Photovoltaics Systems and Applications
Transcript of Photovoltaics Systems and Applications
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PhotovoltaicsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Nellis Solar Power Plant at Nellis Air Force Base in the USA. These panels track the sun in one axis.
Photovoltaic SUDI shade is an autonomous and mobile station in France that replenishes energy for electric vehicles using
solar energy.
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Solar panels on the International Space Station
Photovoltaics (PV) is a method ofgenerating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct
currentelectricityusing semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation
employs solar panels composed of a number ofsolar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials
presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon,amorphous
silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide.[1] Due to the growing demand
for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced
considerably in recent years.[2][3][4]
Solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly, albeit from a small base, to a total global capacity of
67,400 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2011, representing 0.5% of worldwide electricity demand.[5] The total
power output of the worlds PV capacity run over a calendar year is equal to some 80 billion kWh of electricity.
This is sufficient to cover the annual power supply needs of over 20 million households in the world.[5]More than
100 countries use solar PV.[6] Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming
and grazing)[7] or built into the roof or walls of a building (building-integrated photovoltaics).
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of
photovoltaics has declined steadily since the first solar cells were manufactured[8] and the levelised cost of
electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of
geographic regions.[9]Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-
generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries.[10] With current technology,
photovoltaics recoup the energy needed to manufacture them in 1 to 4 years. [11]
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Solar cells
Solar cells produce electricity directly from sunlight
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Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre. Note that this is for a horizontal surface, whereas solar panels are
normally mounted at an angle and receive more energy per unit area. The small black dots show the area of solar panels
needed to generate all of the world's energy using 8% efficient photovoltaics.
Solar cell productions by region[12]
Main article: Solar cell
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to convert energy
from the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a
higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic effect
was first observed byAlexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839.[13][14] The term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased
operating mode of a photodiode in which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light
energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.
Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light, which can be used to power equipment or
to recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and
other spacecraft, but today the majority ofphotovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation.
In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid power for
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Map of solar electricity potential in Europe.
Photovoltaic panels based oncrystalline silicon modules are encountering competition in the market by panels
that employthin-film solar cells (CdTeCIGS,[23] amorphous Si, microcrystalline Si), which had been rapidly
evolving and are expected to account for 31% of the global installed power by 2013.[24] However, precipitous
drops in prices for polysilicon and their panels in late 2011 have caused some thin-film makers to exit the
market and others to experience severely squeezed profits.[25] Other developments include casting wafers
instead of sawing, concentrator modules, 'Sliver' cells, and continuous printing processes.
The San J ose-based company Sunpower produces cells that have an energy conversion ratio of 19.5%, well
above the market average of 1218%.[26] The most efficient solar cell so far is a multi-junction concentrator
solar cell with an efficiency of 43.5%[27] produced by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in April 2011.
The highest efficiencies achieved without concentration include Sharp Corporationat 35.8% using a proprietary
triple-junction manufacturing technology in 2009,[28] and Boeing Spectrolab (40.7% also using a triple-layer
design). A March 2010 experimental demonstration of a design by a Caltech group led by Harry Atwater which
has an absorption efficiency of 85% in sunlight and 95% at certain wavelengths is claimed to have near perfect
quantum efficiency.[29] However, absorption efficiency should not be confused with the sunlight-to-electricity
conversion efficiency.
For best performance, terrestrial PV systems aim to maximize the time they face the sun. Solar
trackers achieve this by moving PV panels to follow the sun. The increase can be by as much as 20% in winter
and by as much as 50% in summer. Static mounted systems can be optimized by analysis of the sun path.
