. people? (Chakravarthi Raghavan) · A proposal for a disarmament strategy of women and other 67...

international foundation for development alternatives

fundacion international para alternatives de desarrollo

fondation internationale pour un autre developpement

I F D A DOSSIER 23 , MAY/JUNE 1981

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

Pages

2

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS / MATERIAUX

. Issues i n community o r g a n i z a t i o n ( K . Cons tan t ino -Dav id ) 5

. Prob lemat ique de l ' e a u en m i l i e u r u r a l i v o i r i e n e t aspec ts 21 mi5thodologiques de 1 ' a n i m a t i o n r u r a l e (Dan ie l Kad ja )

. Las mujeres toman l a p a l a b r a : Una comunicac i6n a l t e r n a t i v a 3 3 femenina (Adr iana Santa Cruz)

. C e n t r a l American dilemma ( P i e r r e S c h o r i ) 4 7

MARKINGS

. The doomsday c l o c k c l o s e r t o t w e l v e ( I n g a Thorsson) 5s

INTERACTIONS

. A p roposa l f o r a disarmament s t r a t e g y o f women and o t h e r 67 c i t i z e n s ( H i l k k a P i e t i l a )

. The I t a i c i message on t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s 7 1

. I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n o f T h i r d World f o r b e n e f i t o f TNCs o r 73 peop le? ( C h a k r a v a r t h i Raghavan)

. Small f i she rmen meet a t Kuantan, M a l a y s i a (Dan ieu l M u d a l i ) 7 8

. On ne f i n i t pas d 'apprendre ( i n t e r v i e w de Mahdi E lmand j ra ) 81

. Un c o n t i n g e n t pour l a f o n c t i o n p u b l i q u e ? (Yona Friedman) 86

. Le Cen t re d ' e t u d e s pour l e developpement a f r i c a i n 89

MATERIALS RECEIVED FOR PUBLICATION 9 2

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS 9 3

executive committee ismail-sabri abdalla, ahmed ben salah, Qcmonl coreo. mohbub ul hcq enrfque iqlesios, jan meuer

^arc nerfin (president', Justiman f rweyemamu. iqnacy sachs, Juan somavia. maunce f strong, ingo thorsson

co-chairmen 1961.1982 fernondo hennque cardoso, ernst michanek

secretariat: 2, place du marche, ch- 1260 nyon, switzerland, telephone 41 (22; 61 62 62 . telex 26640 ifdo ch cable f1221 ,c

1 ~TRODUCTCRY YCTE

t h e summits o f pessimism

Two and a h a l f yec-~rs a g o , i n November 1978 , a g r o u p o f f r i e n d s o f IFDA met a t Le Bei - tex , i n n e a r b y F r a n c e , t o d i s c u s s t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l deve lopment s t r a t e g y f o r t h e 1980s and beyond. I/ I n March o f t h i s y e a r , a s i m i l a r g r o u p - i n c l u d i n g many who were a t t h e 1978 m e e t i n g - assembled a t Nyon t o exchange t h e i r a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l env i ronment f o r g l o b a l nego- t i a t i o n s on a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r .

The b a s i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e wor ld c r i s i s h a s n o t changed o v e r t h e s e y e a r s . The e x e r c i s e o f N o r t h e r n m i l i t a r y and economic s t r e n g t h - t h e l a t t e r t h r o u g h t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t e s y s t e m - r e m a i n s t h e dominant f a c t o r on t h e w o r l d s c e n e . Those who hope f o r a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r s t i l l l o o k t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e s t r e n g t h o f t h e T h i r d World t o b r i n g it a b o u t , s u p p o r t e d by t h e s m a l l e r , " l i k e - minded" i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s .

What was d i f f e r e n t a t t h e March 1981 m e e t i n g was t h e d e p t h o f t h e pess imism s h a r e d by most p a r t i c i p a n t s - a pessimism engendered by t h e wave of N o r t h e r n m i l i t a r i s m which h a s e n g u l f e d A f g h a n i s t a n and now t h r e a t e n s P o l a n d , E l S a l v a d o r and Cuba.

The a c c e s s i o n t o power i n Washington o f t h e Reagan/Haig regime was uppermost on p e o p l e ' s minds , s t i l l shocked by t h e b a r r a g e o f " s c i e n t i f i c c o n s e r v a t i v e " i d e o l o g y which h a s been l a i d down s i n c e 2 0 J a n u a r y . The wor ld a s s e e n from Washington (and r e f l e c t e d i n t h e " I m p e r i a l M i r r o r " - o t h e r w i s e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l H e r a l d T r i b u n e ) i s t h e s t a g e f o r a power s t r u g g l e between Good and E v i l . O t h e r c o u n t r i e s a r e s o many " t h e a t e r s " f o r m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s . The T h i r d World i s n o t a p o l i t i c a l f o r c e t o b e d e a l t w i t h ; i t s c o n s t i - t u e n t c o u n t r i e s a r e pawns i n t h e East-West game. T h i r d World r e v o l u t i o n a r y n a t i o n a l i s m i s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f S o v i e t power, t o be c o n t a i n e d and s u p p r e s s e d . And s o i t goes .

Needless t o s a y , t h e l i p - s e r v i c e p a i d p r e v i o u s l y t o t h e r h e t o r i c of t h e N I E O h a s been r e p l a c e d by open h o s t i l i t y . T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s must b e convinced t h a t t h e i r s a l v a t i o n l i e s i n t h e f r e e m a r k e t , hence w i t h t h e Uni ted S t a t e s . The c o n c e p t o f common h e r i - t a q e , a s a p p l i e d t o t h e s e a - b e d , i s denounced a s a " r i p - o f f " .

I / SCL, Michael Z a m i t - C u t a j a r , 'Motes o n a p o l i t i c a l p reamble f o r a n o t h e r d ~ ~ v ~ : l u p r n e n t s t r a t e g y ' , IFDA D o s s i e r 4 , F e b r u a r y 1979 .

The f i r s t s a l l i e s of t h e new US regime i n t o m u l t i l a t e r a l deve lopment diplomacy a r e f r i g h t e n i n g . The Law o f t h e Sea t r e a t y nego- t i a t i o n s have been s t a l l e d by u n i l a t e r a l d e c i s i o n . The US d e l e g a - t i o n h a s e f f e c t i v e l y b locked a p r o c e d u r a l d e c i s i o n i n UNCTAD on t h e c h o i c e o f Havana a s t h e s i t e o f t h e s i x t h s e s s i o n of t h e C o n f e r e n c e , t h r e a t e n i n g t o b o y c o t t a c o n f e r e n c e h e l d t h e r e ( a s i f i t s p r e s e n c e a t p r e v i o u s UNCTAD s e s s i o n s h a s been a n y t h i n g b u t o b s t r u c t i v e ) . P r e s i d e n t Reagan, by demanding t h e postponement o f t h e Mexican "mini-summit" on North-South i s s u e s a s a c o n d i t i o n f o r h i s a t t e n d a n c e , h a s c o n v e r t e d t h a t mee t ing from a n exchange among e q u a l s i n t o a n i m p e r i a l a u d i e n c e . C l e a r l y , we a r e b e i n g g i v e n t o u n d e r s t a n d "who i s t h e b o s s a round h e r e " .

I n f e c t e d by t h i s o u t b r e a k o f r a d i c a l c o n s e r v a t i s m a c r o s s t h e A t l a n - t i c , most West European governments have h a s t e n e d t h e i r s h i f t t o t h e r i g h t , where some a r e a l r e a d y c o m f o r t a b l y i n s t a l l e d . European s o c i a l d e m o c r a t s a r e d r i f t i n g t o t h e c e n t r e , a t l e a s t f o r e l e c t o - r a l p u r p o s e s . European l a b o u r u n i o n s bury t h e i r h e a d s d e e p e r i n t h e s a n d s o f p r o t e c t i o n i s m .

Ahead on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a i l t h i s y e a r l i e two prominent sum- m i t s , a t which g l o b a l n e g o t i a t i o n s on development i s s u e s c o u l d b e g i v e n a b o o s t . Seen from Nyon i n March, t h e s e d i p l o m a t i c peaks a r e shrouded i n c l o u d s o f pess imism. The Ottawa summit o f t h e s e v e n Western i n d u s t r i a l powers i n J u l y i s l i k e l y t o be preoccu- p i e d w i t h t h e new U S g rand d e s i g n and w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l economic d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e West ( n o t a b l y t h e "problem" o f J a p a n e s e e x p o r t s ) . The Mexico meet inc; , now s c h e d u l e d f o r O c t o b e r , seems t o be f o c u s s i n g on t h e b e l a t e d , i f n o t a l t o g e t h e r h o p e l e s s , t a s k o f e d u c a t i n g Ronald Reaqan. Moreover , t h e West w i l l now a r r i v e i n Mexico w i t h i t s backbone s t i f f e n e d by t h e Ottawa e n c o u n t e r and it would be r a s h t o e x p e c t much t o come o u t o f a p l e a s u r e c r u i s e i n t h e w a t e r s o f f Canciin.

Where a r e t h e s i l v e r l i n i n g s ? A s committed o p t i m i s t s ( s i n c e one c a n n o t be b o t h f o r change and a g a i n s t t h e f u t u r e ) , i t i s o u r t a s k t o look f o r t h e m . But we must c o n f e s s t h a t t h e y a r e none t o o c l e a r .

The g r e a t awakening o f t h e S o u t h e r n g i a n t i s n o t f o r tomorrow. The T h i r d World r e m a i n s v u l n e r a b l e and e x p l o i t a b l e on a c c o u n t o f i t s i n t e r n a l d i v i s i o n s and c o n f l i c t s ( o f t e n armed o n e s ) . I t s h i e s away from c o l l e c t i v e l y t a k i n g a c t i o n which i s w i t h i n i t s r e a c h i n t h e f i e l d s o f f i n a n c e , t r a d e and commodity s u p p l y management. The i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e i n power a r e u s u a l l y en twined w i t h t h o s e o f t h e Nor th . The k i n d o f l e a d e r s h i p which c o u l d m o t i v a t e a r e v i v a l o f non-a l igned T h i r d World s o l i d a r i t y i s e l u s i v e .

Moreover, the progressive elements in the governments of industrialized countries are increasinqly marginalized. The prospect of "mini-NIEOs", worked out and applied among coalitions of like- minded countries from South and North, seems more distant now than it did in 1978.

Nevertheless, the world turns - and hope survives. There is hope in the tangible marifestations of Third i-torld solidarity in certain limited regioral contexts, such as the Caribbean and Southern Africa. There is hope in the restraining influence exercised by West European politicians on US interventionism in Central America. The growing trading and financial links among Third World countries, while not free of the dependency relationships which bede- vil North-South flows, represent a valuable political alternative for both parties to such transactions. So does the participation of the smaller "non-imperial" industrialized countries in economic exchanges with the South.

Perhaps the greatest hope lies in the rigidity, the triumphalism of Northern conservatism itself. The Thatchers and Reagans of this world have, it must be admitted, the courage of their con- victions. By expressing them openly and directly, they oblige those who disagree to sit up and take notice - and to organize their opposition. Here lies the hope for change. It is by appea- linq to this movement of opposition - whether manifested by governments or, as is more likely, by the third system in its organized qroups - that a revived non-aligned movement could start to make headway in the countries of the North.

BU I LDI NG BLOCKS

ISSUES I N COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION b y K a r i n a Cons tan t ino -Dav id T h i r d World S t u d i e s Room 428, C o l l e g e o f A r t s & Sciences U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s system O i l iman, Quezon C i t y Met ro M a n i l a , P h i l i p p i n e s

O r i g n a l language: E n g l i s h

PROBLEMES DANS L'ORGANISATION DES COMMUNAUTES DE BASE

PROBLEMAS EN LA ORGANIZACI~N DE LAS COMUNIDADES DE BASE

K a r i n a Cons tan t ino-David L/

I S S U E S I N C O M M U N I T Y O R G A N I Z A T I O N

Alongs ide t h e development h y s t e r i a t h a t h a s e n g u l f e d t h e under - d e v e l o p e d n a t i o n s of t h e T h i r d World, a c o n d i t i o n t h a t i s u s u a l l y accompanied by t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e g i m e s , a c o u n t e r p o i n t i s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g sounded: t h e u r g e n t c a l l f o r p e o p l e s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e i r own deve lopment . Whether a s r h e t o r i c o r a s h o n e s t p o l i c y , t h i s c r i t e r i o n h a s become p a r t and p a r c e l o f t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f development t h i n k i n g . I n t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n s o c i e t i e s o f t h e T h i r d World, it h a s become common t o e n c o u n t e r t h e c u r i o u s p a r a d o x o f governments s u s p e n d i n g a l l t h e e s s e n t i a l c i v i l and p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s i n t h e name o f deve lopment , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e p o n t i f i c a t i n g on t h e v i r t u e s o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y deve lopment . T e c h n o c r a t s i n t h e s e r v i c e o f such governments o f t e n m i s s t h e i r o n y , however , f o r i n t h e i r c a s e t h e t o k e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e i n dec i s ion-making i s c y n i c a l l y t r e a t e d a s n o t h i n g more t h a n an i n s t r u m e n t o f co- o p t a t i o n and s o c i a l c o n t r o l .

P e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n , however , need n o t be a n empty s h i b b o l e t h . Over t h e y e a r s , i n f a c t , a growing number o f v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i - z a t i o n s have t a k e n it upon t h e m s e l v e s t o o r g a n i z e and c o n s c i e n t i - c i z e communit ies i n such a manner t h a t p e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n c a n be a t r u l y meaningfu l c o n c e p t . The c o n c e p t o f community o r g a n i z a t i o n t a k e s a s i t s b a s i c p r e m i s e t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e w i l l . t o p a r t i c i p a t e and t o g e t i n v o l v e d must b e d e v e l o p e d , t h a t t h e need t o a c t a s a u n i f i e d c o l l e c t i v i t y must be i n s t i l l e d i n the p e o p l e and t h a t p e o p l e must b e encouraged t o d e f i n e t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l p r i v a t e t r o u b l e s i n t e r m s o f l a r g e r i s s u e s o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . The b a s i c t h r u s t o f community o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s t h u s been t o c u l t i v a t e a s e n s e o f p o t e n c y and e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n p e o p l e and i n whole communi t ies . Communities must be made t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y must a c t i v e l y d e f i n e t h e i r own d e s t i n i e s i f t h e y a r e n o t t o become p a s s i v e o b j e c t s of development p l a n n i n g . They must a c t i v e l y d e v e l o p t h e c a p a c i t y t o a s s e r t and t o f i g h t f o r t h e i r own r i g h t s b e c a u s e no one e l s e i n s o c i e t y w i l l . The laws and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y e x i s t t o s e r v e t h e s t r o n g and t h e p o w e r f u l ; t h o s e w i t h o u t power must t h e r e f o r e become s t r o n g e r and knowledgeable t o be a b l e t o e f f e c t i v e l y p r o t e c t t h e m s e l v e s from t h e s e laws and i n s t i t u t i o n s , o r b e t t e r , t o t u r n them t o t h e i r a d v a n t a g e .

1 Kiir ini i Cunstant ino-David i s t h e p r e s e n t Chairman o f t h e Department of l , o ^ - ^ l ~ ' ~ i ~ ~ - l i ~ ~ Uevelopment, I n s t i t u t e of S o c i a l Work and Community Development, r i ~ . ~ f c r ^ - . i c y (.if t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . I n t h i s c a p a c i t y , s h e o r g a n i z e d t h e 1 l ' : l-:-l:tiJ~ p r n g r a m i n Pan toe , S a r i a y a , Quezon where f o r one whole y e a r ,tlide:".E,~ 1 i v e and work w i t h the peop le i n t h e community. Her r e s e a r c h

I tivities i n c l u d e s t u d i e s of pavement d w e l l e r s of Mani la and e m p i r i c a l . .

i n ' . , ~ , ~ i : , . i t i o n s o f t h e n a t u r e of i n d i g e n o u s t echno logy .

The e n t r y o f community o r g a n i z e r s i n t o communi t ies , however , h a s r u n i n t o a number o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , n o t t h e l e a s t o f which i s t h e c l a s s i c q u e s t i o n o f whether t h e e x e r c i s e o f f reedom and t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l l i s something t h a t c a n be t a u g h t . A r e l a t e d i s s u e t h a t i s e q u a l l y t roublesome i s whether s e l f - r e l i a n c e can be i n s t i l l e d w i t h i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p such a s t h a t between t h e o r g a n i z e r and t h e community, where dependence and f e u d a l l o y a l t y a r e t h e more l i k e l y outcomes. These a r e v e r y r e a l and s e r i o u s p rob lems which have a l l t o o o f t e n r e s u l t e d i n b i t t e r n e s s and acr imony, d e s p a i r and h e l p l e s s n e s s . No v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n e n t e r i n g a community can a f f o r d t o i g n o r e them f o r t h e y have a way o f awkwardly i n s i n u a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s a t e v e r y p o i n t o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e comnunity and t h e o r g a n i z e r .

The p u r p o s e of t h i s b r i e f e s s a y i s t o c o n s i d e r t h e s e t i c k l i s h i s s u e s i n t h e form o f dilemmas t h a t any v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n i n v o l v e d i n o r g a n i z i n g communit ies i s l i k e l y t o e n c o u n t e r i n t h e c o u r s e o f i t s work. The p a p e r w i l l t r a c e t h e b a s i c r o o t s o f t h e s e dilemmas and w i l l i n t h e p r o c e s s s u g g e s t t h a t i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , what i s c r u c i a l i s t h a t t h e v o l u n t a r y group must c o n s t a n t l y c l a r i f y i n i t s mind t h e l a r g e r purpose w i t h i n which o r g a n i z e d and m i l i t a n t communit ies can have some i n s t r u m e n t a l meaning. These dilemmas w i l l be i l l u s t r a t e d a s t h e y have been m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e community o f P a n t o c , S a r i a y a , Quezon P r o v i n c e where t h e U n i v e r s i t y ' s Department o f Community Development f a c u l t y and s t u d e n t s have been b a s e d s i n c e 1 9 7 7 a s p a r t of t h e L I X K - C ' C D Program. I/

O r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h o u t v i s i o n

The p e o p l e i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s f o r g e n e r a t i o n s have been e x c l u d e d from dec is ion-making , o p p r e s s e d by c o n d i t i o n s o f p o v e r t y , d i s a b l e d from u n d e r s t a n d i n g e x i s t i n g r e a l i t y and p a r a l y z e d by a c u l t u r e o f s i l e n c e and a v e r y r e a l c l i m a t e o f f e a r . I n t h i s con- t e x t , community o r g a n i z a t i o n i s w i d e l y h e l d t o be t h e most e f f e c t i v e means t h r o u g h which p e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e i r own development c a n be a c h i e v e d . I t i s t h e f i r s t s t a g e i n overcoming t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s s o t h a t p e o p l e c a n s t a n d up t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s and l a t e r w i e l d t h e power t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r own f u t u r e .

Community o r g a n i z a t i o n , b o t h a s i t h a s been d e v e l o p e d i n t h e West and implemented i n t h e T h i r d World, however , s u f f e r s from one b a s i c f l a w . While it c h a l l e n g e s t h e e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e and demands f o r change , it o f f e r s no c o n c r e t e model o f an a l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e . A v i s i o n o f a more d e s i r a b l e s o c i e t y , n o t t h r o u g h t h e e a s y a p p e a l t o g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t p e o p l e ' s power and p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , i s a r e q u i r e m e n t i f community o r g a n i z a t i o n i s t o p r o c e e d a s i t d o e s , from a c r i t i q u e o f e x i s t i n g r e a l i t y . An a l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e s h o u l d be t h e b a s i s upon which p r e s e n t s o c i e t y can be a s s e s s e d and u l t i m a t e l y changed .

