ACCELERATED PUBLICATION

Solar cell efciency tables (Version 45)Martin A. Green1*, Keith Emery2, Yoshihiro Hishikawa3, Wilhelm Warta4 and Ewan D. Dunlop5

1 Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia2 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, CO, 80401, USA3 National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Research Center for Photovoltaic Technologies (RCPVT),Central 2, Umezono 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8568, Japan4 Department: Solar CellsMaterials and Technology, Fraunhofer-Institute for Solar Energy Systems, Heidenhofstr. 2, D-79110Freiburg, Germany5 European CommissionJoint Research Centre, Renewable Energy Unit, Institute for Energy, Via E. Fermi 2749, IT-21027 Ispra(VA), Italy

ABSTRACT

Consolidated tables showing an extensive listing of the highest independently conrmed efciencies for solar cells andmodules are presented. Guidelines for inclusion of results into these tables are outlined and new entries since July 2014are reviewed. Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

KEYWORDS

solar cell efficiency; photovoltaic efficiency; energy conversion efficiency

*Correspondence

Martin A. Green, School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia.E-mail: m.green@unsw.edu.au

Received 23 October 2014; Accepted 27 October 2014

1. INTRODUCTION

Since January 1993, Progress in Photovoltaics has pub-lished six monthly listings of the highest conrmed ef-ciencies for a range of photovoltaic cell and moduletechnologies [13]. By providing guidelines for inclusionof results into these tables, this not only provides anauthoritative summary of the current state-of-the-art butalso encourages researchers to seek independent conrma-tion of results and to report results on a standardisedbasis. In Version 33 of these tables [2], results wereupdated to the new internationally accepted referencespectrum (IEC 60904-3, Ed. 2, 2008), where this waspossible.

The most important criterion for inclusion of results intothe tables is that they must have been independentlymeasured by a recognised test centre listed elsewhere [1].A distinction is made between three different eligibledenitions of cell area: total area, aperture area and desig-nated illumination area, as also dened elsewhere [1].Active area efciencies are not included. There are alsocertain minimum values of the area sought for the differentdevice types (above 0.05 cm2 for a concentrator cell, 1 cm2

for a one-sun cell and 800 cm2 for a module).

Results are reported for cells and modules made fromdifferent semiconductors and for sub-categories withineach semiconductor grouping (e.g. crystalline, polycrystallineand thin lm). From Version 36 onwards, spectral responseinformation is included when available in the form of a plotof the external quantum efciency (EQE) versus wavelength,either as absolute values or normalised to the peak measuredvalue. Currentvoltage (IV) curves have also been includedwhere possible from Version 38 onwards.

2. NEW RESULTS

Highest conrmed one sun cell and module results arereported in Tables I and II. Any changes in the tablesfrom those previously published [3] are set in bold type.In most cases, a literature reference is provided thatdescribes either the result reported, or a similar result(readers identifying improved references are welcome tosubmit to the lead author). Table I summarises the bestmeasurements for cells and submodules, while Table IIshows the best results for modules. Table III containswhat might be described as notable exceptions. Whilenot conforming to the requirements to be recognised as

PROGRESS IN PHOTOVOLTAICS: RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONSProg. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2015; 23:19

Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/pip.2573

Copyright 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1

a class record, the cells and modules in this table havenotable characteristics that will be of interest to sectionsof the photovoltaic community, with entries based ontheir signicance and timeliness.

To encourage discrimination, Table III is limited tonominally twelve entries with the present authorshaving voted for their preferences for inclusion.

Readers who have suggestions of results for inclusioninto this table are welcome to contact any of the authorswith full details. Suggestions conforming to theguidelines will be included on the voting list for afuture issue.

Table IV shows the best results for concentrator cellsand concentrator modules (a smaller number of notable

Table I. Conrmed terrestrial cell and submodule efciencies measured under the global AM1.5 spectrum (1000W/m2) at 25 C(IEC 60904-3: 2008, ASTM G-173-03 global).