Panels are often set to latitude tilt, an angle equal to the latitude, but performance can be improved by
adjusting the angle for summer or winter. Generally, as with other semiconductor devices, temperatures above
room temperature reduce the performance of photovoltaics.[30]
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A number of solar panels may also be mounted vertically above each other in a tower, if the zenith distance of
the Sun is greater than zero, and the tower can be turned horizontically as a whole and each panels
additionally around a horizontical axis. In such a tower the panels can follow the Sun exactly. Such a device
may be described as a ladder mounted on a turnable disk. Each step of that ladder is the middle axis of a
rectangularsolar panel. In case the zenith distance of the Sun reaches zero, the ladder may be rotated to the
north or the south to avoid a solar panel producing a shadow on a lower solar panel. Instead of an exactly
vertical tower one can choose a tower with an axis directed to the polar star, meaning that it is parallel to the
rotation axis of the Earth. In this case the angle between the axis and the Sun is always larger than 66 degrees.
During a day it is only necessary to turn the panels around this axis to follow the Sun.
The 2011 European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) report predicted that, "The future of the PV
market remains bright in the EU and the rest of the world," the report said. "Uncertain times are causing
governments everywhere to rethink the future of their energy mix, creating new opportunities for a competitive,
safe and reliable electricity source such as PV."[31] 2012 could see the installation of 2030 GW of PV about
the same as in 2011. Unfortunately, the industry's capacity continues to expand, to perhaps as much as
38 GW. The resulting glut of supply has crushed prices and profits.[32] By 2015, 131196 GW of photovoltaic
systems could be installed around the globe.[31]
[edit]Economics
Photovoltaic powerworldwide GWp[5]
2005 5.4
2006 7.0
2007 9.4
2008 15.7
2009 22.9
2010 39.7
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2011 67.4
Year end capacities
The output of a photovoltaic array is a product of the area, the efficiency, and the insolation. The capacity
factor, or duty cycle, of photovoltaics is relatively low, typically from 0.10 to 0.30, as insolation ranges, by
latitude and prevailing weather, and is location specific from about 2.5 to 7.5 sun hours/day. Panels are rated
under standard conditions by their output power. The DC output is a product of the rated output times the
number of panels times the insolation times the number of days. The sunlight received by the array is affected
by a combination of tilt, tracking and shading. Tracking increases the yield but also the cost, both installation
and maintenance. A dual axis tracker can increase the effective insolation by roughly 3540%, while
temperature effects can reduce efficiency by 10%. The AC output is roughly 25% lower due to various losses
including the efficiency of the inverter.[33] For example, for a 4 kW array in Paris, where the average insolation is
3.34 sun hours/day, the annual (AC) output would be approximately 3.34x4x365x0.75=3657 kWh, and the
monthly output, from the following chart, would range from 67 kWh in December to 498 kWh in J uly.[34] The
weather strongly affects the output and from year to year monthly and annual outputs can vary substantially.
Published insolation values are normally 10 year averages. There are many live data sites that can
be monitored, and compared.[35]
Source: Apricus[36]
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Financial incentives for photovoltaics, such as feed-in tariffs, have often been offered to electricity consumers
to install and operate solar-electric generating systems. Government has sometimes also offered incentives in
order to encourage the PV industry to achieve the economies of scale needed to compete where the cost of
PV-generated electricity is above the cost from the existing grid. Such policies are implemented to promote
national or territorial energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction ofcarbon dioxide
emissions which cause global warming. Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people use
and buy more as manufacturers increase production to meet demand, the cost and price is expected to drop
in the years to come.
NREL compilation of best research solar cell efficiencies from 1976 to 2010
According to Shi Zhengrong, in 2012 unsubsidized PV systems already produce electricity in some parts of the
world, more cheaply than coal and gas-fired power plants.[37][38] As PV system prices decline it is inevitable that
subsidies will end. "Rapid decline or outright disappearance has already been seen in all the major solar
markets except China and India".[38]
As of 2011, the price of PV modules per MW has fallen by 60% since the summer of 2008, according to
Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates, putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with
the retail price of electricity in a number of sunny countries. There has been fierce competition in the supply
chain, and further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar lie ahead, posing a growing threat tothe dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years.[39] As time progresses, renewable energy
technologies generally get cheaper,[40][41] while fossil fuels generally get more expensive:
The less solar power costs, the more favorably it compares to conventional power, and the more attractive it
becomes to utilities and energy users around the globe. Utility-scale solar power can now be delivered in
California at prices well below $100/MWh ($0.10/kWh) less than most other peak generators, even those
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running on low-cost natural gas. Lower solar module costs also stimulate demand from consumer markets
where the cost of solar compares very favorably to retail electric rates.[42]
As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. The average
retail price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from $3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over the course
of 2011.[43]
For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00/watt were achieved. A module price of 0.60 Euro/watt (0.78
$/watt) was published for a large scale 5-year deal in April 2012. [44] In some locations, PV has reached grid
parity, which is usually defined as PV production costs at or below retail electricity prices (though often still
above the power station prices for coal or gas-fired generation without their distribution and other costs).