I / L ink ing w i t h Communities f o r Development (LINK-COD) i s an innovdt ive approach t o t h e s t u d y and p r a c t i c e of Community Development where undergradua te majors , t o g e t h e r w i t h the f a c u l t y , l i v e and work f u r oni ye.ir i n a r u r a l community i n t e g r a t i n g coursework and p r a c t i c e i~ !:!K.'

n t i r e p r o c e s s .

T h i s l a c k o f a paradigm o f an a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i e t a l sys tem t h a t c a n d i m i n i s h , i f n o t c o m p l e t e l y e r a d i c a t e , o p p r e s s i v e c o n d i t i o n s a l s o a f f e c t s t h e manner i n which o r q a n i z e r s view r e a l i t y . While most o r g a n i z e r s p r o c e e d from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t s o c i e t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h e powerfu l and t h e p o w e r l e s s , t h e o p p r e s s o r s and t h e o p p r e s s e d , t h e absence o f a c l e a r v i s i o n p r e v e n t s them from p e r c e i v i n g t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . More o f t e n t h a n n o t , t h e y s l i d e i n t o t h e c o m f o r t a b l e p a t h o f t i n k e r i n g w i t h t h e s y s t e m w i t h o u t c o n f r o n t i n g t h e r o o t s o f t h e problem. The more r a d i c a l o r g a n i z e r s even engage i n s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s and p a s s on t o t h e p e o p l e t h i s method o f v iewing r e a l i t y . However, t h e b a s i c q u e s t i o n s t i l l remains unanswered - assuming a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f awareness o f e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , how d o e s one a c t t o change t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s and towards what d i r e c t i o n ? I n a d d i t i o n , w i t h o u t a b e t t e r sys tem t o compare t h e p r e s e n t w i t h , how v a l i d can an a n a l y s i s o f t h e e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s be?

Lacking a c o n c r e t e p e r c e p t i o n of t h e f u t u r e and a d e e p e r i n s i g h t i n t o e x i s t i n g r e a l i t i e s , community o r g a n i z a t i o n t e n d s t o c e n t e r on t h e p r o c e s s o f o r g a n i z i n g . I n f a c t , community o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s a c o m p a r a t i v e l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d methodology t h a t i s a t t h e same t i m e c r e a t i v e and r e f o r m i s t . I t i s c r e a t i v e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t it e n a b l e s p e o p l e , f i r s t l y , t o c r i t i c a l l y a s s e s s a r e a l i t y t h a t t h e y have f o r y e a r s t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d , s e c o n d l y , t o a c t upon t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s a n d , t h i r d l y , t o d e v e l o p a measure o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e . And y e t i t i s a l s o r e f o r m i s t b e c a u s e community o r g a n i z a t i o n d e a l s m o s t l y w i t h l o c a l i s s u e s l e a d i n g p e o p l e i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t s o l v i n g s p e c i f i c i s s u e s w i l l improve t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r l i v e s . Worse, it can b l i n d them i n t o a c c e p t i n g t h e v i a b i l i t y o f a sys tem which i n r e a l i t y t h r i v e s on t h e i r o p p r e s s i o n . Thus t h e vagueness o f t h e end g o a l o f any o r g a n i z i n g e f f o r t l e a d s t o p r o c e s s - c e n t r e d a c t i v i t i e s which , i f l e f t unchecked, c o n v e r t t h e o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s i n t o a f e t i s h t h a t e x i s t s a s a g o a l i n i t s e l f . T h i s s i t u a t i o n r e s u l t s i i i a n e v e r - e n d i n g c y c l e o f l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s g e a r e d t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n by t h e p e o p l e o f methods and s k i l l s which t h e y a r e u n a b l e t o u s e t o tame an o p p r e s s i v e env i ronment .

While t h e r e l a t i v e a b s e n c e o f a s y s t e m a t i z e d and c o n c r e t e v i s i o n a c c o u n t s f o r much o f t h e i n t e r n a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f community o r g a n i z i n g , a number o f v e r y p r e s s i n g dilemmas s t i l l have t o be c o n f r o n t e d . These dilemmas may b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y minimized i f o r q a n i z e r s have a d e f i n i t e view o f t h e long- te rm p u r p o s e s o f o r g a n i z i n g a l t h o u g h t h e y w i l l n e v e r c o m p l e t e l y d i s a p p e a r i n any o r g a n i z i n g e f f o r t . Such dilemmas i n v o l v e e t h i c a l a s w e l l a s t a c t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e s .

: : L f - r e l i a n c e v s . deoendence ---.p - -

. ( 5 t h e b a s i c aims o f community o r g a n i z a t i o n i s t h e deve lop-

. of a p e o p l e who a r e c a p a b l e o f d e f i n i n g t h e i r own r e a l i t y , 8 , , C . , . , t i f y i n g t h e i r own problems and d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i r own f u t u r e . ' 2,;c.r:; a r e d e v e l o p e d from w i t h i n t h e community, p e o p l e a r e : , ~ , ~ r a y c d t o speak o u t t h e i r minds; problems a r e d i s c u s s e d and

u?on c o l l e c t i v e l y and t h e community i s t r a i n e d t o depend i t s m n r e s o u r c e s . Through a l l t h i s t r a i n i n g , t h e o r g a n i z e r

keeps a low profile. And yet an outsider is always immediately and acutely visible, no matter how well integrated he is in the locality. Communities that have either been cut off from the mainstream of national society or have languished in isolation for generations naturally look to an organizer for hope. His entry raises expectations, and even without actually accomplish- ing tangible results, he is often already accorded all the gratitude simply because he has offered to help. Of course, there are those who meet his presence with skepticism and even fear, but the majority generally regard an organizer as a last hope to cling to. No amount of clarification or explanation to the effect that he must not be showered with gratitude can erase that initial relationship.

The greater problem arises when the community, unused to this novel way of dealing with problems, constantly awed by the organizer's knowledge and bound by the traditional ways of following anyone who seems to hold a promise of a better life, start to look to the organizer for all the answers. The organizer then becomesthe "Truth and the Light," the new messiah who shall lead them to a little heaven on earth.

At the LINK-COD site in Quezon, our initial entry was greeted with hope. We were invariably thanked for our concern. As the organizing process progressed, meetings were held at which our every move was monitored bv the people. e became the people's barometer of right and wrong. Many times, when a problem needed resolution the people turned directly to us to sit as judge and jury. During one meeting which was concerned with determining whether the barangay captain should be ousted or not, the peo~le turned to us saying that we were in the best position to resolve the matter. Confronted with such a situation, an immediate decision had to be made.

On one hand, to resolve the issue would encourage a dependent relationship that could facilitate organizing, on the other, to do so would discourage self-reliance. The danger is that dependence prolongs the organizing process because ultimately the organizer will have to leave the community. And yet in the initial phases of organizing this dependence can become a marked advantage in propelling change.

For communities that are lulled into a sense of security because the organizer maintains this dependent relationshiu, ~lultiple problems arise especially during the pull-out phase. Especially in fairly successful communities, people tend to attribute to him much of their accomplishments. The mere fact than an organizer has aided the community in achieving a better life creates a sense of insecurity when he is no longer around. Thus, many communities that seem to be well-organized falter when t l i e y are left on their own without the quidinq force of ar orqanizer.

E v o c a t i v e v s . p r o v o c a t i v e o r q a n i z i n q --

To minimize dependence , most o r g a n i z e r s e n t e r a community by u s i n p t h e e v o c a t i v e method. I n s t e a d o f b a r i n g h i s own p e r c e p - t i o n s , an o r g a n i z e r evokes from t h e p e o p l e t h e i r dreams and f r u s t r a t i o n s , t h e i r needs and l i m i t a t i o n s . He a c t s a s a c r y s t a l - l i z e r o f t h e knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p e o p l e . He s t a r t s where t h e p e o p l e a r e and l e t s t h e p e o p l e grow by e x p e r i e n c e . However, e v o c a t i v e o r g a n i z i n g a l s o h a s i t s l i m i t s . No one c a n r e a l l y c l a i m t o be n o n - p a r t i s a n . I n f a c t , t h e v e r y r a t i o n a l e f o r o r g a n i z i n g a l r e a d y assumes a d e f i n i t e b i a s on t h e s i d e o f t h e masses .

The q u e s t i o n s an o r g a n i z e r a s k s , l i k e t h e t o p i c s he b r i n g s o u t f o r d i s c u s s i o n a r e n e c e s s a r i l y c o l o r e d by t h e p e r s p e c t i v e he h o l d s whether c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y . For i n s t a n c e , i n t h e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n among f a r m e r s i n Quezon, we n e c e s s a r i l y i n q u i r e d a b o u t p a t t e r n s o f s h a r i n g , u s u r y , t e n u r i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s and t h e l i k e . For many f a r m e r s , a l l t h e s e a r e t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d . They s u b m i t t o t h e s y s t e m , many t i m e s w i t h o u t b e i n g c o n s c i o u s o f i n e q u i t y . And y e t t h e v e r y p r o c e s s o f e l i c i t i n g r e s p o n s e s may emphasize t h e impor tance o f one a s p e c t o f t h e i r l i v e s and provoke them i n t o t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e s i t u a t i o n .

E v o c a t i v e methods a r e i m p o r t a n t e s p e c i a l l y i n d e t e r m i n i n g l e v e l s of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , s p o t t i n g p o t e n t i a l l e a d e r s , s e t t i n g up r a p p o r t and i d e n t i f y i n g i s s u e s . However, t o h i d e b e h i n d t h e n e u t r a l s h i e l d of e v o c a t i v e o r q a n i z i n q i s e i t h e r t o t a i l b e h i n d t h e p e o y l e o r more i m p o r t a n t l y t o f a i l t o s e i z e o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f r a i s i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o new l e v e l s . To provoke p e o p l e i n t o t h i n k i n g and a c t i n g upon s i t u a t i o n s t h e y had n o t p r e v i o u s l y p e r - c e i v e d i s n e c e s s a r y i f an o r g a n i z e r i s t o i n d e e d r e s t o r e t h e Â¥potenc among men who have been robbed o f t h i s q u a l i t y .

And y e t w i t h p r o v o c a t i v e o r g a n i z i n g emerges t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t an o r q a n i z e r may f a i l t o t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e l e v e l o f awareness o f p e o p l e a t t h a t p o i n t i n t i m e . Many o r g a n i z e r s e n t e r communit ies w i t h ready-made t o o l s f o r a n a l y z i n g r e a l i t y . They p a s s t h i s on t o t h e p e o p l e a t t i m e s w i t h o u t r e g a r d o f t h e l e v e l of a w a r e n e s s o f t h e p e o p l e , a r t i f i c i a l l y a n a l y z i n g r e a l i t y In t e r m s o f p r e - d e t e r m i n e d c a t e g o r i e s . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , a n o r q a n i z e r may i s o l a t e h i m s e l f from t h e p e o p l e b e c a u s e t h e y can - . r i n d no common ground .

I n t h e e a r l i e r example , no m a t t e r how o p p r e s s i v e a f e u d a l s y s t e m may seem t o an o r g a n i z e r , many f a r m e r s who b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y have b e n e v o l e n t l a n d l o r d s , who r e g a r d t h e i r l a n d l o r d s n o t o n l y a s m a s t e r s b u t a l s o a s s o u r c e s o f s e c u r i t y , who f e e l t h e y owe t h e l a n d l o r d s a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e , may r e s e n t an o r g a n i z e r who t r i e s t o provoke them i n t o v iewing t h e i r l a n d l o r d s a s enemies . This i s n o t t o a r g u e t h a t an o r g a n i z e r s h o u l d l e t them drown i n t ! ~ c i r i l l u s i o n s , b u t i t i s s i m p l y t o s u g g e s t t h a t he may have L f i n d some o t h e r e n t r y p o i n t i n t h e meantime. While an orqan- L ( - r h a s t o b a l a n c e t h e s e two methods , he must c o n s t a n t l y b e a r I mind t h a t he can n e v e r r e l y o n l y on e v o k i n g p e o p l e ' s

perceptions of reality and their attendant problems, especially within societies that have effectively prevented individuals from seeing their surroundings clearly, either because they do not have access to the skills and information that can trigger a deeper understanding or because they have become so used to the same reality for generations, or because they have become captives of the alluring promises of development propaganda.

Facilitation vs. manipulation -p

Closely related to evocative or provocative organizing is the tension between the role of the organizer as facilitator and as manipulator. Community organization emphasizes the role of an organizer as primarily that of a facilitator, an agent of change whose expertise eases the process towards an organized community. Community organization assumes that since people are in the best position to determine their fate, an organizer should act as a catalyst, an outside force that is necessary to awaken people from a state of desperate apathy. The role of facilitator is most apparent in meetings, evaluation and reflection sessions and mobilizations.

Organizers, however, have been attacked for manipulating people's minds and managing their actions towards their own ends. While facilitation is contrary to manipulation, and most organizers refuse to accept the latter, it is impossible to maintain a neutral stance in most matters affecting a community. This is especially true when conflicts arise between the masses and some powerful figure in the community.

Let us consider a factual example. In Quezon, after six months of organizing, we were certain that thebarangay council could not provide the leadership in the community. The barangay captain was a powerful figure whose family not only owned land in the area but for certain sectors monopolized the marketing of rice and copra. It was decided that it was too premature to risk a frontal collision with him. At the same time he was also our legitimator. We decided to manage the situation by setting up an organization that would not oppose the barangay council but had the capacity to neutralize it. This was not a plan we had hatched on our own, rather it was a response to a situation that the people themselves wanted to change.

The Sanqquniang Panqkaunlaran nq Pantoc (SPP) was organized in 1978. This was a legal organization which was even provided for in a memorandum circular of the then Department of Local Govern- ments and Community Development. The internal organization, in terms of representation, was based on the requisites of the situation in the barrio. It incorporated the baranqay council and yet expanded representation from all sectors of the population in proportion to their number in the community. Thus, apart from the nine members of the barangay council, twenty- eight sectoral representatives were added, broken down as follows: landowners and overseers (1); tenants (3); lessees (2); hired laborers (6); professional, service, construction, transportation workers (2); commercial, livestock and vegetable raisers and

f i s h e r m e n (2 ; women ( 6 ) ; and y o u t h ( 6 ) . T h i s e n a b l e d t h e o r g a n i z e r s t o d e v e l o p new l e a d e r s and s e t t h e s t a g e f o r w i d e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y a n t a g o n i z i n g t h e barangay c o u n c i l .

A t t h i s s t a g e , we c o u l d have a l r e a d y been c h a r g e d w i t h manipu la - t i o n . L a t e r , a s t h e barangay c a p t a i n r e a l i z e d t h a t he s t o o d t o l o s e some o f h i s power a s t h e p e o p l e i n c r e a s e d t h e i r awareness and t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o change r e a l i t y , he a t t e m p t e d t o under- mine t h e SPP t h r o u g h v a r i o u s means --- t h r e a t s , c o u n t e r - o r g a n i z a - t i o n s , u n d e r - t h e - t a b l e d e a l s --- c r e a t i n g no s m a l l amount o f d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n and f e a r among t h e p e o p l e . Faced w i t h t h i s s i t u a t i o n , f a c i l i t a t i o n was n o t enough. The p e o p l e were n o t r e a d y t o f i g h t back. They n e i t h e r had t h e s k i l l s n o r t h e f o r c e t o c o n t e n d w i t h t h e i r enemy. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e was v e r y l i t t l e t i m e f o r us t o h o l d e v a l u a t i o n , r e f l e c t i o n o r r o l e - p l a y i n g s e s s i o n s t o t r a i n t h e new l e a d e r s . The o n l y r e c o u r s e was c o u n t e r - m a n i p u l a t i o n , t o s p e e d up t h e p r o c e s s o f o r g a n i z i n g s o t h a t we c o u l d a v e r t d e f e a t . T h i s was a d i f f i c u l t d e c i s i o n t o make s i n c e t h i s was a t a c t i c t h a t r a n c o u n t e r t o a b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f o r g a n i z i n g , which was t o l e t t h e p e o p l e d e c i d e and l e a r n from b o t h t h e i r s u c c e s s e s and m i s t a k e s .

A new c o n c e p t t h a t p e r h a p s summarizes how t h i s p a r t i c u l a r dilemma c a n be b a l a n c e d i s f a c i p u l a t i o n . E s s e n t i a l l y t h i s a c c e p t s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f b o t h f a c i l i t a t i o n and m a n i p u l a t i o n a s v i t a l cornno- n e n t s o f any o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s . F a c i p u l a t i o n i s m a n i p u l a t i v e o n l y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e o r g a n i z e r c o n s c i o u s l y d i r e c t s t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e community towards a n o b j e c t i v e l y d e s i r a b l e g o a l t h a t i s b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e p e o p l e . The s i t u a t i o n i s a n a l o g o u s t o a mother and a l i t t l e c h i l d who i s l e a r n i n g t o r u n . P a r t o f l e a r n i n g i s commit t ing m i s t a k e s , f a l l i n g and g e t t i n g up a g a i n . To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h e s i t u a t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d i n such a manner t h a t w h i l e t h e c h i l d e n j o y s some f reedom, h e i s guarded a g a i n s t s e r i o u s a c c i d e n t s . I n c a s e s where t h e c h i l d , d e s p i t e most p r e c a u t i o n s i s a b o u t t o f a l l o f f a c l i f f , t h e n t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n o f whether m a n i p u l a t i o n i s e t h i c a l l y r i g h t o r wrong.

I n s p i t e o f t h e a c c e p t a n c e t h a t a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f m a n i p u l a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r g a n i z i n g , i t must be remembered t h a t t h e e a s i e s t way t o a c h i e v e some d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s i s f o r an ex- p e r i e n c e d o r g a n i z e r t o c a l l t h e s h o t s and l e a d t h e p e o p l e . But t h e r e l a t i o n between m a n i p u l a t i o n and long- te rm s u c c e s s i s an i n v e r s e one . Thus an o r g a n i z e r who must engage i n f a c i p u l a t i o n must c o n s t a n t l y be aware o f t h e d a n g e r s o f h a v i n g t o o much c o n t r o l .

F e l t needs v s . o b j e c t i v e n e e d s

An e f f e c t i v e o r g a n i z e r must s t a r t where t h e p e o p l e a r e . However, underdevelopment n o t o n l y s t u n t s t h e a b i l i t y o f p e o p l e t o p e r - c e i v e r e a l i t y b u t a t t h e same t i m e c r e a t e s a c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t i s warped by t h e r e q u i s i t e s o f an u n j u s t s y s t e m . Needs a r e f e l t even i f t h e s e a r e secondary t o o b j e c t i v e l y e x i s t i n g a l t h o u g h n o t c o n s c i o u s l y p e r c e i v e d n e e d s . While e v o k i n g from t h e p e o p l e t h e i r

needs and prob lems , t h e o r g a n i z e r w i l l d i s c o v e r t h a t o f t e n t i m e s t h e i r f e l t n e e d s do n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o and may even c o n t r a d i c t o b j e c t i v e n e e d s . To r e l y s o l e l y upon s a t i s f y i n g f e l t needs would be t o e n s u r e c o o p e r a t i o n and p e r h a p s h i g h l y m o t i v a t e d a c t i o n s b u t may l e a d t o f u r t h e r m y s t i f i c a t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand , t o i n s i s t upon what t h e o r g a n i z e r p e r c e i v e s a s o b j e c t i v e needs g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s i n f a i l u r e when t h e p e o p l e c a n n o t a p p r e c i a t e t h e impor- t a n c e o f t h e s e i s s u e s .