ClassicationaEfciency

(%)Areab

(cm2)Voc(V)

Jsc(mA/cm2)

Fill factor(%)

Test centrec

(date) Description

SiliconSi (crystalline) 25.6 0.5 143.7 (da) 0.740 41.8d 82.7 AIST (2/14) Panasonic HIT, rear

junction [25]Si (multicrystalline) 20.8 0.6 243.9 (ap) 0.6626 39.03 80.3 FhG-ISE (11/14)eTrina Solar [4]Si (thin transfer submodule) 21.2 0.4 239.7 (ap) 0.687f 38.50e,f 80.3 NREL (4/14) Solexel (35 m thick) [5,26]Si (thin lm minimodule) 10.5 0.3 94.0 (ap) 0.492f 29.7f 72.1 FhG-ISE (8/07)g CSG Solar (

Table II. Conrmed terrestrial module efciencies measured under the global AM1.5 spectrum (1000W/m2) at a cell temperature of25 C (IEC 60904-3: 2008, ASTM G-173-03 global).

Classicationa Efc.b (%) Areac (cm2) Voc (V) Isc (A) FFd (%) Test centre (date) Description

Si (crystalline) 22.9 0.6 778 (da) 5.60 3.97 80.3 Sandia (9/96)e UNSW/Gochermann [38]Si (large crystalline) 22.4 0.6 15775 (ap) 69.57 6.341f 80.1 NREL (8/12) SunPower [39]Si (multicrystalline) 18.5 0.4 14661 (ap) 38.97 9.149g 76.2 FhG-ISE (1/12) Q-Cells (60 serial cells) [40]GaAs (thin lm) 24.1 1.0 858.5 (ap) 10.89 2.255h 84.2 NREL (11/12) Alta Devices [41]CdTe (thin-lm) 17.5 0.7 7021 (ap) 103.1 1.553i 76.6 NREL (2/14) First Solar, monolithic [42]CIGS (Cd free) 17.5 0.5 808 (da) 47.6 0.408j 72.8 AIST (6/14) Solar Frontier (70 cells) [16]CIGS (thin-lm) 15.7 0.5 9703 (ap) 28.24 7.254k 72.5 NREL (11/10) Miasole [43]a-Si/nc-Si (tandem) 12.2 0.3l 14322 (t) 202.1 1.261j 68.8 ESTI (6/14) TEL Solar, Trubbach Labs [17]Organic 8.7 0.3m 802 (da) 17.47 0.569j 70.4 AIST (5/14) Toshiba [11]aCIGSS = CuInGaSSe; a-Si = amorphous silicon/hydrogen alloy; a-SiGe = amorphous silicon/germanium/hydrogen alloy; nc-Si = nanocrystalline or micro-

crystalline silicon.bEfc. = efciency.c(t) = total area; (ap) = aperture area; (da) = designated illumination area.dFF = ll factor.eRecalibrated from original measurement.fSpectral response and currentvoltage curve reported in Version 42 of these tables.gSpectral response and/or currentvoltage curve reported in Version 40 of these tables.hSpectral response and currentvoltage curve reported in Version 41 of these tables.iCurrentvoltage curve reported in the Version 44 of these tables.jSpectral response and/or currentvoltage curve reported in the present version of these tables.kSpectral response reported in Version 37 of these tables.lStabilised at the manufacturer for 149 h to the 2% IEC criteria.mInitial performance (not stabilised).

Table III. Notable Exceptions: Top dozen conrmed cell and module results, not class records measured under the global AM1.5spectrum (1000Wm-2) at 25 C (IEC 60904-3: 2008, ASTM G-173-03 global).

