn

aoc

cid

enta

lis,

and

Ric

inu

sco

mm

inu

s

Terp

noid

s(1

1,51

)an

dflav

onoid

s(1

0)

Drink

thre

etim

esdai

ly0.

83

Ver

ben

acea

eT

ecto

na

gra

nd

isLo

ur.

(Tea

k-TA

A14

)

Tre

eLe

aves

and

stem

bar

k

Boil

leav

es,an

dst

embar

kw

ithle

aves

of

Th

eobr

oma

caca

o,C

ari

capa

paya

,an

dA

zad

ira

chta

ind

ica

Quin

ones

(77)

and

caro

tenoid

s(5

3)

Drink

dec

oct

ion

thre

etim

esdai

ly

9.42

Zin

gib

erac

eae

Afr

am

onu

mm

eleg

uet

aK

.Sc

hurm

Her

bFr

uit

and

leav

esB

oil

with

leav

esof

Sen

na

ala

ta,fr

uit

pee

lsof

An

an

as

con

osu

s,an

dA

lsto

nia

boon

eile

aves

Gen

us

conta

ins

labdan

e(2

7)D

rink

dec

oct

ion

1.16

(Fam

wis

a–

TAA

26)

97

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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vers

ite L

aval

] at

20:

14 1

0 Ju

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014

98 A. Asase and T. Asafo-Agyei

dominate growth form (42.9%) of plants used in the treatment of malaria.Other species of plants used included herbs (28.6%), shrubs (16.7%), grasses(7.1%), and climbers (2.4%). For treatment of malaria, about 75% of therespondents interviewed collected plant material from their immediate sur-roundings, that is, within 100 m of their homes, whereas the remaining25% collected plant material from elsewhere in the wild. The frequencyof collection was irregular, as the plant parts were collected only whenneeded to treat malaria. The major threat mentioned by informants for sur-vival of plant species was drought (49.3%), although some informants alsomentioned farming (15.7%), over-harvesting (13%), and bush fires (11%) aspotential threats. About 11.3% of the informants believed that there were nothreats to the survival of the species used.

The number of species identified as being used for treatment ofmalaria in Kubease, Duampopo, and New Koforidua were 82, 103,and 78, respectively. Most plant species belonged to the family Euphor-biaceae (14.3%), with others families Asteraceae (9.5%), Poaceae (7.1%),and Fabceae (7.1%). In contrast, 11 families—Bromeliaceae, Rutaceae, Acan-thaceae, Anacardiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Lauraceae, Piperaceae, Myrtaceae,Bignoniaceae, Combretaceae, and Sterculiaceae—contributed only one anti-malarial species each to the total number of plant species reported as beingused for the treatment of malaria.

The diversity of species used for the treatment of malaria in the studyarea was high (Shannon-Wiener index = 3.5 ± 2.18). Species of plantsused by the people of Kubease and New Kuforidua were most similar(Jaccard index = 0.53) followed by that used by people between Duampopoand New Koforidua (Jaccard index = 0.12), whereas the least numberof similarity in species being used was by those between Duampopoand Kubease (Jaccard index = 0.41). Of all the plant species mentioned,13 species—Amaranthus spinosus, Ananas comosus, Azadirachta indica,Bambusa vulgaris, Carica papaya, Citrus aurantifolia, Cleistopholis patens,Cymbopogon citrates, Mangifera indica, Persea Americana, Spathodea cam-panulata, Tectona grandis, and Vernonia amygdalina Delile—were beingused in all the three communities.

The most frequently cited plant material was Tectona grandis (FC =9.42). Other plant species commonly mentioned as being used for the treat-ment of malaria were Azadirachta indica (FC = 7.74), Cymbopogon citratus(FC = 7.60), and Citrus aurantifolia (FC = 7.44), whereas the least-citedplants were Ocimum basilicum (FC = 0.33), (FC = 0.33) Ocimum gratissi-mum (FC = 0.50), and Funtumia elastica (FC = 0.50). The most effectiveplant species mentioned for the treatment of malaria were Azadirachtaindica, Vernonia amygdalina, and Cleistopholis patens.

Use and Application

The plant leaves were the most (80%) common plant part used for thetreatment of malaria, with 13.3% fruits, 4.4% stem bark, and 2.2% flowers.

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Plants Used for Treatment of Malaria in Ghana 99

In the majority of cases (92.9%), the plant parts were prepared for use byboiling alone or in combination with other plants. More than 95% of thespecies were used in combinations with other plant species (see Table 1).Differences in the way the informants used some of the species were noted.

Administration of the herbal preparations was usually by drinking(95.35%). Other modes of administration included rubbing or massagingthe plant tissue on the body (2.3%) and using decoctions as steam baths(2.3 %). Prescriptions were unspecific, and treatment usually continued untilrecovery.

DISCUSSION

Results from this study indicate that a relatively large number of medicinalplants are being used for traditional treatment of malaria by communitiesliving near the Bobiri Forest Reserve in southern Ghana. Gender, religiousbackground, and type of housing did not influence knowledge and useof herbal remedies for the treatment of malaria by the people, althougheducational background was important in determining their awarenessof alternatives. The knowledge on traditional uses of plants was pos-sessed by the younger generation, indicating the cultural and conservationalimportance of the medicinal species.