A f t e r h a l f a y e a r o f o r g a n i z i n g i n P a n t o c , t h e p e o p l e came t o a c o n s e n s u s t h a t what was most needed was an a d d i t i o n a l c l a s s r o o m f o r t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s i n c e t h e l a s t two g r a d e s had t o s h a r e n o t o n l y one room b u t a l s o one t e a c h e r . O b j e c t i v e l y , h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n was a l m o s t n o n - e x i s t e n t s i n c e t h e p e o p l e c o u l d h a r d l y a f f o r d t o s e n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o t h e town t o s t u d y . However, i n a d ip loma-consc ious s o c i e t y , where e d u c a t i o n i s viewed by t h e p o o r a s t h e i r o n l y avenue t o a b e t t e r l i f e , t h e d e s i r e f o r an a d d i t i o n a l c l a s s r o o m o v e r r u l e d s u c h p r a g m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s t h e c o n t e n t o f l e a r n i n g , t h e l a c k o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n and t h e more b a s i c p rob lems o f p o v e r t y and ~ o w e r l e s s n e s s . For u s t o have d i s m i s s e d t h i s a s a f a l s e need would have been t o i n s i s t on m a t t e r s which t h e community d i d n o t a s y e t g r a s p . A t t h e same t i m e , f o r u s t o s imply have f o l l o w e d such needs would have been t o t a i l b e h i n d p e o p l e ' s d e c i s i o n s and f a i l t o r e a l l y h e l p d e v e l o p t h e community.

An o r g a n i z e r h a s t o b a l a n c e t h e s e o b j e c t i v e and f e l t needs t o en- a b l e him t o r e t a i n a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h - o u t f a l l i n g i n t o t h e t r a p o f i n s i s t i n g on p u r s u i n g needs o n l y he can p e r c e i v e . R a t h e r , he must c r e a t i v e l y s t r i v e t o c o n s i d e r f a l s e n e e d s s o a s t o r e o r i e n t them t o w a r d s o b j e c t i v e n e e d s . Unfor tu- n a t e l y , we were u n a b l e t o manage t h i s dilemma c o r r e c t l y . I n s t e a d o f s e i z i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n a s a n o c c a s i o n t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n and t o r a i s e l e v e l s o f c o n s c i o u s - n e s s , we a c h i e v e d o n l y t h e f o r m e r . The a d d i t i o n a l c l a s s r o o m was b u i l t b u t no i n c r e m e n t t o t h e p e o p l e ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e a l i t y was r e a l l y i n c u l c a t e d . When work ing i n communit ies it i s s o e a s y t o be overwhelmed by t h e l a c k of e v e r y t h i n g , s o much s o t h a t a n y t h i n g g a i n e d i s h a i l e d a s a v i c t o r y . But t h i s k i n d o f n a y v e t 6 u s u a l l y r e s u l t s o n l y i n t emporary and minor changes .

Consc iousness r a i s i n g v s . d o l e - o u t s

One o f t h e t o u c h s t o n e s o f community o r g a n i z a t i o n i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s - r a i s i n g . Every a c t i v i t y impinges on c o n s c i o u s n e s s and e v e r y r i s e i n t h e l e v e l o f awareness o f t h e p e o p l e r e s u l t s i n a b e t t e r o rgan- i z e d community. But working w i t h t h e poor a lways l e a d s t o t h e dilemma o f w h e t h e r one can s a c r i f i c e t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f a g roup o f p e o p l e i n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h i s v e r y same s i t u a t i o n may l e a d t o a r a i s e d l e v e l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s and t h e emergence o f some s o c i a l a n g e r t h a t c a n p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r a more m i l i t a n t community. On t h e o t h e r hand , it i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o s t a r e a p e r s o n i n t h e f a c e , much l e s s c o n v i n c e him t o t r a n s f o r m h i s s u f f e r i n g i n t o r e v o l u t i o n a r y f e r v o r .

I t i s n o t uncommon f o r o r g a n i z e r s t o e n c o u n t e r s i t u a t i o n s where in p e o p l e r e q u e s t f o r s e r v i c e s o f e i t h e r a u e r s o n a l n a t u r e o r t h o s e t h a t r e q u i r e t h e o r g a n i z e r t o o b t a i n t h i n g s f o r them. For i n - s t a n c e , r e q u e s t s f o r c l o t h i n g , j o b s , m e d i c i n e , and o t h e r b a s i c n e e d s , a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e o r g a n i z e r s i n c e t h e p e o p l e b e l i e v e t h a t he h a s a c c e s s t o t h e s e . P o v e r t y h a s an uncanny way of de- p r i v i n g p e o p l e of t h e i r l a s t s h r e d o f p r i d e and f o r c i n g t h e n t o v i r t u a l l y beg from t h e o r g a n i z e r .

To g i v e them t h e i r most b a s i c n e e d s would however b e t o u n w i t t - i n g l y p a c i f y them and a l s o t o t a k e t h e i r minds away from t h e prob lems o f i n j u s t i c e and o p p r e s s i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s i t u a - t i o n can a l s o p r o v i d e t h e f i r s t s p a r k i n t h e i r f i n a l r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t s e t - u p t h a t can s o l v e t h e i r problems u n l e s s t h e y c o l l e c t i v e l y d e c i d e t o move. But t h e n a r e j e c t i o n o f such a s i m p l e r e q u e s t i s u s u a l l y t a k e n e i t h e r a s an i n s u l t o r a s l a c k o f c o n c e r n and r a t h e r t h a n p r o v i d e t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t f o r them t o comprehend how t h e y have been v i c t i m i z e d by t h e sys tem it may o n l y s e r v e t o i s o l a t e t h e o r g a n i z e r . One o c c a s i o n when we were f a c e d w i t h t h i s dilemma was when we were approached by an e l d e r l y woman whose son had been impr i soned a f t e r b e i n g c h a r g e d w i t h s t e a l i n g t h r e e c o c o n u t s . The s e n t e n c e was f o r f i v e y e a r s i n Munt in lupa and t h e woman was d i s t r a u g h t because he was one o f t h e b r e a d w i n n e r s i n t h e f a m i l y . She c l a i m e d he was i n n o c e n t and had been framed by h i s companions. She h a d , i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e t r i a l , s o l d t h e i r c a r a b a o and o t h e r p o s s e s s i o n s b u t t h e y were gypped by t h e two l a w y e r s who a c c e p t e d b r i b e s from t h e landowner from whose l a n d t h e c o c o n u t s were s t o l e n . T h i s r e q u e s t came a t t h e h e i g h t o f some o t h e r i s s u e s i n t h e community which were o f g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e . A t some o t h e r t i m e , t h e i s s u e c o u l d have been u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e i n j u s t i c e s i n t h e l e g a l sys tem. No m a t t e r how h a r d we t r i e d , t h e woman was p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h r e d u c i n g h e r s o n ' s sen- t e n c e and we c o u l d n o t g e t t o f i r s t b a s e i n t r y i n g t o r a i s e h e r awareness o f s y s t e m a t i c i l l s . U l t i m a t e l y , we d e c i d e d t o h e l p , more o u t o f a f e e l i n g o f humanity t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e . A t t h e same t i m e we t r i e d t o k e e p o u r e f f o r t s unknown t o t h e community f e a r i n g t h a t we would t h e n be swamped by r e q u e s t s f o r l e g a l a i d . Our e f f o r t s , w i t h t h e h e l p o f some lawyer c o l l e a g u e s , were suc- c e s s f u l b u t had a l m o s t no e f f e c t on o u r o r g a n i z i n g e f f o r t s e x c e p t g o o d w i l l .

Immediate economic i m p a c t v s . long- te rm p o l i t i c a l development

On a l a r g e r s c a l e , t h e dilemma between c o n s c i o u s n e s s r a i s i n g and d o l e - o u t s i s r e p l i c a t e d when an o r g a n i z e r views t h e community a s a t o t a l i t y . The a v e r a g e community i s c o n f r o n t e d by t h e problem o f economic w e l f a r e . Most o f t h e t i m e t h e p e o p l e e x p e c t an o r g a n i z e r t o improve t h e i r economic c o n d i t i o n s . T h e i r percep- t i o n s a r e bound by t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e o r g a n i z e r w i l l r a i s e t h e i r s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g . On t h e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , t h e p rob lems o f d e a t h , i l l n e s s , m a l n u t r i t i o n and s a n i t a t i o n c a n n o t be d i s - missed by t h e o r g a n i z e r even w h i l e he r e a l i z e s t h a t o r g a n i z i n g a community means r a i s i n g l e v e l s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , c o n f r o n t i n g b a s i c s t r u c t u r a l problems and n o t n e r e l y improving p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

Economic impact p r o j e c t s most o f t h e t i m e s e r v e t o i n s p i r e t h e p e o p l e towards t h e b e n e f i t s o f c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n and s e l f - r e l i a n c e . A t t h e same t i m e , however , t h e s e t y p e s o f p r o j e c t s which b r i n g s u p e r f i c i a l improvements t o t h e i r l i v e s a l s o c a r r y w i t h them t h e p o t e n t i a l o f d e v e l o p i n g , t o o r e a d i l y , a s e n s e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n . These p r o j e c t s a l s o s e r v e a s p a l l i a t i v e 5 i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y p r o l o n g t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h e sys tem h a s a s e l f - c o r r e c t i n g mechanism. The p e o p l e c o n t e n t themse lves w i t h s m a l l c o n c e s s i o n s and minor w e l f a r e g a i n s which may r e t a r d t h e i r p o l i - t i c a l development .

On t h e o t h e r hand, t o emphasize p o l i t i c a l deve lopment , o r t h e c a p a c i t y o f p e o p l e t o g r a s p t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s t h a t s u r r o u n d them, w i t h o u t impact p r o j e c t s t h a t would conform t o t h e i r expec- t a t i o n s , would be t o r i s k r o t e memor iza t ion o f c o n c e p t s which t h e p e o p l e c a n n o t r e l a t e t o a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s . I t i s o n l y t h r o u g h p r a x i s t h a t p o l i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s can be s t r e n g t h e n e d and it i s o n l y when p e o p l e a r e convinced t h a t change i s i n f a c t t a k i n g p l a c e t h a t t h e y w i l l l i s t e n and l e a r n t h e a b s t r a c t con- c e p t s t h a t must be a c t u a l i z e d i n e x p e r i e n c e .

Many o r g a n i z e r s , w h i l e a c c e p t i n g t h e impor tance o f b o t h p o l i t i c a l development and impac t p r o j e c t s , have t h e tendency t o t a c k l e e a c h a s a s e p a r a t e p h a s e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t i s p o l i t i c a l development t h a t s u f f e r s s i n c e p e o p l e a r e n a t u r a l l y more i n t e r e s t e d i n p ro- j e c t s t h a t have an immediate impac t on t h e i r l i v e s . I n many c a s e s , p e o p l e have a t t e n d e d s e s s i o n s aimed a t r a i s i n g p o l i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s more o u t o f a s e n s e o f g r a t i t u d e t o t h e o r g a n i z e r . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h o s e who s t a r t t h e o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s by p o l i t i c i z i n g t h e p e o p l e do s o on t h e assumpt ion t h a t t h e moment t h e p e o p l e have a c q u i r e d a f a i r l y good g r a s p o f r e a l i t y , t h e y w i l l be i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o d i c t a t e t h e i r own f u t u r e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e p o o r a r e unused t o t h e p r a c t i c e o f concep- t u a l i z i n g and a b s t r a c t i n g . The m e n t a l f rame o f g e n e r a t i o n s o f hand-to-mouth e x i s t e n c e i s one t h a t i s r o o t e d t o what a p e r s o n c a n immedia te ly s e e and h e a r . When p o l i t i c a l development i s c o n d u c t e d i n much t h e same way it i s done among s t u d e n t s i n u n i - v e r s i t i e s , t h e p e o p l e f i n d it v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o comprehend t h e d i s c u s s i o n s . Most o f t h e t i m e , t h e y a r e a b l e t o memorize s l o g a n s and speak i n g e n e r a l i t i e s b u t a r e u n a b l e t o r e a l l y u s e t h i s framework i n g u i d i n g t h e i r moves t o change r e a l i t y .

Many o r g a n i z e r s f a i l t o b a l a n c e t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o t h e p e o p l e ' s need f o r b o t h impact p r o j e c t s and more s u b s t a n t i a l a c t i v i t i e s . T h i s dilemma produces e i t h e r communit ies t h a t a r e c o n t e n t e d w i t h minor changes b u t l a c k s t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l l t o a c t u a l i z e t h e aims o f an o r g a n i z e d community, o r o r g a n i z e d s e t t l e m e n t s t h a t a r e p o l i t i c a l l y aware b u t u n a b l e t o a p p l y t h e i r newly-acqui red i d e a s f o r t h e b e t t e r m e n t o f l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

I s s u e v s . n o n - i s s u e b a s e d o r g a n i z i n g

C e n t r a l t o t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d dilemma, i s t h e problem posed by t h e t y p e o f o r g a n i z i n g t h r u s t t o b e u s e d i n t h e community. Most o r g a n i z e r s s t a r t w i t h i s s u e s t h a t a r e f e l t by t h e p e o p l e . By u t i l i z i n g t h i s a p p r o a c h , t h e c h a n c e s o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r

p r o v i n g t h e v i a b i l i t y o f o r g a n i z e d a c t i o n a r e b e t t e r , and t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r p e o p l e t o i n t e r n a l i z e t h e p r o c e s s o f o r g a n i z i n g i s w i d e r . And y e t f o r a l l t h e s e a d v a n t a g e s , i s s u e - b a s e d o r g a n - i z i n g t e n d s t o d e a l w i t h s m a l l i s s u e s and , i n many c a s e s , s m a l l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s . Those who s u b s c r i b e t o t h i s s t y l e hope t h a t e a c h i s s u e w i l l be p e r c e i v e d a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e i l l s of a l a r g e r whole. The problem t h a t u s u a l l y a r i s e s i s t h a t even be- f o r e an i s s u e i s r e s o l v e d , o t h e r s c r o p u p , t h u s k e e p i n g t h e o r g a n i z e r and t h e community c o n t i n u o u s l y e m b r o i l e d i n d i s p a r a t e i s s u e s . S i n c e t h e s e i s s u e s a r e c o n c r e t e , it becomes more d i f f i - c u l t t o r e l a t e e a c h one t o t h e l a r g e r s y s t e m , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of n e g l e c t i n g o r s u p e r f i c i a l l y t r e a t i n g t h e a c t u a l r o o t s o f a l l t h e s e i s s u e s .

More i m p o r t a n t l y , many i s s u e - b a s e d o r g a n i z e r s , n o t f u l l y r e a l i z - i n g t h a t i s s u e s r e v o l v e a round i n t e r e s t g r o u p s , o f t e n f a i l t o make any d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e c l a s s e s o f p e o p l e found i n a community. On one hand , t h e o r g a n i z e r may have an i s s u e t h a t i s b a s e d on c l a s s c o n f l i c t , and on t h e o t h e r hand , a n o t h e r i s s u e may lump t o g e t h e r v a r i o u s p e o p l e from v a r i o u s c l a s s e s who a r e r e a c t i n g t o s i m p l e s o c i o l o g i c a l s t r a i n s . I s s u e - b a s e d o r g a n i z i n g i s a l s o l i m i t e d i n t h e s e n s e t h a t communit ies t e n d t o o v e r l o o k t h e b a s e s f o r u n i t y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , o r g a n i z i n g r i s e s and f a l l s a s e a c h i s s u e i s r e s o l v e d .

I n P a n t o c , t h e p r imary problem t h a t t h e women r a i s e d was t h e i r l a c k o f employment. While t h e y h e l p e d t o till t h e l a n d , most o f t h e i r t i m e was s p e n t c a r i n g f o r t h e c h i l d r e n and t h e home. Asked what t h e y would want t o do , t h e y e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e y would l i k e t o l e a r n t o sew. Our i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n was one o f c o l d n e s s t o t h e i d e a f o r a number o f r e a s o n s . F i r s t , sewing would n o t g i v e them employment and would p e r h a p s o n l y add t o t h e e x p e n s e s s i n c e t h e women would want t o p r a c t i c e t h e i r new s k i l l s . Second , most o f t h e women had no s t e a d y a c c e s s t o a sewing machine and t h i s would o n l y p u t them f u r t h e r i n d e b t t o t h e w e a l t h i e r p e o p l e i n t h e b a r r i o whose sewing machines t h e y would have t o borrow. F i n a l l y , t h e agency t h a t had o f f e r e d t o h a n d l e t h e sewing c l a s s e s would o n l y do s o on c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e t r a i n e e s would sew f o r t h e agency f o r one y e a r a t a s t o u n d i n g l y e x p l o i t a t i v e wages. No amount o f c o v e r t c o n v i n c i n g c o u l d however change t h e women's minds and s o t h e t r a i n i n g went o n . Looking b a c k , p e r h a p s we s h o u l d have been more a c t i v e i n d i s s u a d i n g t h e women. Much t i m e was s p e n t on t h e t r a i n i n g , t i m e t h a t c o u l d have been more p r o d u c t i v e l y used i n o t h e r u n d e r t a k i n g s . N e i t h e r d i d t h e women f u l l y g r a s p t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h i s s m a l l i s s u e t o t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y . I n such a s i t u a t i o n , t h e women t e n d e d t o view t h e i r t o t a l i t y i n i s o l a t i o n and t h e i r l i n k s t o t h e s y s t e m o n l y i n t e r m s o f s p e c i f i c p rob lems .

I f i s s u e - b a s e d o r g a n i z i n g t e n d s t o s u r r o u n d t h e r o o t s o f t h e problem w i t h p e r i p h e r a l p r o b l e m s , n o n - i s s u e b a s e d o r g a n i z i n g emphas izes t h e community a s a whole i n i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e l a r g e r r e a l i t y . While t h e c h a n c e s o f d e v e l o p i n g a more mature and s t a b l e community a r e h i g h e r , t h e p r o c e s s l e a d i n g towards i t s a t t a i n m e n t i s f r a u g h t witk, p rob lems . L ike long- te rm p o l i t i c a l

deve lopment , i t i s much more d i f f i c u l t f o r p e o p l e t o r e a d i l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e work ings o f s o c i e t y s i n c e t h e y a r e unused t o p a r - t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r own l i v e s . The u l t i - mate g o a l mus t be n o n - i s s u e based o r g a n i z e d c o r n u n i t i e s a l t h o u g h it seems i m p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e t h i s w i t h o u t go ing t h r o u g h an i n i t i a l p h a s e o f i s s u e r e s o l u t i o n s .