ClassicationaEfciency

(%)Areab

(cm2) Voc (V)Jsc

(mA/cm2)Fill

factor (%)Test centre

(date) Description

Cells (silicon)Si (crystalline) 25.0 0.5 4.00 (da) 0.706 42.7d 82.8 Sandia (3/99)e UNSW PERL top/rear contacts [44]Si (large crystalline) 25.0 0.7 120.94 (ap) 0.726 41.5f 82.8 FhG ISE (2/14) Sunpower rear junction [45]Si (large multicrystalline) 19.5 0.4 242.7 (t) 0.652 39.0g 76.7 FhG ISE (3/11) Q-Cells, laser red contacts [46]Cells (IIIV)GaInP 20.8 0.6 0.2491 (ap) 1.4550 16.04h 89.3 NREL (5/13) NREL, high bandgap [47]Cells (chalcogenide)CIGS (thin-film) 21.7 0.7 0.4972 (da) 0.7963 36.59i 79.3 FhG-ISE (9/14) ZSW on glass [18]CIGSS (Cd free) 19.7 0.5 0.496 (da) 0.683 37.06h 77.8 AIST (11/12) Showa Shell/Tokyo U. of Science [48]CZTSS (thin lm) 12.6 0.3 0.4209 (ap) 0.5134 35.21f 69.8 Newport (7/13) IBM solution grown [49]CZTS (thin-lm) 8.5 0.2j 0.2382 (da) 0.708 16.83h 70.9 AIST (1/13) Toyota Central R&D Labs [50]Cells (other)Perovskite (thin film) 20.1 0.4j 0. 0955 (ap) 1.059 24.65i 77.0 Newport (11/14) KRICTk [51]Organic (thin lm) 11.1 0.3j 0.159 (ap) 0.867 17.81l 72.2 AIST (10/12) Mitsubishi Chemical [52]aCIGSS = CuInGaSSe; CZTSS = Cu2ZnSnS4 ySey; CZTS = Cu2ZnSnS4.b(ap) = aperture area; (t) = total area; (da) = designated illumination area.cAIST, Japanese National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology; NREL, National Renewable Energy Laboratory; FhG-ISE, Fraunhofer-

Institut fr Solare Energiesysteme; ESTI, European Solar Test Installation.dSpectral response reported in Version 36 of these tables.eRecalibrated from original measurement.fSpectral response and currentvoltage curves reported in Version 44 of these tables.gSpectral response reported in Version 37 of these tables.hSpectral response and currentvoltage curves reported in Version 42 of these tables.iSpectral response and/or currentvoltage curves reported in the present version of these tables.jStability not investigated.kKorean Research Institute of Chemical Technology.lSpectral response and currentvoltage curves reported in Version 41 of these tables.

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3Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2015; 23:19 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.DOI: 10.1002/pip

exceptions for concentrator cells and modules addition-ally is included in Table IV).

Seventeen new results are reported in the present version ofthese tables. The rst new result in Table I reports a new re-cord for a multicrystalline silicon solar cell, the cell type pres-ently manufactured in the highest volume. An efciency of20.8% has beenmeasured by the Fraunhofer Institute for SolarEnergy Systems (FhG-ISE) for a full-sized (244-cm2) cell fab-ricated by Trina Solar [4] on a standardHP (high performance)multicrystalline wafer using PERC (passivatived emitter andrear cell) technology. The second new result is for a thin-lmtransfer crystalline silicon (c-Si) cell. An improved efciencyof 21.2% has been measured by the National RenewableEnergy Laboratory (NREL) for a moderate area (240-cm2)submodule fabricated by Solexel [5] using silicon cellsreported to be only 35 microns thick. The third new resultin Table I is 21.0% efciency for a 1.06-cm2 CdTe cell fabri-cated by First Solar andmeasured at Newport Technology andApplications Center. This becomes the highest conrmedefciency for a thin-lm polycrystalline cell of this size.

Improved results are also reported for both amorphous andmicrocrystalline silicon thin-lm cells. A slight improvementto 10.2% stabilised efciency is reported for a 1-cm2 amor-phous silicon (a-Si) cell fabricated and measured by the

Japanese National Institute of Advanced Industrial Scienceand Technology (AIST) [6]. A larger increase to 11.4% ef-ciency is also reported for a 1-cm2microcrystalline silicon cell(also, perhaps more accurately, known as a nanocrystalline,nc-Si, cell) fabricated and measured by AIST, improvingupon the previous result from the same group [7]. Theseimprovements doubtlessly contributed to another new resultin Table I by the same institute, the demonstration of 12.7%stabilised efciency for a 1-cm2 a-Si/nc-Si tandem cell [8].