Photovoltaic power is also generated during a time of day that is close to peak demand (precedes it) in
electricity systems with high use of air conditioning. More generally, it is now evident that, given a carbon price
of $50/ton, which would raise the price of coal-fired power by 5c/kWh, solar PV will be cost-competitive in most
locations. The declining price of PV has been reflected in rapidly growing installations, totaling about 23 GW in
2011. Although some consolidation is likely in 2012, due to support cuts in the large markets of Germany and
Italy, strong growth seems likely to continue for the rest of the decade. Already, by one estimate, total
investment in renewables for 2011 exceeded investment in carbon-based electricity generation.[43]
[edit]Applications
80 MW Okhotnykovo Solar Park in Ukraine.
PresidentBarack Obama speaks at theDeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center.
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[edit]Power stations
Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations
Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe.[45] As of May 2012, the largest
photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are theCharanka Solar Park (India, 214 MW), Golmud SolarPark (China, 200 MW), Agua Caliente Solar Project (USA 100 MW) Perovo Solar Park (Ukraine 100
MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 97 MW), Brandenburg-Briest Solarpark (Germany 91
MW), Solarpark Finow Tower (Germany 84.7 MW), Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station (Italy, 84.2
MW), Eggebek Solar Park (Germany 83.6 MW), Senftenberg Solarpark (Germany 82 MW),Finsterwalde Solar
Park (Germany, 80.7 MW), Okhotnykovo Solar Park (Ukraine, 80 MW), Lopburi Solar Farm(Thailand 73.16
MW), Rovigo Photovoltaic Power Plant (Italy, 72 MW), and the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany,
71.8 MW).[45]
There are also many large plants under construction. The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm under construction
inRiverside County, California andTopaz Solar Farmbeing built in San Luis Obispo County, Californiaare both
550 MWsolar parks that will use thin-film solar photovoltaicmodules made byFirst Solar.[46] The Blythe Solar
Power Projectis a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction inRiverside County, California.
The California Valley Solar Ranch (CVSR) is a 250 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaicpower plant, which is
being built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast ofCalifornia Valley.[47]The 230 MW Antelope Valley
Solar Ranch is a First Solar photovoltaic project which is under construction in the Antelope Valley area of the
Western Mojave Desert, and due to be completed in 2013.[48] TheMesquite Solar project is a photovoltaic solar
power plant being built in Arlington, Maricopa County, Arizona, owned bySempra Generation.[49] Phase 1 will
have a nameplate capacityof 150 megawatts.[50]
Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the
sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. There
are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.
[edit]In buildings
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Photovoltaic wall at MNACTEC Terrassa in Spain
Main article: List of rooftop photovoltaic installations
Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either integrated into them, mounted on them or
mounted nearby on the ground.
Arrays are most often retrofitted into existing buildings, usually mounted on top of the existing roof structure or
on the existing walls. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable
to supply power for the building. In 2010, more than four-fifths of the 9,000 MW of solar PV operating in
Germany were installed on rooftops.[51] Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated
into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power. [52] Typically, an
array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building. Roof tiles with integrated PV cells are also common. A
2011 study using thermal imaging has shown that solar panels, provided there is an open gap in which air can
circulate between them and the roof, provide a passive cooling effect on buildings during the day and also keep
accumulated heat in at night.[53]
The power output of photovoltaic systems for installation in buildings is usually described inkilowatt-peakunits
(kWp).