Democra t ic p a r t i c i p a t i o n v s . c r e a t i n g a new e l i t e

While community o r g a n i z a t i o n aims f o r f u l l p e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n change , p a r t i c i p a t i o n r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n l e v e l of a w a r e n e s s . I n any community t h e r e w i l l a lways b e more advanced and l e s s advanced mernbers. Democrat ic p a r t i c i p a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s , c a n n o t be accompl i shed by s i m p l y i n v i t i n g anyone t o l a r g e m e e t i n g s o f t h e community. I n most c a s e s , o r g a n i z e r s s p o t p o t e n t i a l l e a d e r s from among t h e p e o p l e , t r a i n t h e s e l e a d e r s and r a i s e t h e i r l e v e l s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Through t h i s p r o c e s s , l o c a l l e a d e r s become t h e key i n p r o p e l l i n q change .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , when l e a d e r s from t h e community r e c e i v e t h e promi- nence and f e e l t h e power t h a t goes w i t h l e a d e r s h i p , a new e l i t e i s i n e f f e c t c r e a t e d . T h i s p o s e s c e r t a i n problems s i n c e some l e a d e r s use t h e i r power f o r p e r s o n a l ends and t r y t o m a i n t a i n t h i s new-found s t a t u s by employing t h e same t e c h n i q u e s t h a t t r a - d i t i o n a l l e a d e r s u s e . They t h e r e f o r e b u i l d on t h i s power t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f t h e community. At t h e same t i m e , t h e y a r e i s o l a t e d from t h e p e o p l e t h u s k e e p i n g t h e community i n a s t a t e o f depen- d e n c e , n o t o n l y on t h e o r g a n i z e r b u t a l s o on t h e i r l e a d e r s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n t e n d s t o f r u s t r a t e t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e community and retarCis t h e o r g a n i z i n g p r o c e s s .

On t h e o t h e r hand , f u l l p e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n a l s o h a s i t s l i m i - t a t i o n s . I n a s t u d y o f t h e l e v e l s and b a s e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f l e a d e r s i n P a n t o c , we i d e n t i f i e d c e r t a i n f a c t o r s t h a t would a c c o u n t f o r t h e l e v e l s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p e o p l e . Most impor- t a n t were t h e a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f o p p r e s s i o n , t h e a b i l i t y t o g r a s p i d e a s and t h e d e g r e e o f b e n e f i t s one r e c e i v e d from t h e p r e v a i l i n g s y s t e m - The more o p p r e s s e d , t h e l e s s one b e n e f i t s f rom t h e s y s t e m and t h e h i g h e r t h e c a p a c i t y t o g e t e x c i t e d by i d e a s , t h e more c r i t i c a l and l i b e r a t i v e o n e ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s t e n d s t o b e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w h i l e t h e fo rmer and t h e l a t t e r were f a c - t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e masses i n t h e community, t h e a b i l i t y t o g r a s p i d e a s was a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h o s e who had had sDme educa- t i o n , t h e w e a l t h i e r s e c t o r s o f t h e community who were a l s o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l e a d e r s .

To e x p e c t e v e r y o n e t o f u l l y p a r t i c i p a t e would have e n a b l e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l e a d e r s who a l s o w i e l d e d s o c i a l and economic power, t o g e t t h e i r way. We needed t i m e t o d e v e l o p l e a d e r s from t h e masses who c o u l d h o l d t h e i r g round a g a i n s t t h e l o c a l o p p r e s s o r s . The s o l u t i o n was t o s e t up t h e S a n g g u n i a q p a n g k a u n l a r a n ng P a n t o c t h a t would draw r e p r e s e n t a t i o n from t h e p o o r e r s e c t o r s o f t h e community. To a v o i d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o o p t a t i o n a s w e l l a s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a s u b - s t r a t u m o f o p p r e s s o r s from t h e same c l a s s , e a c h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e was a c c o u n t a b l e t o a maximum o f f i f t e e n members

who c o u l d e a s i l y be convened t o a s s u r e d e m o c r a t i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e new l e a d e r s were t r a i n e d i n s k i l l s and knowledge t h a t t h e y c o u l d use f o r t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s . More i m p o r t a n t l y , we t r i e d t o c o n s t a n t l y i n s t i l l a new c o n c e p t o f l e a d e r s h i p b o t h i n t h e p e o p l e and t h e i r l e a d e r s t h a t would en- s u r e a l e a d e r s h i p t h a t was n o t s e l f - s e r v i n g . While we were n o t c o m p l e t e l y s u c c e s s f u l , a m a r r i a g e between d e m o c r a t i c p a r t i c l - p a t i o n and t h e prob lems o f a new e l i t e was a c h i e v e d , m a i n l y be- c a u s e t h e new e l i t e was n o t o n l y a c c o u n t a b l e t o t h e p e o p l e b u t b e c a u s e t h e new l e a d e r s r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n s t i t u e n c y t h a t was aware o f i t s own r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s .

Lawful v s . s u b v e r s i v e a c t s

The b o u n d a r i e s between d e v e l o p m e n t - o r i e n t e d a c t i v i t i e s and sub- v e r s i o n have always been hazy . C o n s e q u e n t l y , most o r g a n i z e r s have t o c o n s t a n t l y f a c e t h e d a n g e r t h a t t h e i r a c t s w i l l be l a b e l l e d s u b v e r s i v e . I n a s e n s e t h e r e i s an i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n between s u c c e s s f u l o r g a n i z i n g and s u b v e r s i o n , c a u s i n g some o r g a n i z e r s t o c o n s c i o u s l y c e n s o r t h e i r own a c t i v i t i e s o r t o p r e m a t u r e l y d i s a p p e a r from t h e s c e n e o f t h e i r a c t i v i t y . E a r l i e r i n t h e p a p e r it was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l communi ty o r g a n i z a t i o n i s t y p i c a l l y n o t h e l d t o g e t h e r by a c o n c r e t e v i s i o n o f t h e f u t u r e , and t h e r e f o r e o f t e n f a i l s t o measure p r e - s e n t s o c i e t y a g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f an a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l o r d e r . A t t h e same t i m e t h e e x p r e s s e d development g o a l s o f most a u t h o r i t a r i a n governments employ a r h e t o r i c t h a t does n o t r u n c o u n t e r t o t h e vague aims o f community o r g a n i z a t i o n .

However, it i s a l s o t h e a b s e n c e o f a w e l l - a r t i c u l a t e d f u t u r e t h a t a l l o w s o r g a n i z e r s t o become e a s i l y overwhelmed by c o n c r e t e p rob lems a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l . They c o n t e n t themse lves w i t h s m a l l v i c t o r i e s t h a t make t h e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m look s l i g h t l y l e s s op- p r e s s i v e e i t h e r b e c a u s e c e r t a i n c o n c e s s i o n s have been won o r b e c a u s e minor v i c t o r i e s t e n d t o be remembered w i t h p r i d e by p e o p l e who a r e o n l y used t o d e f e a t .

T h i s s i t u a t i o n h a s d e f i n i t e advantages. As l o n g a s t h e y do n o t r a i s e t h e p r o s p e c t o f a n a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l o r d e r , o r g a n i z e r s t h r e a t e n no one and a r e by and l a r g e l e f t f r e e t o o p e r a t e w i t h - i n t h e community.

I n P a n t o c , we r e c e i v e d o u r f i r s t t a s t e o f harassment a l m o s t immedia te ly a f t e r we s t a r t e d t o e n c o u r a g e t h e p e o p l e t o a i r t h e i r g r i p e s a g a i n s t t h e barangay c a p t a i n . On two s u c c e s s i v e o c c a s i o n s , we were v i s i t e d by i n t e l l i g e n c e o f f i c e r s i n q u i r i n g a b o u t o u r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e a r e a . Key p e o p l e i n t h e a r e a were a l s o a s k e d a b o u t o u r a c t i v i t i e s . I n many cases, s i t u a t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d a r e i n i t i a l w a r n i n g s t o o r g a n i z e r s .

a n e dilemma o f t h e o r g a n i z e r i s t h a t a s o r g a n i z i n g work e s c a - l a t e s , c o n f l i c t s become more i n t e n s e . O r g a n i z i n g c e a s e s t o r e v o l v e o n l y a round p e r i p h e r a l i s s u e s and t h e o b j e c t o f a t t a c k s h i f t s f rom l o c a l powers t o l a r g e r o n e s . D i s c u s s i o n and r e f l e c - t i o n s e s s i o n s do n o t s t a r t and e n d w i t h l o c a l problems b u t a r e now r o o t e d on q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e l a r g e r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .

While organizers still have some freedom in confronting the power structure at the national level, this can be done only indirectly. The legal system, many organizers have noted, can accommodate only so much. One has to choose in many instances between outright failure or extra-legal means. The situation is aggravated when an organizer is faced either by the possibility of his actions being branded as subversive or by the growing frustration of the people he is organizing who are willing to go beyond the bounds of the law.

The year 1980 ushered the LINK-COD group into this dilemma. After two years of organizing we had decided to concentrate our efforts on the most deprived sectors of the community--the farmers and the landless rural poor. Confronted with people whose actual experience of oppression was a daily occurence, and since our activities in the previous two years had already re- solved some of the peripheral althou~h immediately visible issues in the community, the character of organizing shifted to one which emphasized consciousness raising. From small groups and finally to a two-day seminar, we discussed with the people the roots of their problems. Essentially, our role was to evoke their interpretations of existing reality, summarize these, build upon these and provide data for them to more clearly grasp the situation. Three months of concentrated work produced certain results. During the seminar, even we were surprtsed ?.t the depth of the discussions. The people were able to grasp totali- ties, articulate the primary causes of their poverty, related local to national and even international issues and translate this new consciousness, in simulated as well as actual conditions, into action. In the meantime, these very same people, made an effort to share what they knew, not only with other members af their own community but with adjacent communities.

Summary

The frenetic development race in which Third World countries have found themselves has tended to place a tremendous value on governments that have the capability of acting swiftly, decisive- ly and effectively. The first casualty of such a process is authentic mass participation or democratic decision-making. Authoritarianism and centralized decision-making are justified in the name of industrialization and economic growth. A grass- roots movement all over the Third World is however gathering force. Its development has been mainly fostered by the slow but heroic activities of a few voluntary organizations that specialize in organizing communities in the name of people's power. Confronted by populations that have become atomized into individual self-seeking units and accustomed to the predatory and distrustful ways of people who can only survive at the expense of their neiqhbors, community organizers are experiencing in a dramatic way the classic contradictions faced by all political activists. The basic humanism and populism of community organization make these contradictions even more intense' and at times traumatic.

This paper has attempted to discuss the nature of these contradictions or issues, and has argued that the absence of a

s p e c i f i c and c o n c r e t e v i s i o n o f a more d e s i r a b l e f u t u r e i n conmunity o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s s e r v e d t 6 r e t a r d , muddle and c r e a t e ~ r o b l e m s f o r o r g a n i z e r s , Nany o f t h e s e r e c u r r e n t p rob lems i n o r g a n i z i n g work c o u l d be s u c c e s s f u l l y a v o i d e d o r r e s o l v e d i f q r o u p s i n v o l v e d i n t h i s k i n d o f u n d e r t a k i n g c o n s t a n t l y o r i e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o l a r g e r v i s i o n s o f a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l o r d e r s w i t h i n which m i l i t a n t and o r q a n i z e d communi t ies can p l a y a t r u l y mean- i n g f u l r o l e . A v i s i o n o f an a l t e r n a t i v e s t r u c t u r e would s e r v e a s t h e f i n a l a r b i t e r i n r e s o l v i n g t h e s e dilemmas s i n c e what u l t i m a t e l y m a t t e r s i s t h a t communi t ies approach r a t h e r t h a n d e v i a t e from t h i s g o a l . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e c l a r i t y o f p u r p o s e of an o r g a n i z e r a l s o s e r v e s a s t h e b e s t means by which h e c a n cont inuousLy a s s e s s h i s own p e r c e p t i o n s s o a s n o t t o be b l i n d e d by t h e dogmatism of s l o g a n s o r by t h e l i b e r a l i s m o f n e u t r a l i t y .

And y e t a v i s i o n w i l l n e v e r c o m p l e t e l y f r e e an o r g a n i z e r f rom t h e s e di lemmas. A t b e s t i t w i l l min imize t h e f r u s t r a t i o n s of h a v i n g t o d e a l w i t h them. The a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s e dilemmas a s w e l l a s t h e c o n s t a n t a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e i r meaning w i l l e n a b l e o r g a n i z e r s t o a n t i c i p a t e r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y r e a c t t o s i t u a t i o n s .

The International hlonetar~. Systenl and the K ~ M International Order

The Arusha Initiative: A Call for a United Nations Conference on International Money and Finance.

The Inadequacy and Loss of Legitimacy of the International hlonetary Fund l . ~ ~ ~ ~ u i / - S ( i h r i Ahd(t / /u SwaIlonsing the IMF Medicine in the 'Seventies I V O ~ I ~ U I I Gir\,u11 Rc\tructuring the International Monetary System .11(\1itri(111 F I i ~ t ~ ~ y c ~ f r o t r ~ i t ('omment\ on 'Restructuring the international Monetary Sy\tem'. Liii,qi . \ ~ ( I I . C ~ I I ( I

13;ichground Note< on the International Monetary Fund

A limited number of copies a r e s t i l l avai lable , f r e e , from the Dag tiammarskjold Foundation, 2 Ovre Slottsgatan, S 752 20, Uppsala, Sweden

PROBLEMATIQUE DE L ' E A U EN M I L I E U RURAL I V O I R I E N E T ASPECTS METHODOLOG I Q U E S B E L ' A N I M A T I O N RURALE

p a r Dan ie l Kadja I n s t i t u t d l E t h n o - S o c i o l o g i e U n i v e r s i t 6 N a t i o n a l e de Cote d ' l v o i r e 08 B . P . 865 A b i d j a n 08, Cote d 1 1 v o i r e

O r i g i n a l : Franca is

R@sum6: Cet a r t i c l e examine l rad@uat ion du. programme-eau aux s t ruc tu re s soc ia l e s v i s k e s e t , en par t i cu l i e r , 'La p r i s e de conscience des paysans, lrir . t&- grat ion du propramme 2 Zeur v4cu quot id ien e t La promotion dzi paysan i v o i r i e n . A l a 'Limi2re des i n su f f i sances que reueZp l ' ana l y se , l r a u t e u r propose q u e l q e s axes fondamentaux d ' m e animation Lib4ratriee e t d 'une anti-promotion des paysans 2 p a r t i r des s t ruc tu re s e x i s t a n t e s e t duns une optique a u t o - s e c t o ~ ~ i e l l c . L'autonomie e t I 'amplioration de La q u a l i t & de l a v i e ne peziuenL devenir e f f e c - f i v e s e t e f f i c a c e s que s i Z'on prend en compte t ou t e s l e s dimensions de la v i e des paysans.

THE PROBLEMATIQUE OF WATER IN THE RURAL AREAS OF IVORY C O A S T AND

M E T H O D O L O G I C A L A S P E C T S O F R U R A L M O B I L I S A T I O N

Abstract : Rural ex tens ion uork i n the s ec to r s o f hea l th and uc t e r d e 2 e l o p e n t i s c r i t i c i z e d and a proposal i s made o f a neu k ind o f r e la t i onsh ip bctuecr. a u t h o r i t i e s and peasants. The la t ter> should have more pouer over t h e i r em: a f f a i r s and a word t o say about t h e i r development. A neu systerr o f r ~ ( : l p&- gogy could be b u i l t up from the e x i s t i n g , Living soc ia l s t ruc tu re s ir. t he Afr ican v i l l a g e s . These v i l l a g e s have a great deal o f autonomy i n t h e i r ir.ter- nal management, but uhen i t comes t o "exterr^.l" r e l a t i o x s , they are t c t~ ' i . l u dependent on t he modern uor~ld . The neu pedagoqu should reduce t h a t de-pe'-:dencc.

A S P E C T O S METODOLOGICOS D E L A ANIMACION RURAL

Reswnen: Este art'Cculo examina la adaptacibn d e l programa de l apia a l a s CS-

t ruc tu ras soc ia l e s scnO.ladas, y en especia l , l a torna dc eoncier!cia ;!c Zcs c7,:rr-

pesinos, l a in tegracibn de l progrma en su d i a r i o v i v i r y la promoti& Jc7 campesino de Costa de ,War-fiT,. A l a l u z de l a s i n s u f i c i e n c i a s q ic r emZc c l a n d t i s i s , e l autor propone algunas ideas fundmentales de 3na animaoirn l i bc - radora y de una antipromocion de campesinos a par t i r dc es truc turus r x i s t r? i - t e s y en una optics au tosee tov ia l . La autonom'Ca y eL mejorarr.i.e~to de lL: calidad de l a vida no pueden l legar a s e r e f e c t i v o s y e f i caces si2.c c;i.,n\;r' :-L

toma en cuenta todas l a s dimensiones de La v ida de Los campesir.os.

2(22)

Daniel Mianno Kadja

PROBLEMATIQUE DE L E A U E N M I L I E U R U R A L I V O I R I E N E T A S P E C T S

METHODOLOGIQUES DE LANIMATION RURALE

I LES DONNEES PHYSIQUES DU PROBLEME

La Cote d'lvoire s'inscrit dans la partie meridionale de 1'Afrique Occidentale. Son relief peu mouvement6 facilite les echanges at- mosphgriques. On y rencontre au Sud-Ouest et au Sud-Est des zones recevant plus de 2000 rnrn/an de pluies, entre ces deux zones existe une region formant le climat baoul6en qui connait une pluviornetrie de l'ordre de 1200 5 1600 mm/an, Seule la zone Nord et Nord-Est du Days est plus seche avec un peu moins de 1000 mm/an.

En sa partie Sud, la Cote d'lvoire est recouverte par une foret dense, tandis que le Nord est caracteris5 par une savane tantot arboree, tantot herbeuse. Entre la partie meridionale des lagunes et de la foret dense, et Ie tiers septentrional du pays, s16tend une zone de transition foret savane.

C'est la region des savanes du Nord qui constitue Ie reservoir d'eau de la Cote d'lvoire, d'ou partent trois grands fleuves qui l'arrosent : Sassandra, Bandama, Comoe; il faut completer ce tableau hydrographique en mentionnant d'autres cours non moins importants tels que le Cavally et les courtes rivieres qui coulent vers le Nord et appartiennent au bassin du Niger et de Volta noire.

Ce reseau hydrographique relativement important par rapport 5 1'6tendue du territoire (322.000 km2) n'a pourtant pas permis jusqu'ici aux populations rurales de resoudre de facon adequate, qualitativement et quantitativement, les problemes quotidiens que pose l'approvisionnement en eau potable. Trois faits rendent compte de cette situation:

1. Presque tous les villages et agglom~rations rurales sont situes en retrait des qrands cours d'eau ci-devant identifies.

2. I1 y a une inegale repartition des precipitations qu'accentue depuis environ six ans, une secheresse persistante dans Ie centre et le nord.

3. Enfin, l'inexistence au niveau de chaque communaut6 villaqeoise, d'une structure qui aurait pour but de resoudre col- lectivement le probleme de l'eau potable.