Another slight improvement to a landmark 10.0% initialefciency is reported for a 24-cm2 dye-sensitised thin-lmminimodule fabricated by the Fujikura/Tokyo University ofScience and measured by AIST [9,10]. A larger increase to11.0% initial efciency is also reported for a 1-cm2 organicthin-lm solar cell fabricated by Toshiba and measured byAIST. Toshiba also fabricated an improved 9.5% initial ef-ciency organic cell minimodule (25 cm2) as again measuredby AIST, improving upon the companys previous result[11]. Along with other emerging technology devices, thestabilities of the dye-sensitised and organic devices werenot investigated, although the stability of related devices isreported elsewhere [1215].

Three new module results are reported in Table II. Therst is 17.5% efciency for a small CIGS (copper indium

Table IV. Terrestrial concentrator cell and module efciencies measured under the ASTM G-173-03 direct beam AM1.5 spectrum at acell temperature of 25 C.

Classication Efc.a (%) Areab (cm2)Intensityc

(suns)Test centre

(date) Description

Single cellsGaAs 29.1 1.3d,e 0.0505 (da) 117 FhG-ISE (3/10) Fraunhofer ISESi 27.6 1.2f 1.00 (da) 92 FhG-ISE (11/04) Amonix back-contact [53]CIGS (thin lm) 23.3 1.2d,g 0.09902 (ap) 15 NREL (3/14) NREL[54]Multijunction cellsGaInP/GaAs; GaInAsP/GaInAs 46.0 2.2h 0.0520 (da) 508 AIST (10/14) Soitec/CEA/FhG-ISE bonded [55]SubmoduleGaInP/GaInAs/Ge; Si 40.4 2.8i 287 (ap) 365 NREL (11/14) UNSW split spectrum [56]ModulesSi 20.5 0.8d 1875 (ap) 79 Sandia (4/89)j Sandia/UNSW/ENTECH

(12 cells) [57]Three junction 35.9 1.8k 1092 (ap) N/A NREL (8/13) Amonix [58]Four junction 36.7 2.6d,l 829.6 (ap) N/A FhG-ISE (5/14) Fraunhofer ISE [24]Notable exceptionsSi (large area) 21.7 0.7 20.0 (da) 11 Sandia (9/90)j UNSW laser grooved [59]Luminescent submodule 7.1 0.2 25(ap) 2.5m ESTI (9/08) ECN Petten, GaAs cells [60]aEfc. = efciency.b(da) = designated illumination area; (ap) = aperture area.cOne sun corresponds to direct irradiance of 1000 Wm

-2.

dNot measured at an external laboratory.eSpectral response reported in Version 36 of these tables.fMeasured under a low aerosol optical depth spectrum similar to ASTM G-173-03 direct [61].gSpectral response and currentvoltage curve reported in Version 44 of these tables.hSpectral response and currentvoltage curve reported in present version of these tables.iMeasured outdoors at 883.7 W/m

2direct irradiance, pressure-corrected airmass of 2.5 and cell temperature referenced to 25C.

jRecalibrated from original measurement.kReferenced to 1000W/m

2direct irradiance and 25 C cell temperature using the prevailing solar spectrum and an in-house procedure for temperature translation.

lMeasured under IEC 62670-1 reference conditions following the current IEC power rating draft 62670-3.mGeometric concentration.

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4 Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2015; 23:19 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.DOI: 10.1002/pip

gallium selenide) Cd-free module (808 cm2) fabricated bySolar Frontier [16] and measured by AIST. Another signi-cant new result in Table II is a new performance record fora large area (1.4m2) amorphous silicon/nanocrystalline sili-con (a-Si/nc-Si) module fabricated by TEL Solar, TrubbachLabs [17] and measured at 12.2% total area efciency atthe European Solar Test Installation (ESTI). The moduleconsisted of 142 multijunction cells in series and wasstabilised at the manufacturer. A third signicant new resultis 8.7% initial efciency for a small organic cell module(802 cm2) fabricated by Toshiba [11] and measured byAIST. This is the rst time an organic module of this sizehas been reported in these tables. As before, the stability ofthis module was not investigated, although the stability ofrelated devices is reported elsewhere [14,15].