[edit]In transport
Main article: Photovoltaics in transport
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PV has traditionally been used for electric power in space. PV is rarely used to provide motive power in
transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. A self-
containedsolar vehicle would have limited power and low utility, but a solar-charged vehicle would allow use of
solar power for transportation. Solar-powered cars have been demonstrated.[54]
[edit]Standalone devices
Solar parking paystation.
Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in
integrated circuits and low power liquid crystal displays make it possible to power such devices for several
years between battery changes, making PV use less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices
have seen increasing use recently in locations where significant connection cost makes grid power prohibitively
expensive. Such applications include water pumps,[55]parking meters,[56][57]emergency telephones,[58]trash
compactors,[59] temporary traffic signs, and remote guard posts and signals.
[edit]Rural electrification
Unlike the past decade, which saw solar solutions purchased mainly by international donors, it is now the locals
who are increasingly opening their wallets to make the switch from their traditional energy means. That is
because solar products prices in recent years have declined to become cheaper than kerosene and batteries.
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In Cambodia, for example, villagers can buy a solar lantern at US$25 and use it for years without any extra
costs, where their previous spending on kerosene for lighting was about $2.5 per month, or $30 per year. In
Kenya a solar kit that provides bright light or powers a radio or cell phone costs under $30 at retail stores. By
switching to this kit Kenyans can save $120 per year on kerosene lighting, radio batteries and cell phone
recharging fees.[60]
Developing countries where many villages are often more than five kilometers away from grid power are
increasingly using photovoltaics. In remote locations in India a rural lighting program has been providing solar
powered LED lighting to replace kerosene lamps. The solar powered lamps were sold at about the cost of a
few months' supply of kerosene.[61][62] Cuba is working to provide solar power for areas that are off grid.[63]These
are areas where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent case for going solar though the lack of
profitability could relegate such endeavors to humanitarian goals.
[edit]Solar roadways
The 104kW solar highway along the interchange ofInterstate 5 and Interstate 205 nearTualatin, Oregon in December 2008.
Main article: Solar roadway
In December 2008, the Oregon Department of Transportation placed in service the nations first solar
photovoltaic system in a U.S. highway right-of-way. The 104-kilowatt (kW) array produces enough electricity to
offset approximately one-third of the electricity needed to light the Interstate highway interchange where it is
located.[64]
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A 45 mi (72 km) section of roadway in Idaho is being used to test the possibility of installing solar panels into
the road surface, as roads are generally unobstructed to the sun and represent about the percentage of land
area needed to replace other energy sources with solar power.[65]
[edit]Solar power satellites
Main article: Solar power satellite
Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar power inspace for use on Earth. It has
been in research since the early 1970s. SBSP would differ from current solar collection methods in that the
means used to collect energy would reside on an orbitingsatellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some
projected benefits of such a system are: higher collection rate, longer collection period, and elimination
ofweather concerns. SBSP also introduces several new hurdles, primarily the problem of transmitting energy
from orbit to Earth's surface for use.
[edit]Advantages
The 89 PW of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentiful almost 6,000 times more than the 15 TW
equivalent of average power consumed by humans.[66] Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest
power density (global mean of 170 W/m2) among renewable energies.[66]
Solar power is pollution-free during use. Production end-wastes and emissions are manageable using existing
pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development [67] and policies are being
produced that encourage recycling from producers.[68]
PV installations can operate for many years with little maintenance or intervention after their initial set-up, so
after the initial capital cost of building any solar power plant, operating costs are extremely low compared to
existing power technologies.
Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission
losses in the US were approximately 7.2% in 1995).[69]
Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested in the
development of solar cells, so there is considerable room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental high
efficiency solar cells already have efficiencies of over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells [70] and
efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass-production costs are rapidly falling.[71]
[edit]Disadvantages
In some states of the United States of America, much of the investment in a home-mounted system may be lost
if the home-owner moves and the buyer puts less value on the system than the seller. The city of Berkeley
developed an innovative financing method to remove this limitation, by adding a tax assessment that is
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transferred with the home to pay for the solar panels.[72] Now known as PACE, Property Assessed Clean
Energy, 28 U.S. states have duplicated this solution.[73]
[edit]References
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