I1 LA PROBLEMATIQUE DU PROGRAMME EAU

La C o t e d ' l v o i r e e s t placGe dans un c o n t e x t e d ' e s s a i de d e v e l o p - pement , oti du p o i n t de vue s o c i o l o g i q u e , l ' a d a p t a t i o n e t l ' i n t e - g r a t i o n d e s d i v e r s e s c a t e g o r i e s d e p o p u l a t i o n s 5 l e u r m i l i e u s o c i a l e t n a t u r e 1 ( c e q u i suppose l a m a i t r i s e d e s f a c t e u r s s o c i o - l o g i q u e s e t G c o l o g i q u e s ) aux n o u v e l l e s s t r u c t u r e s de p r o d u c t i o n , s ' i m p o s e n t c o m e une g x i g e n c e v i t a l e 5 l a f o i s p o u r l ' e q u i l i b r e s o c i a l i n t e r n e de l a s o c i e t e i v o i r i e n n e dans son ensemble e t p o u r l ' e c o n o m i e q u i l a s u p p o r t e . L ' a l i m e n t a t i o n e n e a u p o t a b l e d o n t I e ~ r o j e t a e t 6 a r r E t 6 p a r l e s p o u v o i r s p u b l i c s , v e u t r e s o u d r e deux p r o b l s m e s a f i n de f a c i l i t e r c e t t e i n t e g r a t i o n e t c e t t e a d a p t a t i o n d e s p a y s a n s d o n t il est q u e s t i o n :

1. Le manque d ' e a u a p r o x i m i t e d e s v i l l a g e s .

2 . La c o n t a m i n a t i o n d e s p o i n t s d ' e a u non amenages s o u r c e de nombreuses m a l a d i e s h y d r i q u e s q u i i m m o b i l i s e n t une i m p o r t a n t e p a r t i e d e s p o p u l a t i o n s r u r a l e s . Sous s o n p r e m i e r r a p p o r t ( a s p e c t q u a n t i t a t i f ) l e programme v i s e l a c r e a t i o n e n un p r e - m i e r temps de 7 0 0 0 p o i n t s d ' e a u e n t r e 1974 e t 1980.

Sous s o n second r a p p o r t ( a s p e c t q u a l i t a t i f ) :

11 s ' a g i t de r e n t a b i l i s e r au maximum d e s i n v e s t i s s e m e n t s e n ame- n a n t l e s p a y s a n s 5 u t i l i s e r e f f e c t i v e m e n t c e s p o i n t s d ' e a u 6 q u i p e s . Pour y p a r v e n i r , 1'ONPR I/ p r e n d e n c h a r g e 1 ' 6 d u c a t i o n d e l a popu- l a t i o n r u r a l e a f i n que c e l l e - c i change l e s h a b i t u d e s q u i l ' em- p g c h e n t de "wrof i t e r p l e i n e m e n t d e s a v a n t a g e s de c e s 6quipements" .

A c e n i v e a u de l a p r o b l e m a t i q u e , l e Programme-Eau c o m e t o u s l e s p r o j e t s de deve loppement , e s t une a c t i o n q u i p r e n d pour c i b l e l e m i l i e u r u r a l a v e c un o b j e c t i f p r e c i s : l a r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n e t l a m o d i f i c a t i o n de c e m i l i e u , d a n s Ie s e n s v i s 6 p a r l e s l e a d e r s p o l i t i c o - a d m i n i s t r a t i f s e t l e s t e c h n o c r a t e s .

En e f f e t , q u ' i l s ' a g i s s e de l a c r e a t i o n de n o u v e l l e s a c t i v i t e s de p r o d u c t i o n ou de m a n i s r e p l u s complexe, d ' o p e r e r une m u t a t i o n dans I e comportement d e s p a y s a n s , l e s p r o j e t s de developpement i n t e r - v i e n n e n t s u r un m i l i e u d6 jZ s t r u c t u r e , a y a n t s a c o h e r e n c e e t s a dynamique p r o p r e s . Tout I e p rob lsme e s t d e s a v o i r d a n s q u e l l e mesure l a c o h e r e n c e s t r u c t u r e l l e d ' u n p r o j e t de developpement p e u t s e s u b s t i t u e r ou r e c o u v r i r c e l l e d u m i l i e u r u r a l c h o i s i , e t re- pondre a i n s i aux o b j e c t i f s d e f i n i s p a r l e s p l a n i f i c a t e u r s .

S ' a g i s s a n t du Programme-Eau, c e t t e q u e s t i o n de 1 ' a d G q u a t i o n du p r o j e t d u x s t r u c t u r e s s o c i a l e s v i s 6 e s p e u t 6 t r e expr ime 2 t r o i s n i v e a u x .

I/ ONPR : Office National de Promotion Rurale. -

1. En quoi ce programme-eau, au niveau pedagogique a-t-il debou- ch6 chez les paysans sur une prise de conscience du danger de l'eau polluee?

2. Dans quelle mesure le programme-eau a-t-il et6 inteqre par les paysans 2 la dynamique de leurs structures sociales, et 2 leur vecu quotidien?

3. TroisiSme question solidaire des deux precedentes, en quoi Ie programme eau, au plan global, a-t-il contribue 2 la promotion du paysan ivoirien?

On peut examiner 2 ces trois niveaux, au vue des resultats acquis, les implications sociologiques d'une telle operation en milieu rural.

I11 LA DEMARCHE METHODOLOGIQUE DU PROGRAMME-EAU ET SES IMPLICATIONS

3.1 Une pedagogic sectorielle

Dans ses objectifs, Ie Programme-Eau se saisit essentiellernent c o m e une action sectorielle visant 2 procurer de l'eau potable aux villageois et 2 sensibiliser ceux-ci aux dangers de l'eau polluee. Pour y parvenir, parallelement aux forages des puits, des equipes d'animateurs avaient et6 constituees pour effectuer un travail de sensibilisation auprss des paysans par deux types d'actions:

1. Les seances d'education en matigre d'hygiene;

2. La formation de comites de sante charges de veiller 2 la pro- pret6 des puits.

Sur le terrain le caractere sectoriel de l'operation va rencon- trer deux contradictions majeures: l'attitude de depassement des paysans, et Ie formalisme ou l'inertie des comites de sante.

3.2 L'attitude de depassement

Face aux animateurs du Programme-Eau, les questions et les besoins qu'expriment les paysans depassent largement l'action entreprise. En effet, les paysans posent des questions sur l'alphabetisation, Ie qroupement cooperatif, les rapports avec l'administration (carte d'identite, acte de naissance etc... modalites d'obtention des puits selon les besoins du village etc...) maltrise des techniques importees (comment reparer les pompes des puits). Face 2 cos demandes multiples la reponse ne peut et ne doit etre que multiple. C'est que pour les paysans 2 travers ce programme-eau, se pose une exigence de promotion rurale globale. Mieux: pour eux, rien ne se coupe en "domaines", sous ce rapport, la promotion

rurale est la maitrise, continuellement 2 reinventer par les qroupes, des liens entre les differents aspects des divers chanqe- ments.

3.3 Formalisme et inertie des comites de sante

Du point de vue pratique, la presence d'un comite de sante au sein du village, traduit pourllAnimateur et 1'ONPR la concretisationde la sensibilisation.

Dans les faits, le phenomene de l'eau et la sensibilisation entreprise par l'animation, n'ont pas entrain6 un processus de dynamique sociale au sein des villages par l'auto-generation de comites d'organisation. En effet, les comites de sant6 ne sont pas des creations dont l'initiative revient aux villaqeois. 11s survien- nent 2 la suite des propositions et des insistances des Animateurs. De l2 proviennent leur formalisme traduit en termes de President, de Secretaire etc... et leur inertie liee 2 leur caractere exoqfine par rapport aux structures sociales villaqeoises. Ce formalisme et cette incapacite .3 susciter un processus de chanqernent indiquent Ie plus souvent, que les membres des comites de sante charges de veiller 2 la propretS des points d'eau amenaqes, n'ont en general aucun pouvoir dans les villages, et apparaissent plut6t souvent c o m e des elements manipulables que la communaut6 villaqeoise pousse au devant des Animateurs.

Ce sont 12 des situations qui peuvent constituer des obstacles psycho-socioloqiques majeurs au niveau d'une animation qui doit avoir pour objectif d'eveiller la conscience des villageois. Pour l'essentiel, cela siqnifie que l'hyqisne en general et celle de l'eau en particulier ne sont pas percues pour l'instant c o m e un etat quotidian, permanent. Sous ce rapport, la reference 2 Dieu pour justifier toutes les pathologies, atteste d'une part que la liaison eau-maladie n'est pas encore faite, et d'autre part que les comites de sante n'ont pu debaucher sur une mutation mentale et qestuelle.

3.4 La maitrise technoloqique "conf isquee"

La pedagogic sectorielle du programme-eau n'a pas defini la maltrise par les villaqeois des problemes technoloqiques lies aux puits et aux pompes, comme un des axes fondamentaux d'une animation liberatrice, Ainsi par exemple, la premiere panne de la pompe du puits aurait pu constituer un bon pretexte pour former les paysans 2 demonter, diaqnostiquer et reparer la pompe; pour cotiser afin d'acheter les pifices de rechanqe necessaires.

En fait, la logique d'une animation de promotion ne peut co'incider avec celles des entreprises charqees de la realisation technique du projet. La logique dominante de celle-ci est la productivig; accomplir leur contrat au coat de revient le moins eleve.

Les villageois eux sont d'une part m6dus6s par les machines et leur efficacite et d'autre part etonnes des pannes successives, et totalement impuissants, car ils ne connaissent rien 2 la pompe. Au demeurant, les paysans se voient contraints de vivre avec une technologie que sont seuls 2 posseder des personnages etrangers et inconnus.

L'operation prograirme-eau met done en lumigre les contradictions ali6nantes de la lcgique productiviste appliquee 2 des villageois "ben6ficiaires1' et sans capacit6 propre de controle, par des entreprises capitalistes.

3.5 "Les puits du gouvernement"

Le mode d'intervention des organismes officiels et prives impli- ques dans l'operation n'a pas fait des villageois les acteurs du Programme. Dans les faits, les puits et les forages sont exe- cutes sans consulter les villageois, ni sur le choix de l'emplace- ment, ni sur Ie jour d1arriv6e des techniciens au village.

Enfin et surtout, la participation des villaqeois est ni6e par la gratuit6 des points d'eau amenaggs. Cette deresponsabilisation des cornrnunaut6s rurales fait d'elles des assistgs. Le puits, le forage, c'est l'affaire du Gouvernement. Si celui-ci a don& un ou deux puits il peut encore en donner trois ou quatre. Dans certains villages on va jusqu'z attendre que le Sous-Prgfet donne l'ordre de puiser l'eau du puits qui vient d'etre amenage.

Cette breve evaluation des actions du Programme-Eau, de 1'ONPR permet de reexaminer, 2 la lumigre de ses insuffisances, les axes fondamentaux ou les implications qui doivent guider un projet de ce type.

IV DES AXES FONDAMENTAUX D'UNE ANIMATION LIBERATRICE ET D'UNE AUTO-PROMOTION

Le Programme-Eau de 1'ONPR tel qu'il vient d'etre present6 se devait de mettre en oeuvre une animation rurale dont les direc- tions sont multiples. I1 s'en faut que celles qui vont Etre examinees incessamment soient les seules; mais elles nous semblent Stre les plus fondamentales et determinantes en raison de leur caractere global et dialectique.

4.1 La qualite de la vie rurale: une problematique anti- sectorielle p-p---

Le point d'eau amenage ne saurait Etre la cible unique de l'animation. Si l'animation en matiere de sant6 doit produire des resultats, c'est 2 coup sfir autour du puits pris comme point d'ancrage pour d'autres actions integrees dans une p6dagogie qlobale. Ainsi par exemple, la cl6ture du puits peut debaucher sur le parcage des animaux, qui 2 son tour doit conduire 2 une

alimentation rationnelle du betail faisant appel 2 l'utilisation des produits et dechets aqricoles, pour aboutir 2 la rentabili- sation du betail par une definition de sa place et de son role dans la production 6conomique des paysans.

En tout etat de cause, il nous semble evident que l'arnelioration de la qualit6 de la vie des paysans (ax6e ici autour du problsme sanitaire pose par l'eau), passe par la resolution d'autres contradictions socio-economiques et socio-culturelles g6nerees par 1'6tat de sous-d6veloppement.

Ainsi, dans l'objectif d'amener les paysans 2 resoudre leurs problemes de sante, il convient d'inclure les questions d'orqani- sation du travail, d'apprentissage du contact avec les autorites politico-administratives, d'organisation de la commercialisation de leurs produits (l'acquisition et l'usaqe du filtre 2 eau ne peuvent Gtre possible et effectif que si les paysans ont resolu certaines de leurs difficultes economiques). Sous tous ces rapports, et en raison des contraintes aigues du sous-d6veloppernent que vivent les paysans, nous pouvons dire que l'education sanitaire doit etre integree 2 une animation globale.

4.2 Partir des structures d'animation villageoise

I1 existe au sein des communaut6s villageoises de la C6te d11voire, des structures collectives autour desquelles les populations organisent leur vie sociale de manisre coherente et autonome. Parmi ces structures auto-animees on peut citer:

- les communaut6s d'age (classes d'zge, qroupes d'zqe);

- les communaut6s g6n6aloqiques (lignages aux segments de lignaqe 2 dominance matrilingaire ou patrilineaire;

- les communaut6s residentielles (quartiers, cours, concessions).

Au niveau de toutes ces structures, il existe une animation primaire dans l'action. C'est par cette animation primaire que les detenteurs du savoir et de l'autorite (querisseurs, herbo- ristes devins etc...), les maitres d'initiation, les conteurs, les qriots, les musiciens, mobilisent la comrnunaut6 pour des actions culturelles, Gconomiques, et politiques d6termin6es.

Aujourd'hui, 2 travers des structures modernes qui dans la majo- rite des cas sont soit exterieures soit parallgles aux premieres, des animateurs veulent mobiliser les m h e s populations 2 des fins politiques culturelles et economiques. Mais cette animation reste sectorielle et ponctuelle, et par consequent incapable de mobiliser l'ensemble des populations de faqon permanente pour plusieurs raisons:

Les structures 3 travers lesquelles s'expriment cette animation sont excentrees ou parallsles par rapport 3 l'orqani- sation villaqeoise.

Ces structures sent concues et proposees par des orqanismes officiels ou priv6s exoqSnes (par rapport aux structures villageoises) . De manisre q6nerale le mode d'intervention de ces orqanismes relSve de l'assistanat plut5t que de la responsabilisation.

Les agents animateurs sont dans leur majorit6 des etrangers au village qu'ils animent.

Qu'elles se nomment GVC I/, Comite de Sante, SLD 2/ etc... la maitrise des nouvelles structures n'est pas encore assuree par les communaut6s villaqeoises qui ne les intsqrent pas dans leur systSme de reproduction socio-economique.

Toutes ces raisons qui enqagent et maintiennent les communautes villaqeoises dans un processus d'exclusion et de marginalisation au niveau d'un d6veloppement auto-gere expliquent largement l'echec, les resistances et les lenteurs que rencontrent les actions educatives et animatrices auprSs des populations. Cette situation, en rapport avec les raisons presentees ci-dessus, invitent Z faire les propositions suivantes dans Ie cadre des actions de 1'ONPR:

1. I1 faut partir des structures villaqeoises existantes; le principe qui anime cette proposition est que les structures villageoises, modernes ou traditionnelles, Z partir desquelles l'action peut Gtre engagee, doivent Gtre des structures auto-entretenues ayant leur dynamique propre.

2. Pour ce faire, il convient de recenser dans chaque cas, les structures internes existant dans chaque village, d'identifier et de comprendre les modes de mobilisation de ces structures.

3. Associer les communaut6s villageoises aux prise de decision, 3 travers des structures de concertation 3 mettre en place aprSs consultation des populations.

En some la methodoloqie d'un projet tel que le Programme-Eau, du point de vue de sa coherence (interne et externe) suppose la prise en compte des structures des communaut6s rurales sans

l/ G.V.C. Groupement 2 Vocation Cooperative.

21 S.L.D. Socigte Locale de Dgveloppement. -

lesquelles un developpement rural integre en tant que tel ne peut se concevoir.

4.3 Auto-promotion et participation des paysans

Les paysans sont l'epicentre de 1'Afrique; ils sont au coeur de ltAfrique, dont ils gouvernent, scandent et rythment les batte- ments; mais paradoxalement, ils sont les grands oublies, les exploites et domines de cette Afrique de fin de sigcle entrainee dans un vaste mouvement d'echanges economiques internationaux inegaux et appauvrissants pour elle. Comment faire pour que les paysans ne soient plus ces damnes de la terre dont parlait Frantz Fanon? I1 faut leur donner la parole et mEme Ie pouvoir par Ie biais de l'animation. Certes le paysan 2 son insu, est dej2 programme dans des plans quinquennaux de production que doivent soutenir des aides exterieures non moins programm6es. Mais parler de l'auto-promotion autour d'un projet tel que celui du Programme- Eau en Cote d'lvoire, c'est d'abord permettre aux paysans de parler: pour exprimer leur besoin.

En effet c'est un acte educatif que d'apprendre 2 exprimer des besoins dans la mesure 05 tous les besoins ne sont ni ressentis, ni exprimes , ni explicites.

C'est ensuite donner aux paysans la capacite d'identifier le @ ou les personnes 2 partir desquels s'elabore Ie discours sur les conditions et les orientations du developpement.

Donner Ie pouvoir aux paysans? C'est avant tout leur permettre de decider des actions qui sont liees 3 leur vie, et d1acc6der 2 l'information. En effet, si la communaute villageoise doit prendre en charge son developpernent, il lui est necessaire de connaitre les multiples voies conduisant aux decisions administratives.

Dans l'ensemble, l'autonomie de la communaut6 villageoise reste encore grande lorsqu'il s'agit pour elle de se referer aux structures autochtones pour decider de certaines actions; par centre cette autonomie reste quasi inexistante quand il faut entrer en relation avec l'exterieur. C'est cette situation que resume le schema ci-dessous.

Schema du degre d'autonomie

Informations; contacts avec

pouvoir politiqu Autonomie et administratif villageoise

Rouages financiers

Reqroupement des villages

Organisation des reunions inter- cantonales et tribales

Rapports internes Rapports A A

externes \ opposition/ 2 la comunaut6 2 la com-

La problematique du discours et du pouvoir paysan, et la prise en compte des structures internes de la communaute villaqeoise pour une reelle auto-promotion des paysans, necessitent la pratique d'une animation "creatrice" dont l'axe principal doit Etre constitue par l'objectif suivant : 1'6veil des consciences celui-ci suppose d'abord la connaissance des homes qui composent Ie milieu; cette connaissance ne saurait se situer dans Ie seul champ m6thodoloqique sujet-objet mais dans celui plus dynamique de la concertation, de la reflexion collective et de la decou- verte mutuelle. Ici l'animateur, dans Ie cadre par exemple du Programme-Eau, doit jouer essentiellement un role de decslement et de mediation dans le processus qui amenera la communaut6 villageoise 2 saisir toutes les implications des solutions que necessitent les contradictions rencontrees. Deux schemas resument les situations que peuvent vivrent les paysans.

Schema 1 : Logique de l'animation "creatrice"

Concertation Actions non- p r o q r a m r n 6 e s du

inter et intra- 4-k- dehors communautaire t l

Eveil, Cons- Animation 2 Actions villageoises cientisation . pedagogic 4__^reorientSes aprss et creativite activante l l discussion avec les

paysans

Schema 2 : Logique de l'animation bureaucratique

Absence de concertation prealable intra- ou inter- communautaire

L Realisation de projets techniques. Rapports hi6rar- chiques

Execution d'actions programm6es du dehors

Definition "techno- administra- cratique" des objective, centra tifs de l'animation lisatrice

Si dans Ie schema 1 les flsches sont 5 double sens, indiquant par l5 le caractere dialectique du processus d'animation mis en place, dans Ie schema 2, il n'en est pas de mSme 013, 5 toutes les instances l'animation est 2 sens unique. Si un organisme d'etat de promotion rurale (tel que 1'ONPR) veut se valoriser aux yeux des paysans, c'est vers la coherence du schema 1 qu'il devra tendre.

Le pouvoir paysan entre souvent en contradiction avec le pouvoir de ltEtat. En effet le pouvoir paysan dont on parle tant star- rSte l2 06 commence celui de 1'Etat et de ses superstructures.