Table III, notable exceptions, reports two new resultsfor small area cells. The rst new result documents a large in-crease to 21.7% efciency for a small area 0.5-cm2 CIGS cellfabricated by the Zentrum fr Sonnenenergie-und Wasser-Forschung (ZSW) [18] and measured by the FraunhoferInstitute for Solar Energy Systems (FhG-ISE). The second

new result in Table III is 20.1% efciency for a very smallarea 0.1-cm2 organic-inorganic halide perovskite cell fabri-cated by the Korean Research Institute of Chemical Technol-ogy (KRICT) and measured at Newport Technology andApplications Center. In both cases, cell area is too small forclassication as an outright record. Solar cell efciency tar-gets in governmental research programs generally have beenspecied in terms of a cell area of 1 cm2 or larger, for exam-ple, in US [19], Japanese [20] and European [21] programs.Cells of smaller area bypass some of the contacting andmaterial uniformity issues encountered with larger areadevices, as well as being more prone to measurement errordue to peripheral effects if encapsulated under glass.

As has been apparent from earlier versions of thesetables [13], very rapid progress has been made over recentyears in improving the efciency of series-connected mul-tiple junction solar cell stacks operating under concentratedsunlight. Accurately determining the performance of thesedevices is a challenging measurement problem. The im-proved current matching between the cells in the stack thatcontributes to this improved performance together with the

Figure 1. (a) External quantum efciency (EQE) for the new silicon,CdTe, CIGS and concentrator cell results in this issue (* asterisk de-notes normalized values; others are absolute values); (b) correspond-ing current densityvoltage (JV) curves (concentrator cell current

density normalised to 1kW/m2).

Figure 2. (a) External quantum efciency (EQE) for the newamorphous (a-Si) and nanocrystalline (nc-Si) silicon results in thisissue (* asterisk denotes normalized values; others are absolutevalues); (b) corresponding current densityvoltage (JV) curves.

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5Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2015; 23:19 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.DOI: 10.1002/pip

increasing number of cells in the stack have placed increaseddemands on the spectral accuracy of the ash simulators usedto measure the performance at high illumination intensities[22,23]. As an interim measure, the present authors haveagreed that compatible measurements at two of our desig-nated test centres will be a requirement for performance cer-tication of such concentrator cell stacks and for a new resultto be entered into these tables. A number of recent multiplejunction concentrator cell results are therefore in the pipelinewhile such multiple measurements are being nalised.

Table IV also reports two new results for concentratingmodules and submodules, with performance based on out-door measurements. A landmark 40.4% efciency has beenmeasured in outdoor testing by NREL for a 287-cm2 split-spectrum concentrator submodule fabricated by the Univer-sity of New South Wales (UNSW), using commercialGaInP/GaInAs/Ge and Si cells manufactured by Spectrolaband SunPower, respectively. A new record of 36.7% is re-ported for an 830-cm2 photovoltaic module using a four cellstack [24]. The module was fabricated and measured at theFraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (FhG-ISE).

This is the highest efciency for any reasonably sized solarenergy converter to date.

The EQE spectra for the new Si, CIGS, CdTe and con-centrator results reported in the present issue of these tablesare shown in Figure 1(a). Figure 1(b) shows the currentdensityvoltage (JV) curves for the same devices. Figure 2(a) shows the EQE for the new a-Si, nc-Si and a-Si/nc-Si celland module results, with Figure 2(b) showing their currentdensityvoltage (JV) curves. Figure 3(a) shows the EQEfor the new organic, perovskite and dye-sensitised results,while Figure 3(b) shows the corresponding current densityvoltage (JV) curves.

For the case of modules or multijunction cells, themeasured currentvoltage data have been reported on aper cell basis (measured voltage has been divided by theknown or estimated number of cells in series, while measuredcurrent has been multiplied by this quantity and divided bythe module area).

3. DISCLAIMER

While the information provided in the tables is provided ingood faith, the authors, editors and publishers cannot ac-cept direct responsibility for any errors or omissions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics com-menced operation in February 2013 with support fromthe Australian Government through the Australian Renew-able Energy Agency (ARENA). The Australian Govern-ment does not accept responsibility for the views,information or advice expressed herein. The work by K.Emery was supported by the U.S. Department of Energyunder Contract No. DE-AC36-08-GO28308 with theNational Renewable Energy Laboratory.

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