The use of plant materials for treatment of malaria is explored as theparasite is resistant to many of the common commercial drugs, such asChloroquine, Fansidar, and Maladrin that have been used for treatment ofthe disease in Ghana. The newly recommended drug for the malaria treat-ment by the Ghana Health Service is amodiaquine-artesunate combination.Amodiaquine (4-aminoquinoline) has been associated with hepatic toxicity,agranulocytosis, and other contradictions and should not be used by patientswith hypersensitivity. In addition, the combination drug is relatively expen-sive, making the medicine unaffordable to those with minimal income. It isto be noted that some people in the study area used both traditional and con-ventional medicine for treatment of malaria, similar to reported observationsin French Guinea (83). Thus, potential problems associated with plant-druginteractions when traditional medicines are used along with conventionalmedicine may exist and need to be investigated.

Plant species frequently cited by the respondents for the treatment ofmalaria could provide leads in the search for plant material that could betargeted for antiplasmodial testing and phytochemical analyses as to theireffectiveness (41). Frequent citation of a plant, however, does not mean thecited plant is effective for treatment of malaria, as it may be used and citedbecause it easily available.

The data from this study indicated that most plants in the Euphorbiaceaefamily were used as malarial treatment. Contrary to our results, studies from

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100 A. Asase and T. Asafo-Agyei

other regions of Africa indicate that many species belonging to the familiesFabaceae and Rubiaceae have been used for the treatment of malaria (6,46, 82). This may well suggest that different groups of plant constituentsmay be responsible for the antimalarial properties of the plants traditionallyused for the treatment of malaria (76). For example, the major phytochem-ical consitiutents of the plant species used for the treatment of malaria inthe study area included different phytochmical groups of compounds suchas alkaloids, phenols, and terpenoids (23, 55, 85), for example, the phe-nolic compounds from Alchornea cordifolia and Amaranthus spinosus, andterpenoids from Alstonia boonei and Azadiracta indica. Herbal prepara-tions mentioned in this study lack standards, and dosage prescriptions weregenerally vague. This lack of standards means the quality of the herbalpreparations could vary greatly among prescriptions. Similar observationshave being reported elsewhere (6) and have also been noted as a maindisadvantage of traditional medicine (29, 75). In the current study, prepa-rations made from more than one plant were used for the treatment ofmalaria and documented. The addition of some of the plant materials, suchas the fruits of Citrus sinensis, might be used to give the decoction a bet-ter taste, although C. sinensis has been reported to be traditionally used byitself to treat malaria (14) and may be used in combination herbal prepa-rations because the antimalarial properties of preparations are dependenton synergy of the constituents in the plants. This makes characterizingand identifying the level of bioactive compounds in herbal preparationsvery complex and presents great difficulty in developing quality controlmethods.

Some of the species used as sources of antimalarial preparations inAfrica are also known to contain antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodiumspecies (71). For example, in the Ivory Coast, the leaves of Alchornea cordi-folia are used to treat malaria, and a methanolic extract of the leaves hasdemonstrated antiplasmodial activity at IC50 = 9.2 µg mL−1 (62). In bothGhana and the Ivory Coast, the leaves of Alstonia boonei are used, andOkpekon et al. (62) reported that an extraction of alkaloids from this specieshad antiplasmodial activity at 8.4 µg mL−1. Extracts from stem bark and rootsof Morinda lucida showed antiplasmodial activity that could be associatedwith anthraquinones (80). The potency of plant extracts may be affected bythe extraction solvent, collection location, and harvesting time (66).

Use of the leaves may be more prudent as harvesting of other plantparts such as the roots and stem barks are more destructive and could easilythreaten local plant populations, especially in situations where entire plantsare removed (24). Most people collected plants from the vicinity of theirimmediate surroundings for the treatment of malaria, similar to the findingsof previous ethno-botanical studies (69). Strategies for the conservation andsustainable harvesting of the plants are needed within the test area and otherparts of Ghana to enhance sustainable utilization of the plant resources.

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Plants Used for Treatment of Malaria in Ghana 101

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2. Addae-Kyereme, J., S. L. Croft, H. Kendrick, and C. W. Wright. 2001.Antiplasmodial activities of some Ghanaian plants traditionally used forfever/malaria treatment and of some alkaloids isolated from Pleiocarpa mutica:In vivo antimalarial activity of pleiocarpine. J. Ethnopharmacol. 76:99–103.

3. Addae-Mensah, I., F. G. Torto, and I. Baxter. 1976. Wisanine, a novel alkaloidfrom the roots of Piper guineense. Tetrahedron Lett. 17:3049–3050.

4. Addae-Mensah, I., F. G. Torto, I. V. Oppong, I. Baxter, and J. K. M. Sanders.1977. N-isobutyl-trans-2-trans-4-eicosadienamide and other alkaloids of fruits ofPiper guineense. Phytochemistry 16:483–485.

5. Adesina, S. K., and J. Reisch. 1985. A triterpenoid glycoside from Tetrapleuratetraptera fruit. Phytochemistry 24:3003–3006.

6. Asase, A., A. A. Oteng-Yeboah, G. T. Odamtten, and M. S. J. Simmonds. 2005.Ethnobotanical study of some Ghanaian anti-malarial plants. J. Ethnopharmacol.99:273–279.

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