La self-reliance et l'amelioration de la qualite de la vie du monde rural (2 travers un programme mSme aussi sectoriel que celui expose ici), ne peuvent devenir effectives et efficaces, que si on prend en compte toutes les dimensions de la vie des paysans. Mais c'est surtout permettre aux paysans de se constituer structuellement en force economique et politique.

Conjurer la faim, la maladie, l'exode rural, la desint6gration des structures sociales rurales, c'est redonner dignit6 et con- fiance aux communaut6s rurales, par la reconnaissance de leur force de developpement , dladaptation au changement; car c'est dans les structures de chaque societe que resident les forces qui , doivent assurer son dgveloppement.

women and disability

We live in a disabling world. At least one out of ten persons is physically, mentally or sensorially disabled. That means more than 450 million people, or 10% of the world's population. More than half of them are female.

Everyone of us is at risk. The risk however is not of the same degree for everyone. If one is born poor and female, the risks are especially high. Of the 100 million people presently disabled due to malnutrition caused by poverty, it is pregnant women and female children who face the greatest risk.

There are other causes of disability, for example lack of safe drink- ing water or proper sanitation, accidents on the road, at work and at home, old age, abuse of alcohol, drugs and of course wars.

Disabled women need special attention because the impact of their disabilities is magnified by unequal opportunities. They suffer double or multiple discrimination. They are also among the poorest of the poor: in many countries, although it is women who grow, pre- pare and preserve the food, they are the last to profit from it.

A kit on the special situation of disabled women in relation to development has been produced by the Joint UN Information Committee/ NGO Sub-Group on Women and Development of the ad hoc Working Group -- on Development Education. It has been prepared by Eva Zabolai- Csekme and coordinated by Ed Sackstein of the International Labour Organisation, in collaboration with UNICEF, WHO, UNDP, FAO, and a number of non-governmental organisations. It is the first of a series of kits on Women and Development, intended for use by non- governmental and special interest groups, and is expected to be available mid-1981.

LADR I LLOS

L A S MUJERES TOMAN L A PALABRA: UNA COMUNI CAC I O N A L T E R N A T I V A FEMEN I NA por Adriana San ta Cruz ILET Apartado 85-025 Mexico 20, DF, Mexico

Idioma o r i g i n a l : Esparto1

Resumen: La imagen de la mujer y de Los atr ibutos materiales, f zs ieos y sico- 'L'Sgicos que l e confiere la outtura transnacional es un eomponente fundamental del contenido de 20s medios de comunicac-idn predominantes. Estos atr ibutos constituyen la que e s t e art'Ccuto llama e l Modelo femenina t r a n s n a c i o d que a i s l a a la mujer de su medio ambiente, de 20s problemas sociales, de las di ferencias , en una palabra, de la realidad. Este modelo e s difundido s i n la menor modificac'LSn en m& de veinte pacses de Am6rica L a t k , s i n tener en cuenta 20s rasgos f-isicos o cul turales espec'ificos de las nwnerosas eulturas del continente. No e s sino 'La 'imagen de m a m j e r eseneiahente conswni- dora euyo nivel socio-economico es e l n i ve l de un de%imo apenas de las mujeres de America Latina. Se necesi ta otros medios de comunicacioh para desrrristi f ica~ e l modelo transnaeional y reemplazar e s ta abstracci6n pop una imagen de mujeres verdaderas. E l art'Cculo examina alqunos de 20s problemas y propone al ternat ivas capaces de r e f l e j a r la participacio'n de las mujeres en e t proeeso de otro desarrolto mediante e t e m 2 e l l a s podrmn inie'iav la tarea de romper las barreras que las oprimen.

f lbstract: A basic component of the dominant media i s the image of women presented u i t h the material, physical, and psychological character is t ics a t t r i - buted to them by the transnational cul ture . These character is t ics cons t i tu t e what i n t h i s paper i s catted the Transnational Feminine Model. I n t h i s woman and her surroundings, social problems, d i f ferences , and the basic aspects o f r e a l i t y disappear. Without the s l i g h t e s t modification, t h i s model c irculates throughout more than SO Latin American countries, and it contains not one physical or cultural feature originated i n any of the cont inent ' s many cul- tures . I t i s the image o f an es sen t ia l l y consumption-oriented woman whose socio-economic level i s that o f no more than 10% o f the women from that con- t inen t . Alternative media should attempt t o de-mystify i t and replace that abstract model wi th one re f l ec t ing an image o f real women. The paper looks a t some of the problems and suggests a l ternat ives , wi th an aim t o r e f l e c t on women's participation i n endogenous and se l f - re l ian t development processes through which they may begin t o break the many barriers oppressing them.

IFS FEMMES PRENNENT LA PAROLE: POUR UNE AUTRE COMMUNICATION

JALONS POUR UN AUTRE DEVELOPPEMENT

l e 1 e s t l e t i t r e d 'une s e c t i o n r e g u l i s r e , p reparee p a r Char les A. Jeannere t - Gros jean, de 1a n o u v e l l e Revue canadienne d 'e tudes du developpement ( U n i v e r s i t e d lOt tawa, 65 Avenue Hastey, Ottawa, O n t a r i o , Canada). Au sommaire du No. 1, une p r e s e n t a t i o n p a r Char les Jeannere t -Gros jean ( q u i a ac t i vement p a r t i c i p e au p r o j e t t i e r s systgme de 1a FIPAD), un a r t i c l e d11gnacy Sachs (en a n g l a i s ) e t l e r a p p o r t de Scheveningue, en f r a n c a i s . Au sommaire du No. 2, ' S t y l e s de v i e e t p l a n i f i c a t i o n ' p a r Ignacy Sachs e t l a r e p r o d u c t i o n ( e n a n g l a i s ) de Mate r iaux pour d ' a u t r e s s t r a t e g i e s de d@veloppement, Doss ie r FIPAD 17.

MARK1 NGS FOR ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT

T h i s i s t h e t i t l e o f a s e c t i o n , e d i t e d by Char les A. Jeanneret -Gros jean, o f t h e new Canadian Journa l o f Development S t u d i e s ( 6 5 Avenue Hastey, Ottawa, O n t a r i o , Canada). I n Vol . 1, No. 1, a p r e s e n t a t i o n by Char les A. Jeanneret -Gros jean, who a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e IFDA t h i r d system p r o j e c t ; 'Deve lop ing i n harmony w i t h n a t u r e : consumpt ion p a t t e r n s , t i m e and space uses, resources p ro - f i l e s and t e c h n o l o g i c a l cho ices l ,by Ignacy Sachs, and t h e French t e x t o f t h e Scheveningen Repor t . I n Vol. 1, No. 2, 'The conserve r s o c i e t y d i s c u s s i o n : i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r r e s e a r c h ' by Ray W . Jackson and t h e f u l l t e x t o f ' B u i l d i n g b l o c k s f o r a l t e r n a t i v e development s t r a t e g i e s ' , IFDA Doss ie r 17,

Adr iana S a n t a Cruz

L A S MUJERES TOMAN L A PALABRA: UNA COMUNICACI~N ALTERNATIVA

FEMEN I N A

Los medios d e comunicacifin no r e f l e j a n l a s i t u a c i 6 n r e a l d e l a s m u j e r e s l a t i n o a m e r i c a n a s . Sus e x p e r i e n c i a s no son n o t i c i a . Menos a 6 n 10 son 10s e s f u e r z o s q u e , a 10 l a r g o d e l c o n t i n e n t e , e s t S n r e a l i z a n d o por s u p e r a r s u prob lemas d e m i s e r i a , enfe rmedad , igno- r a n c i a , d e p e n d e n c i a y d i s c r i m i n a c i 6 n .

Las g r a n d e s masas c o n s t i t u i d a s por l a s m u j e r e s d e l a s a r e a s r u - r a l e s , l a s p o b l a d o r a s , l a s que c o n e s c a s o s medios l u c h a n por s a c a r a d e l a n t e a s u s h i j o s , l a s o b r e r a s ; t o d a s e s a s m u j e r e s que e n g r o s a n l a s c i f r a s d e l a pobreza y l a e x t r e m a pobreza d e e s t e c o n t i n e n t e I/ simplemente no e x i s t e n e n 10s medios i n f o r m a t i v o s . E s a s m u j e r e s no e s t a n e n e l t e m a r i o d e q u i e n e s d e c i d e n qufi imagen d e l a mujer merece p r o y e c t a r s e a t r a v g s d e l a s a g e n d a s d e n o t i c i a s , l a t e l e - v i s i 6 n , l a r a d i o y l a p r e n s a . No hay e s p a c i o p a r a e l l a s e n l a concepcif in m e r c a n t i l d e l a n o t i c i a que promueve e i m p l a n t a e l s i s - tema t r a n s n a c i o n a l d e comunicac iones .

E l r e s u l t a d o e s que , d e n t r o d e America L a t i n a y e n o t r a s p a r t e s d e l mundo, imperan l a d e s i n f o r m a c i o n , l a d i s t o r s i 6 n d e l a imagen d e l a m u j e r e s l a t i n o a m e r i c a n a s y l a incomunicac i6n e n t r e e l l a s .

Es un hecho que 10s medios no d e f i n e n s u s p o l i t i c a s con c r i t e r i o s que a p u n t e n a l a s a t i s f a c c i f i n d e l a s n e c e s i d a d e s que a g o b i a n a l a s g r a n d e s m a y o r l a s d e m u j e r e s , n i s e p l a n t e a n como o b j e t i v o e l que e s t a s p a r t i c i p e n e n p r o c e s o s d e d e s a r r o l l o endfigenos y a u t o - s o s t e n i d o s a t r a v e s d e 10s c u a l e s vayan rompiendo 10s m u l t i p l e s c e r c o s q u e l a s opr imen .

La comunicac i6n dominante r e s p o n d e a un modelo t r a n s n a c i o n a l d e comunicac iones t e n d i e n t e s a a b r i r l e paso y c o n s o l i d a r un modelo d e d e s a r r o l l o e l i t i s t a , c o n s u m i s t a y t r a n s n a c i o n a l , a l a vez que a r t i c u l a e l f u n c i o n a m i e n t o d e l mercado. La l 6 g i c a que l a r i g e e s c o n s e c u e n t e con e s e hecho , y s u s r e c e p t o r e s son c o n c e b i d o s , fundamenta lmente , como p o t e n c i a l e s compradores ; s e r e s a 10s c u a l e s v e n d e r l e s l a in formaci f in , 10s p r o d u c t o s y 10s e s t i l o s d e v i d a que s e promueven a t r a v S s d e l a p u b l i c i d a d q u e l o s f i n a n c i a .

E s t e fen6meno no a t a i i e e x c l u s i v a m e n t e a l a s m u j e r e s . Forma p a r t e d e una e s t r u c t u r a d e comunicac i6n que a f e c t a a l a s o c i e d a d e n s u c o n j u n t o . F o r o t r a p a r t e , e l fen6meno d e l a comunicac i6n tampoco

l/ En America Latina 110 milliones de habitantes tienen un ingreso per capita anual inferior a 75 dolares. 200 millones viven con un ingreso per capita anual inferior a 10s 200 dolares (Banco Mundial). Vale decir, casi el 60% de la poblacioh latinoamericana vive en condiciones de miseria.

es un hecho aislado, pero es neurzlqico por el luqar estrat6gico que ocupa en la sociedad. Es tan vital para la mantencion de sis- temas opresivos, reflejo de intereses minoritarios, como 10 es para quienes creemos en la necesidad y en la posibilidad de un cambio.

La mujer, sin embargo, es particularmente impcrtante para el sistema social y productivo dominante por sus multiples roles especificos y 10s medios tienen para ella politicas particulares. La funcionalidad de la mujer a1 sistema se manifiesta en diversos pianos.

- Como consumidora,es la responable del 75% a 85% de las deci- sicnes privadas de consumo.

- Como eje y sostenedora del nucleo familiar donde se realiza el consumo.

- Como una receptora especialmente vulnerable de la ideologia transmitida a trav6s de 10s medios de comunicacion y la publicidad y, a la vez, como agente transmisor de la misma (educa- ci6n de 10s hijos) .

- Como contingente productive de reserva y como mano de obra barata, lleva a cabo 10s trabajos m5s indeseables y mal pagados.

- Convertida en objeto, es un poderoso seiiuelo capaz de acrecen- tar el consumo de otros objetos.

- Como ccntinqente politico de reserva, es activable en 10s momen- tos en que peliqra el orden establecido.

En este marco, 10s medios de informacion dominantes han despleqado qrandes esfuerzos y desarrollado politicas en permanente evolu- ci6n para qarantizar la adhesion de 10s sectores femeninos a1 sistema . Es imperiosa, pues, la necesidad de hacer esfuerzos especiales por generar una respuesta tendiente a neutralizar el impacto no- civo del sistema de comunicaciones imperante y crear una comuni- caci6n alternativa, que se conciba a si misma como un arma educa- tiva y liberadora. Ninquna sociedad puede plantearse siquiera la posibilidad de "otro desarrollo" si no es capaz de visualizar y encarar 10s problemas especificos de sus mujeres con realism0 y voluntad de superarlos, y ningiin Nuevo Orden Mundial de la Infor- macion y la Comunicaci6n seria tal, si no es capaz de responder con responsabilidad a esa tarea.

Teniendo en cuenta que la puesta en prsctica y la capacidad de impacto de una comunicaci6n alternativa dependen de muchos factores Sespacio politico, cuota de poder, capacidad de organiza- ci6n, medios eccn6micos, tecnologia adecuada, y otros=, creemos posible intentar alqunas aproximaciones que son factibles de poncrse en przctica, hoy, en la mayorfa de 10s ~aises de America Latina en el campo de las comunicaciones femeninas.

El Modelo Transnacional Femenino y la~mujeres latinoamericanas --

Un element~ esencial de las comunicaciones dominantes es la imagen femenina presentada con las caracterfsticas materiales, ffsi- cas y psicol6qicas que la cultura transnacional Ie asiqna.

Estas caracteristicas se articulan en 10 que hemos denominado el Modelo Transnacional Femenino, y son la suma de politicas y propo- siciones de las comunicaciones dominantes hacia la mujer.

A partir de un conjunto de canones esteticos referidos a la apa- riencia fisica, 10s medios lanzan la carta de ~resentaci6n del modelo. Este disefio, facilmente distinquible, que define las caracterfsticas visibles del tip0 ideal de mujer, y promovido ?or imagenes que son estgticas, decorativas y llamativas, es el foco utilizado por el sistema para irradiar 10s aspectos m5s psicol6- qicos y ocultos de la identidad del ser femenino requerido, asi como muchas de las determinantes de su vida afectiva, cultural, social y polltica.

El modelo es una de las manifestaciones del proyecto homogeni- zador dela cultura transnacional. Responde a la necesidad de que todas, a travgs del mundo, lleguemos a ser 10 m5s parecidas posi- bles como lectoras y consumidoras. Circula, sin ninqiin matiz de diferencia, por mas de veinte paises de America Latina y no tiene un solo rasgo fisico o cultural que se origine en una de las tan- tas culturas del continente. Es la imaaen de una mujer esencial- mente consumista que pertenece a un nivel socio-econ6mico que, en este continente, alcanzan menos del 10% de las mujeres. Sus heroes y heroinas se encuentran entre las estrellas del cine, la televisi6n y el jet-set, a 10s cuales circunscribe su mundo cultural. La imagen joven, esbelta, occidental y sexualmente "irresistible", se plantea como el suefio posible de toda mujer y una meta por la cual luchar. Pretende ser la esencia de &a Mujer, con mayCiscula, Algo capaz de hermanar a todas las mujeres, sin distinci6n de raza, clase, ideoloqia o credo. En esa mujer y en su contorno, 10s problemas sociales, las diferencias y 10 fundamental de la realidad, se desdibujan. Se desenvuelve en un mundo armonioso, sin contradicciones, que es precis0 preservar para que nada cambie; para que todo siga igual.

La consecuencia es que la imaqen promovida es la de una mujer acrltica, que acepta canones impuestos, avala la sociedad y su situaci6n en todos 10s aspectos que son vitales a la mantencion del sistema. Su capacidad de reacci6n se limita a 10s mementos en que Gste se ve amenazado por fuerzas de carnbio.

Un contrapunto necesario -

Porque el Modelo Transnacional Femenino es un conjunto de polf- ticas de promoci6n y uso de una imaqen mitica de la mujer, una comunicaci6n alternativa deberia apuntar a demistificar esa imagen y substituir ese diseiio abstract0 reflejando imagenes de mujeres reales. La indiqena, la obrera, la mujer de clase media, e incluso aquella que a veces sufre contradicciones de clase a1

i n t e r i o r de l a o l i q a r q u i a , d e b e r i a s e r l a c o n t r a u a r t e d e l Mode10 T r a n s n a c i o n a l Femenino; as: como l a l u c h a d o r a p o l i t i c a y l a mujer que p r e s i e n t e l a n e c e s i d a d de cambio y t i e n e miedo; l a mujer que pudo p l a n i f i c a r s u f a m i l i a y l a que s e l l e n 6 de h i j o s ; l a madre s o l t e r a y l a que t r a u m z t i c a m e n t e s u f r i o ' l a s p o l i t i c a s h a c i a e l a b o r t o . . . La nueva imagen de l a mujer son t o d a s l a s m u j e r e s r e a l e s , i n s e r - t a s e n c o n t e x t o s r e a l e s , con n e c e s i d a d e s r e a l e s , y no un " c l i c h e " p r o d u c t o de l a s n e c e s i d a d e s de e x p a n s i 6 n d e l s i s t e m a c a p i t a l i s t a t r a n s n a c i o n a l . En e s a s imagenes veremos a p a r e c e r v i d a s a f e c t i v a s , problemas l a b o r a l e s , biisquedas y s o l u c i o n e s que nada t i e n e n que v e r con l a c r e a c i 6 n maniquea de l a s comunicac iones dominantes .

Una imagen p l u r a l i s 9 --

S i n embarqo, no hay tampoco E imaqen d e l a mujer a l t e r n a t i v a . Las d i f e r e n c i a s y c o n t r a d i c c i o n e s e n t r e e s a s m u j e r e s no deben e n c u b r i r s e s i n o s e f i a l a r s e e i n v e s t i q a r s e a fondo . R e f l e j a n l a s d i f e r e n c i a s y c o n t r a d i c c i o n e s de l a s o c i e d a d y deben d a r s e a c o n o c e r . Es i m p o r t a n t e d e t e c t a r l a e s c a l a de v a l o r e s de muchos t i p 0 5 de m u j e r e s de d i s t i n t o s o r l g e n e s c u l t u r a l e s , n i v e l e s s c c i o - econ6micos, p r o f e s i o n e s , a c t i v i d a d e s y r e a l i d a d e s p e r s o n a l e s .

Son n e g a t i v e s 10s i n t e n t o s de u n i v e r s a l i z a r modelos que prueben , a r b i t r a r i a m e n t e , que t o d a s somos m u j e r e s y , e n c o n s e c u e n c i a , i g u a l e s o muy s i m i l a r e s . Hay a s p e c t o s e n que unas m u j e r e s e x p l o - t a n U oprimen a o t r a s m u j e r e s , y a r e a s en a u e e s muy d i f i c i l con- c i l i a r l a s o l i d a r i d a d . Una comunicaci6n a l t e r n a t i v a puede h a c e r c o n c i e n c i a e n a q u e l l a s que e x p l o t a n y e n a q u e l l a s que son e x p l o - t a d a s . La l u c h a comiin c o n t r a e l machismo no b a s t a p a r a s u p e r a r d e s i g u a l i d a d e s a u e s o l o pueden r e s o l v e r s e a t r a v e s de un cambio profundo e n l a s a c t u a l e s e s t r u c t u r a s s o c i a l e s .

Una v i s i o n c r i t i c a a n t e l a v i d a

Es n e c e s a r i o q u e , en una comunicaci6n a l t e r n a t i v a p a r a l a m u j e r , s e p r e s e n t e n imagenes que motiven a l a s r e c e p t o r a s a p l a n t e a r s e c r i t i c a m e n t e f r e n t e a s i mismas y a 1 mundo que l a s r o d e a . E s a a c t i t u d c r i t i c a debe a b a r c a r t o d o s 10s a s p e c t o s de s u v i d a y d e l c o n t e x t 0 s o c i a l y p o l i t i c o e n que s e d a . La p a s i v i d a d l l e v a a a c e p t a r E r -- s 6 10s c r i t e r i o s m o r a l e s , p o l i t i c o s , r e l i g i o s o s e i d e o l 6 q i c o s que l a d e t e r m i n a n como p e r s o n a y como p a r t e d e l a s o c i e d a d . Su participation c r e a t i v a s o l o puede d a r s e a p a r t i r de una a c t i t u d c r i t i c a .

La b a n a l i z a c i 6 n e n 10s m e d i o ~ f e m e n i n c s : una forma de d e s p r e c i o -

Una c a r a c t e r i s t i c a d e l e s t i l o de l a s comunicac iones dominantes , cuandc s e d i r i q e n a l a m u j e r , e s l a b a n a l i z a c i o n . Tamizar una n o t i c i a o un tema, " a d a p t a r l o " p a r a que s e a "comprens ib le" a un p u b l i c 0 femenino , ha pasado a s e r s in6nimo de t r i v i a l i z a r .

E l s u p u e s t o no e s s f i lo que l a s m u j e r e s son i n c a p a c e s de comprender un problema s i no s e l e s s i m p l i f i c a a 1 maxim0 . . . , a 1 mismo t iempo s e l e p r e s e n t a l a n o t i c i a desde una p e r s p e c t i v a que no r e s u l t e d i s o n a n t e con " e l mundo de l a m u j e r " . E x i s t e n e j e m p l o s c o n s t a n t e s e n l a s r e v i s t a s y proqramas femeninos e n que s e p r e s e n t a a un p e r - s o n a j e d e s t a c a d o p o r s u s a p o r t e a l a s o c i e d a d , dando s o l o d e t a l l e s d e s u v i d a s e n t i m e n t a l , s u d i e t a p a r a mantenerse e s b e l t o , o s u buen g u s t o e n m a t e r i a de v e s t i m e n t a o decoration.

Cuando un medio a l t e r n a t i v e s e d i r i q e a l a s m u j e r e s debe d e j a r de a b o r d a r l a como a un s e r i n f e r i o r . Debe poner f i n a l a b a n a l i z a - c i f in , que e s una forma de o c u l t a m i e n t o de l a r e a l i d a d y una mani- f e s t a c i 6 n de d e s p r e c i o .

F o r una n o t i c i a i n t e q r a d o r a

Lo que 10s medios de comunicaci6n t r a d i c i o n a l e s p r e s e n t a n como " e l mundo de l a mujer" e s una c o e r c i o n . Es una manera de - r e l e - q a r l a a s u s r o l e s t r a d i c i o n a l e s , y una forma de m a n t e n e r l a en l a p e r i f e r i a de 10s problemas que l a a t a n e n .

En una comunicaci6n a l t e r n a t i v a , debemos p l a n t e a r n o s e l d e s a f l o de d e s c u b r i r l a e s p e c i f i c i d a d de 10 femenino, s i n p e r d e r de v i s t a e l que l a s m u j e r e s son p a r t e de l a s o c i e d a d . S i no s e con juqan e s o s d o s f a c t o r e s , s e c o r r e e l r i e s q o d e r e c a e r e n e l v i c i o d e d e s v i n - c u l a r a l a s m u j e r e s de 10s problemas s o c i a l e s q l o b a l e s a u e a f e c - t a n a t o d o s p o r i q u a l .

E l mundo de l a mujer e s e l mundo p u n t o . S i n l i m i t a c i o n e s . Las m u j e r e s t i e n e n p a r t e y r e s p o n s a b i l i d a d e n t o d a s l a s a r e a s d e l que- h a c e r s o c i a l , y 10 femenino no e s una p a r c i a l i z a c i o n de l a m u j e r , e s t o d a l a m u j e r . Probablemente , l a mayor e s p e c i f i c i d a d de 10 femenino s e e n c u e n t r e e n l a s formas p a r t i c u l a r e s d e o p r e s i 6 n que s u f r e y e n l a s p o l l t i c a s p a r t i c u l a r e s que debe asumir p a r a supe- r a r l a s .

E s t o s e l e m e n t o s deben tomarse e n c u e n t a p a r a r e p l a n t e a r 10 que p a r a l a s m u j e r e s puede s e r n o t i c i a . N o t i c i a que l a in forme y l a i n s t r u y a ; n o t i c i a que l e p e r m i t a d e s c u b r i r 10s fenomenos s o c i a l e s que hoy s e l e o c u l t a n e n e l p e r i o d i s m o d i r i q i d o a e l l a ; n o t i c i a que s a l g a d e l t e r r e n o a n e c d o t i c 0 y mueva a 1 c o n o c i m i e n t o , a l a r e f l e x i o n c r i t i c a y a l a participation.

L i b e r t a d y f a l s a l i b e r a c i 6 n

E l c o n c e p t 0 d e l i b e r t a d e s o t r o d e 10s t a n t o s v a l o r e s manipu lados p o r 10s medios dominantes d i r i q i d o s a l a m u j e r .

F r e n t e a 1 i m p u l s e d e l a s m u j e r e s p o r romper e l c e r c o d e o p r e s i o n e s m i l e n a r i a s ( e n un moment0 e n que p o r t o d a s p a r t e s s u r q e n b r o t e s d e r e b e l d i a ) , 10s medios responden con d o s promesas d e f a l s a l i b e r a - c i 6 n ; l a emancipac i6n s e x u a l y l a l i b e r a c i 6 n p o r e l consumo. E l e s t l m u l o s e x u a l e s u t i l i z a d o por l a p u b l i c i d a d como e l s e 5 u e l o m5s e f i c a z p a r a l a v e n t a de s u s p r o d u c t o s y e l consumo femenino e s p r e s e n t a d o como un medio de a f i r m a c i o n de s u p r o p i a au tonomia .

A s i , e l s i s t e m a c a m u f l a , b a j o e s t a pseudo d o b l e l i b e r a c i o n , s u d e l i b e r a d a intention de mantener e l s t a t u - q u o p a r a promover s u s -- i n t e r e s e s econ6micos.

En un medio a l t e r m a t i v o debemos p l a n t e a r n o s l a i n t e r r o q a n t e de 10 que son l i b e r t a d y l i b e r a c i o n p a r a s e r e s que p e r t e n e c e n a un s e x o o p r i m i d o , de c l a s e s o p r i m i d a s , e n p a i s e s o p r i m i d o s .

Todo medio a l t e r n a t i v o , d i r i g i d o a l a s m u j e r e s o que t r a t e p r imor- d i a l m e n t e l a s p e r s p e c t i v a s femeninas debe i n t e n t a r romper e l mime- t i smo f r e n t e a l@ " o c c i d e n t a l " que e x i s t e e n l a s comunicac iones . No e s i ~ r e s c i n d i b l e d e s c a r t a r t o d o s 10s a s p e c t o s f o r m a l e s o t o d o s l o s temas que o f r e c e n 10s medios dominantes ; s i n embargo, e x i s t e n formas mSs adecuadas a 10s p u b l i c o s l a t i n o d m e r i c a n o s y mZs e f e c - t i v a s p a r a l o que son n u e s t r a s r e a l i d a d e s y p o s i b i l i d a d e s .

Hay c u l t u r a s p o p u l a r e s , u r b a n a s y r u r a l e s p r o p i a s de c a d a s o c i e d a d "e deben s e r r e f l e j a d a s . Es i m p o r t a n t e promover y p o t e n c i a r ex- e r i e n c i a s de t e a t r o y miisica p o p u l a r , de uso a l t e r n a t i v o d e a u d i o - - . ' i suales :] v i d e o c a s s e t t e s , ademas d e l c i n e , l a t e l e v i s i o n y l a s r e v i s t a s f e m e n i n a s , ~ q u i z a s i n v e n t a r nuevos medios o a p l i c a r 10s e x i s t e x t e s de manera d i s t i n t a . Sabemos, p o r e j e m p l o , q u e , e n .. . c a r a a u a y e n E l S a l v a d o r , e l e n c u e n t r o e n l a s i q l e s i a s ha s i d o zi-.a 5crr.a .7uj7 e f i c a z de comunicac i6n a l t e r n a t i v a .

P e r o t r a p a r t e , sabemos que e s p o s i b l e que l a c u l t u r a de masas : . i r . c e r p c r a d o muchos e l e m e n t o s p r e s e n t e s e n l a comunicaci6n ? i n a n t e 7 clue puede s e r u t i l m a n t e n e r l o s e n a l g u n o s e j e m p l o s de ~ o . - , ~ ~ n i c a c l 5 n a l t e r n a t i v a . E l d e s c u i d o de l a presentation f o r m a l -. l e n ? d a ^ e ha l l e v a d o a 1 f r a c a s 0 a muchas e x p e r i e n c i a s d e ^ e r i ~ C i s ? o c o n t e s t a t a r i o . A menudo, e l p r o d u c t 0 r e s u l t a p a n f l e - t a r i e , 7oco a t r a c t i v o y muy d i f i c i l de d i q e r i r . Una v o l u n t a d d e ca.-.zio no t i e n e p o r qu6 i r acompaiiada de una c a r e n c i a de s e n t i d o e s t o t i c o , o de un l e n q u a j e q u e , a l a p o s t r e , s o l o e n t i e n d e n 10s ~ i l i t a n t e s y 10s i n t e l e c u t a l e s comprometidos. La d e n u n c i a d e una a i t ' ~ a c i 6 n dramatics no t i e n e n e c e s a r i a m e n t e que p l A n t e a r s e e n t o n o s a r i s e s . La imagination y e l humor s o n armas m y e f e c t i v a s , ' cieben e s t a r p r e s e n t e s e n una comunicac i6n a l t e r n a t i v a . No debe-

c o n f u n d i r 10s v i c i o s de l a comunicac i6n dominante , que e s t r i - ^an p r i n c i p a l m e n t e e n l a i n t e n c i o n a l i d a d de s u s menea jes , con vuchos e l e m e n t o s t g c n i c o s que podemos tomar como l e c c i 6 n .

La cambio e n l a p e r s p e c t e

2 t en id t ica e n t o r n o a l a c u a l ha g i r a d o e l p e r i o d i s m o femenino tarnpoco puede c a m b i a r s e i n t e g r a m e n t e d e l a noche a l a mafiana. En p r i m e r l u g a r , pc rque e x i s t e un c i e r t o h a b i t 0 c r e a d o , p e r o tambi6n ; o r c u e , a p a r t i r de c i e r t o s e le rnen tos t r a d i c i o n a l e s , se puede ~ n t c - n t a r i r ampl iando 10s h o r i z o n t e s d e l "mundo d e l a mujer" y a r!icncionado, a 1 i r i n c o r p o r a n d o nuevos v a l o r e s , nuevos temas y n ~ ~ ' v a s p e r s p e c t i v a s .

A r l e s g o de a p a r e c e r a v a l a n d o una formula p a r c i a l i z a d o r a q u e , de hecho , n o s p a r e c e n e c e s a r i o s u p e r a r , tocaremos , a mod0 d e e j e m p l o , a l q u n o s de 10s temas c l Z s i c o s de 10s medios d i r i a i d o s a l a m u j e r .

Un medio a l t e r n a t i v o femenino puede s e q u i r c u b r i e n d o l a s t a r e a s d e l h o g a r , t r a b a j o , v i d a a f e c t i v a , v e s t u a r i o , e t c . , p e r o d e s d e una 6 p t i c a muy d i f e r e n t e .

E l h o g a r no puede s e r e l l u g a r donde l a mujer s e inmola a 1 s e r v i - c i o de 10s demss, i n c l u y e n d o a un mar ido a u e debe a p r e n d e r a s e r m a s companero. Por o t r a p a r t e , l a s t a r e a s que l a mujer d e s a r r o l l a e n e s e hogar son fundamenta les a l a r e p r o d u c c i 6 n de l a s f u e r z a s de t r a b a j o y deben s e r c o n s i d e r a d a s y remuneradas e n c o n s e c u e n c i a . A 1 mismo t iempo, e s i m p o r t a n t e promover l a n e c e s i d a d de s o c i a l i - z a r e s a s t a r e a s , e n l a medida de 10 p o s i b l e , p a r a que l a s rnujeres t e n g a n l a p o s i b i l i d a d de i n c o r p o r a r s e a t a r e a s p r o d u c t i v a s f u e r a d e l h o g a r .

E l t r a b a i o f u e r a d e l h o a a r

E l tema d e l t r a b a j o debe p e r d e r e s e c a r a c t e r de juego glarnoroso que t i e n e p a r a e l Mode10 T r a n s n a c i o n a l Femenino. E l t r a t a m i e n t o que 10s medios dominantes I e dan a 1 t r a b a j o f u e r a d e l h o a a r e s de v i t a l i m p o r t a n c i a p a r a enmascara r l a r e a l i d a d o b j e t i v a d e una s o c i e d a d de c l a s e s e n cuyas r e l a c i o n e s de t r a b a j o imperan l a i n j u s t i c i a y l a alienation. I n t e n c i o n a l m e n t e , s e p r e s e n t a a l a mujer e n un ambien te m i t i c o donde no e x i s t e n e x p l o t a d o r e s n i e x p l o t a d o s . No s e h a c e v e r que a l a mujer s e l e a s i q n a n a c t i v i - d a d e s s u b a l t e r n a s y q u e , p o r i q u a l t r a b a j o , r e c i b e menos s a l a r i o que s u s c o n t r a p a r t e s m a s c u l i n a s . Ahi , 10s j e f e s son p r e s e n t a d o s como 10s amantes - fu turos -mar idos y 10 que s e qana e s d i n e r 0 " e x t r a " que p e r m i t e l a a d q u i s i c i o n de 10s p r o d u c t o s hechos p a r a s a t i s f a c e r l a s f a l s a s n e c e s i d a d e s que e l p r o p i o s i s t e m a va c r e a n d o

E l t r a b a j o femenino f u e r a d e l hogar debe s e r abordado , p o r un m e - d i o a l t e r n a t i v o , como 10 que e s : un c o n j u n t o de e x p e r i e n c i a s d i f i c i l e s , a menudo d o l o r o s a s , y e n muchos c a s e s , no e x e n t a s d e v e j a c i o n e s ; y 10s problemas que ahf e n c u e n t r a l a mujer e s t a n r e - l a c i o n a d o s con l a s b a r r e r a s c u l t u r a l e s que I e e x i g e n s i m u l t z n e - amente una e f i c i e n c i a de t iempo comple to e n e l h o g a r , s a l a r i e s d e s i g u a l e s y e l machismo e n t o d a s s u s fo rmas , aderaas de l a s i n j u s - t i c i a s s o c i a l e s s u f r i d a s por l a mayor ia de 10s hombres.

En un medio a l t e r n a t i v o femenino, e l tema de l a mujer i n c o r p o r a d a a l a production e s c r u c i a l . Ahi s e dan g r a n p a r t e de l a s c o n t r a - d i c c i o n e s d e l s i s t e m a , a s < como una buena o p o r t u n i d a d p a r a p ro- mover l a o r g a n i z a c i o n e n t o r n o a l a s o l u c i 6 n de prob lemas con- c r e t o s .

E l amor: una p a r t e de l a v i d a

La v i d a a f e c t i v a e s , p a r a 10s medios d o m i n a n t e s , e l e j e c e n t r a l d e e s e r e d u c i d o "mundo d e l a m u j e r " . Ahi , s e e s t i r n u l a n y r e f u e r - zan e l s e n t i m e n t a l i s m o y l a d e p e n d e n c i a femenina . Su a f e c t i v i d c i d s e c o n c i b e e x c l u s i v a m e n t e e n f u n c i o n d e l hombre amante-marido y

10s h i j o s . Los temas romSnt icos ocupan g r a n p a r t e d e l e s p a c i o de 10s medios d i r i g i d o s a l a mujer y l a p u b l i c i d a d r e c o q e l a s p o s i - b i l i d a d e s de e s e s e n t i m e n t a l i s m 0 e x a c e r b a d o y o f r e c e , a cambio d e l a a d q u i s i c i 6 n de p r o d u c t o s , una q r a t i f i c a c i o n a f e c t i v a . Como l a z a n a h o r i a a 1 b u r r o , a l a mujer s e I e promete que s e r a amada s i s i q u e 10s d i c t a d o s d e l a moda, 10s c o n s e j o s de b e l l e z a , s i ad- q u i e r e , p a r a 10s s u y o s , 10s p r o d u c t o s que s e l e o f r e c e n . Uno de 10s mensa jes m5s c l a r o s de 10s medios e s que s i l a mujer no s e somete a 10s d i c t c d o s de s u s p o l i t i c a s c o n s u m i s t a s , d e b e r a s u f r i r e l yuqo de l a s o l e d a d .

La comunicacifin a l t e r n a t i v a s e v e r a i n e v i t a b l e m e n t e e n f r e n t a d a a 1 d e s a f l o de r e c o q e r l a enorme c a r q a s e n t i m e n t a l de 10s p i i b l i c o s femeninos . E x i s t e n p o l e m i c a s r e s p e c t o a 10 n o c i v o de muchos a s - p e c t o s d e l amor r o m a n t i c o , p e r o , h a s t a nuevo a v i s o , s i q u e s i e n d o uno de 10s s e n t i m i e n t o s mas q r a t i f i c a n t e s de l a v i d a . En s o c i e - d a d e s como l a cubana , p o r e j e m p l o , l a demands p o r m a t e r i a l de e s e t i p 0 e s enorme, 10 que demues t ra que l a i n c o r p o r a c i 6 n de l a s mu- j e r e s a 10s p r o c e s o s politicos y p r o d u c t i v o s no puede n i debe a n u l a r e s e a s p e c t 0 de l a a f e c t i v i d a d .

La d i f e r e n c i a e s t r i b a e n que no podemos l i m i t a r a l a mujer a l a o b s e s i v i d a d de e s e s e n t i m i e n t o . E l amor debe p r e s e n t a r s e con- juqado y c o m p a t i b i l i z a d o con l a a m i s t a d , 10s s e n t i m i e n t o s f i l i a l e s , e l t r a b a j o , l a m a t e r n i d a d , l a s a c t i v i d a d e s s o c i a l e s y l a s p o l l - t i c a s . Eso a ten i ia e l a q o b i a n t e s e n t i m i e n t o de l a e x c e s i v a depen- d e n c i a y d e m o c r a t i z a l a s r e l a c i o n e s s e n t i m e n t a l e s p a r a que hombres y m u j e r e s s e a n d e p e n d i e n t e s e n q r a d o s y maneras s i m i l a r e s o e q u i - v a l e n t e s . As?, 10 que puede h a b e r de n e g a t i v e , s e n e u t r a l i z a e n buena medida.

Por o t r a p a r t e , e s n e c e s a r i o y p o s i b l e p r e s e n t a r 10s s e n t i m i e n t o s de a f e c t o e n c o n t e x t o s que r e f l e j e n l a r e a l i d a d . En 10s medios d o m i n a n t e s , e l amor " t o d o 10 puede" y s e da e n mundos m l t i c o s donde l a s c e n i c i e n t a s enamoran a 10s p r i n c i p e s . Desaparecen 10s con- t r a s t e s s o c i a l e s y l a s i d e n t i d a d e s c u l t u r a l e s . Es p o s i b l e ahondar mSs e n La p s i c o l o g i a humana, a l e r t a r s o b r e p e l i g r o s y e s t i m u l a r o t r o s v a l o r e s como e l compaiierismo, 10 p o s i t i v e de l u c h a r j u n t o s p o r c a u s a s comunes, e l v a l o r de l a s o l i d a r i d a d con 10s demas. No b a s t a n , como s e h a c e c r e e r e n 10s medios dominantes , e l a t r a c t i v o f i s i c o seqfin 10s canones t r a n s n a c i o n a l e s , n i e l h a c e r m e r i t o s s i q u i e n d o l a s r e c e t a s de c6mo h a c e r p a r a s e r amada. Los medios t i e n e n que a b o r d a r 10s temas de l a a f e c t i v i d a d y 10 e r o t i c 0 con mayor r e a l i s m o ; y p a r a e s o , como e n c a s i t o d a s l a s a r e a s que a q u i s e s e n a l a n , l a v i d a r e a l de m u j e r e s d e d i s t i n t o s medios t i e n e mucho que d e c i r con s u e x p e r i e n c i a .

iPodemos s e E L i n c l u y e n d o moda y b e l l e z a ? p--

O t r o tema c o n f l i c t i v o p a r a un medio femenino que q u i e r e p l a n t e a r s e como d i s t i n t o a 10 dominante , e s e l tema de l a moda. Con j u s t a razf in, e s v i s t a como uno de 10s e l e m e n t o s m a s e v i d e n t e m e n t e neqa- tivos d e l ~ e r i o d i s m o femenino.

Conviene aclarar que moda y vestuario no son sinonimos. No es que las mujeres intenten vestirse de un mod0 que les permita sentirse comodas y atractivas, 10 que debe combatirse. Son las exigencias que la moda Ie hace para impedir que se sienta comoda y atractiva si no incurre en qrandes gastos; es el juego despiadadamente consumista movido por 10s intereses econ6micos que estan detrzs de la moda. No existe mejor ejemplo de obsolescencia planificada que la moda en el vestir.

La belleza, como requisite indispensable de la femineidad, es otro elemento hsbilmente manipulado con fines economicos. La industria del cosm6tico ests estrechamente ligada a la de la moda y, como gsta, es transnacional. Juntas, constituyen la fuente publici- taria m5s importante de 10s medios I/ y un elemento de influencia muy grande en su filosofia. Esto determina que 10s medios no solo refuercen el viejo imperative de que "la mujer debe ser bella", sin0 que, ademas, debe serlo seqiin canones estgticos establecidos fuera de sus propias culturas.

La presion ejercida para que las mujeres aspiren a emular a1 modelo transnacional es, sin duda, un factor de angustia y dispen- dio financier0 que es precis0 cornbatir.

Es imperioso que las grandes mayorlas de mujeres latinoamericanas, que no son ni "occidentales", ni esbeltas, ni jovenes, se sientan avaladas por la prensa femenina.

Menos "cocina" y mss nutrition -

La alimentacion de su familia es un problema que las mujeres si- quen enfrentando a diario. Un medio alternative tiene muchos aportes que hacer en ese terreno. El enfoque tiene que superar las eternas recetas de cocina, y la buena presentation de una fuente. Los problemas de la alimentacion tienen estrecha rela- ci6n con hsbitos culturales, tipos de production, precios, dis- ponibilidad de tiempo para la preparation de 10s alimentos y, sobre todo, las posibilidades econ6micas. Con estos factores debidamente conjuqados, debemos hacer ver la importancia del valor nutritivo de 10s alimentos. Este solo adquiere su justa dimension en la prensa marginal, porque atenta contra 10s intereses de las grandes transnacionales de la alimentacion. Este tema fundamental tiene estrecha relacifin con 10s problemas de la salud y el medio arnbiente y necesita del conocimiento participativo y critico de las mujeres. Estas son victimas e intermediarias de 10s habitos de consume que incluyen la progresiva invasion de productos en- vasados carentes de valor nutritivo y potencialmente dafiinos para

l/ Los avisos de moda y belleza representan el 40% de la publicidad total de las revistas femeninas latinoamericanas. Adriana Santa Cruz y Viviana Erazo: "Compropolitan", (Mexico: Editorial Nueva Imagen, 1980). El libro se basa en un estudio de las revistas femeninas en America Latina, hecho en el ILET.

l a s a l u d . Debemos i n c o r p o r a r 6 s t e y o t r o s temas s o b r e e l p r o - b l e m a d e l a contamination, e n 10s medios a l t e r n a t i v o s de l a m u j e r .

Hacia una organization c r e a t i v a pp-- -p-p

T r a d i c i o n a l m e n t e , 10s medios femeninos s e han a u t o d e f i n i d o como i i t i l e s p a r a s o l u c i o n a r p rob lemas practices de l a v i d a de s u s r e - c e p t o r a s . Un medio a l t e r n a t i v o debe r e s p o n d e r a e s e r e q u e r i - m i e n t o , p e r 0 superando e l c l 5 s i c o metodo d e l a s r e c e t a s : r e c e t a s p a r a s e r a t r a c t i v a s , r e c e t a s p a r a c o c i n a r , r e c e t a s p a r a desman- c h a r , o r e c e t a s p a r a v i v i r . Esa fo rmula g e n e r a dependenc ia . La o r q a n i z a c i 6 n e s un medio de r e s o l v e r p rob lemas de una manera c r e a - t i v a y a u t o d e p e n d i e n t e . Un grupo de v e c i n a s pueden j u n t a r s e p a r a c r e a r g u a r d e r i a s , p o l i c l i n i c o s , c e n t r o s a r t e s a n a l e s , j a r d i n e s , e t c . Pueden a d q u i r i r p r o d u c t o s a p r e c i o s de m a y o r i s t a s , o jun- t a r s e con o t r o s g r u p o s y p r e s i o n a r por l a s c o n d i c i o n e s de l a s e s c u e l a s , l a s f a b r i c a s y , e n q e n e r a l , c o n t r i b u i r a l a s o l u c i 6 n de 10s problemas de l a c o l e c t i v i d a d a l a c u a l p e r t e n e c e n . Los me- d i o s dominantes han a tomizado l a s f u e r z a s femeninas p a r a i m p e d i r que ac t i i en y s e e x p r e s e n . Un medio a l t e r n a t i v o puede c o n t r i b u i r a que l a s m u j e r e s s e o r q a n i c e n , p a r t i c i p e n y tomen l a p a l a b r a . La o r q a n i z a c i o n p a r a l a comunicaci6n e s un a r e a p a r t i c u l a r m e n t e i m p o r t a n t e de e s t i m u l a r porque c o n t r i b u y e f u e r t e m e n t e a p o t e n c i a r 10s demas e s f u e r z o s de a c c i 6 n p a r a e l cambio.

Las m u j e r e s toman l a p a l a b r a -

Tarnbign d e n t r o de 10 f o r m a l , 10s medios a l t e r n a t i v o s t i e n e n un carnpo donde marcar i m p o r t a n t e s d i f e r e n c i a s con l a s comunicac iones dominantes . E s t a s e n v i a n mensa jes e l a b o r a d o s d e s d e e l p u n t o de v i s t a d e l e m i s o r y 10s imponen v e r t i c a l m e n t e . En una comunicaci6n a l t e r n a t i v a , 6 s t o s deben s u r q i r mas de l a b a s e , y r e l a c i o n a r s e m s s con l a s i n s t i t u c i o n e s y q r u p o s s o c i a l e s a 10s que e l medio d i r i g e s u s mensa j e s . Debemos a p u n t a r a s u s t i t u i r 10 que e s s i m p l e i n f o r m a c i 6 n v e r t i c a l p o r una comunicac i6n e f e c t i v a y h o r i z o n t a l , e n donde l a s rnujeres pasen a s e r s u j e t o s y no s o l o o b j e t o s e n e l p r o c e s o c o m u n i c a t i v o .

En e s t e rnarco, un medio a l t e r n a t i v o no s o l o debe p l a n t e a r s e como un medio E r a l a s m u j e r e s s i n 0 tambien d e s d e l a s m u j e r e s . E s t o debe s e q u i r s e confundiendo con que e l hecho que l a d i r e c t o r a y l a s r e d a c t o r a s o l o c u t o r a s d e un medio femenino s e a n m u j e r e s . A q u e l l a s que r e p r e s e n t a n a l a s mayor ias que han e s t a d o s i l e n c i a - d a s deben tomar l a p a l a b r a . P a r a l o q r a r l o , p o r una p a r t e , debe- n o s e s t i m u l a r e l que e s a s m u j e r e s t e n q a n s u s p r o p i o s medios d a n d o l e l a s h e r r a m i e n t a s de a n a l i s i s de s u r e a l i d a d y 10s medios t 6 c n i c o s p a r a que l a comunique. P o r o t r a p a r t e , puede h a c e r s e p e r i o d i s m o t e s t i m o n i a l . Haciendo r e p o r t a j e s y e n t r e v i s t a s a m u j e r e s podemos r e c o q e r y d i f u n d i r l a s i n q u i e t u d e s que s u r g e n d e l a s v i c e r a s de un p u e b l o , y no s o l o 10 q u e , de antemano, a l g u n o s o a l q u n a s q u i e r e n imponer como rnodelo de v i d a p a r a q u i e n e s supo- nen son i n c a p a c e s de c o n t r u i r s e uno.

E l s e n t i d o con que s e h a c e una e n t r e v i s t a o s e p i d e un t e s t i m o n i o i n f l u y e enormemente e n 10 que d e a h i s u r g e . For 10 t a n t o , ca q u i 6 n d a r l e l a p a l a b r a ? <LY p a r a p r e q u n t a r l e que? La p r i m e r a r e s - p u e s t a e s t 5 e s t r e c h a m e n t e l i q a d a a 10 p l a n t e a d o m a s a r r i b a . Debe- rnos c u i d a r n o s d e no c a e r e n e l e r r o r de l i m i t a r n o s , t o t a l o p a r - c i a l m e n t e , a e n t r e v i s t a r m u j e r e s d e l a s s u p e r e s t r u c t u r a s , porque s u s e x p e r i e n c i a s pueden s e r i n t e r e s a n t e s o hayan l o g r a d o p o s i c i o - nes de p o d e r . Los medios dominantes no s o l o nos educan i n d i c a n - donos c6mo p e n s a r , s i n o ta rn l ien s o b r e qu6 p e n s a r y s o b r e q u i e n e s . E x i s t e una t e n d e n c i a a r e p r o d u c i r e s a s agendas de p e r s o n a s y temas r e l e v a n t e s . No e s f z c i l d e s c u b r i r a s e r e s " d e s t a c a d o s " o " i n t e r e - s a n t e s " ( p a r a 10 que s o n , d e hecho , 10s c r i t e r i o s de l a i d e o l o q l a dominante ) e n mundos y g e n t e s que son i g n o r a d o s p o r l a c u l t u r a i m p e r a n t e . P e r o e s t 5 n a h l . Ahi p a r a s u g e r i r nuevos c r i t e r i o s de s e l e c c i f i n , p a r a r e s a l t a r l a i m p o r t a n c i a de a s p e c t o s de l a v i d a que l a c u l t u r a i m p e r a n t e d e s c a r t a , p a r a e n t r e g a r s u s conmovedoras e x p e r i e n c i a s y h a c e r s u fundamenta l a p o r t e p a r a un cambio hecho p o r y p a r a l a s m a y o r l a s .

De l a misma manera, un medio a l t e r n a t i v e debe b u s c a r e l que l a g e n t e e x p r e s e sus i n t e r e s e s . Es i m p o r t a n t e r e c a l c a r l e a l a s mu- j e r e s que no s61o i n t e r e s a n s u s o p i n i o n e s f r e n t e a c6mo l l e v a r e l h o q a r , mantener a 1 mar ido , l a s i l u e t a y o t r a s a r e a s t i p i c a s . E l e s p e c t r o debe a m p l i a r s e y moSt ra r una v i s i o n i n t e g r a l de l a s p e r - s o n a s y l a s o c i e d a d a trav6.s d e l a p a l a b r a d e s u s m u j e r e s .

Cuidado con l a p u b l i c i d a d

En 10s medios d e comunicacifin d i r i q i d o s a l a m u j e r , l a p r i n c i p a l f u e n t e de f i n a n c i a m i e n t o e s l a p u b l i c i d a d , y e n e s p e c i a l l a p u b l i c i d a d d e p r o d u c t o s t r a n s n a c i o n a l e s . A mod0 d e e j e m p l o , e n l a s r e v i s t a s femeninas l a t i n o a m e r i c a n a s , e s t a no e s s o l o s u p e r i o r e n c a n t i d a d s i n 0 que a c a p a r a 10s e s p a c i o s p u b l i c i t a r i o s mSs c a r o s e i m p a c t a n t e s ( t a p a s , c o n t r a t a p a s y p g g i n a s s a t i n a d a s a c o l o r ) .l/ La f u e r z a de e s t a p u b l i c i d a d d e t e r m i n a que 10s v a l o r e s t ransmit ; - d o s p o r e l l a s e a n 10s s e g u i d o s p o r l a p u b l i c i d a d l o c a l y por e l c o n t e n i d o q e n e r a l d e l a s r e v i s t a s . Conduce 10s e s t i l o s d e consumo que s e promueven, e s t 5 e n l a s r a l c e s d e l Mode10 T r a n s n a c i o n a l Femenino, e impone e s t i l o s de v i d a s o l o a c c e s i b l e s a pequefias m i n o r i a s .

E s t o s fenSmenos i n d i c a n l a n e c e s i d a d de a l e r t a r r e s p e c t o a 1 p a p e l que e s t 5 jugando l a p u b l i c i d a d a 1 i n t e r i o r de n u e s t r a s s o c i e d a d e s . La impunidad con que e l s i s t e m a p u b l i c i t a r i o o p e r a e s i n c o m p a t i b l e con l a s n e c e s i d a d e s r e a l e s d e Amprica L a t i n a .

l/ Adriana Santa Cruz y Viviana Erazo, op. cit. En el conjunto de revistas - analizadas, la publicidad de productos transnacionales sobrepasa el 50 por ciento. En el caso de las tapas y contratapas (Zo., 3er. y 40. forro), 10s avisos transnacionales ocupan el 74.07 por ciento y el 70.37 por ciento, respectivamente; 68 por ciento de 10s avisos de productos transnacionales son en papel satinado, a color y de una psgina o mas.

Una comunicaci6n alternativa debe estar conciente de 6stos peli- qros y buscar, en 10 posible, dentro de 10s marcos actuales, fuentes de financiamiento que la hagan paulatinamente menos depen- diente de una publicidad que se contrapone con 10s valores de "otro desarrollo". Existen fundaciones, instituciones piiblicas y privadas, universidades, iglesias, sindicatos, y organizaciones populares que pueden interesarse en colaborar en proyectos de comunicaci6n alternativa. Por otra parte, en la medida en que la presencia de la publicidad sea imprescindible en las actuales condiciones, debemos optar por aquellas formas de publicidad que son menos contradictorias con nuestros mensajes y dar prioridad aunapublicidad m5s neutra, menos ligada a estilos de consumo y, en illtimo caso, aceptar que se anuncien productos sin promesas de qratificaciones que nada tienen que ver con la adquisici6n de ese product0 . No todo estfi por hacerse

Las perspectivas que orientan este trabajo no estzn completamente ausentes del panorama informativo latinoamericano. Hay grupos e iniciativas que apuntan en esa direcci6n. Son esfuerzos embriona- rios que requieren ser estudiados y apoyados. ~ EstSn atomizados y enf rentan serios problemas f inancieros ; sin e&argo, existen. Luchan y se sobreponen a las dificultades, per0 no tienen una dimensi6n industrial que les permita adquirir una presencia pro- piamente masiva para competir en el mercado dominante. Hay ciertos espacios de libertad que se estfin aprovechando; sln embargo, hoy esa libertad es s610 relativa. La autsntica democra- tizaci6n de 10s medios de comunicaci6n s610 podrfi darse donde se logre la democracia de la sociedad en su conjunto.

Esa constataci6n, sin embarqo, no debe paralizarnos. Nuestras acciones de hoy pueden llevar a esa democracia de mafiana. En medio de las contradicciones de esta cultura transnacional ava- salladora y excluyente, podemos hacer us0 de la lucidez, la espe- ranza y la qenerosidad expresadas en organizaci6n para dar pasos adelante en el sentido de una comunicaci6n que refleje nuestras realidades, nuestras aspiraciones y la plenitud de nuestros valores.

Las mujeres y sus esfuerzos para el cambio han estado silenciados. Es necesario y posible que tomen la palabra.

CENTRAL AMERICAN DILEMMA by Pierre Schori Swedish Social Democratic Party, S-l0560 Stockholm, Sweden

Pierre Schori, international secretary of the Swedish kid Democratic Party, here makes a detailed assessment of the dangers inherent in the sharp move to the right that has been ~romised in US policy towards its neighbours in Latin ~ m e r i c a and the Carhbean.

A new tendency in the political develop ment of contemporary b t i n America was confirmed in March 1980, when inter- nationat social democracy seriously entered the scene. Under the chairmanship of Willy Brandt, over thirty European parties asscmbkd for deliberations with representatives of a large number of Latin American and Caribbean political movements. In addition to S1 member parties in the area, participants also included, for example, the Sandinidas from Nicaragua, the PIP independence party from Puerto Rico, the El Salvador guerilla and the ruling party in Mexico. The meeting took place in Santo Domingo, where, after twelve years of sacrificial endeavour, one of the SI's member parties had at last succeeded in overcoming the electoral malpractices and manipulations of the USsupported regime.

The SI's active presence coincides with an interesting and significant change of course among the forces struggling for the liberation of the continent from dictatorship and tutelage. New strategies have been framed and new alliances formed above all under the impression of the defeat of democracy in Chile. In this way the liberation struggle has acquired a substantially broader base.

Reformist thinking and action have been radicalised - as in Gntra l America and Bolivia - at the same time as the revolutionary message, also in its Cuban centre, calls for moderation, cooperation and even pluralism. A R6gis Debray might perhaps be moved to ask whether we are experiencing

a revolution in reformism and reformism in the revolution.

The Santo Domingo meeting took place against a dramatic background. The previous day Archbishop Romero had been assassinated while celebrating mass in San Salvador. The former Venezuelan president Carlos Andr6s Perez, voiced the feelings of many when he said: %et us tell President Carter that his human rights policy was buried in El Salvador yesterday'. The Euro- pean visitors were also met with new reports of the deaths of party comrades in Guatemala and El Salvador. In the daily bloodbaths which have been taking place in those two countries ever since the murders of the Social Democratic Party leaders Fuentes Mohr and G l o m Arguela in Guatemala in 1978 and 1979, practically the entire leadership of the SI's brother parties has been liquidated, driven into exile or forced to go underground.

7'he explosive situation in Gntra l America set the tone of the conference. The final resolution was severely critical of US foreign policy, which the meeting described as promoting neocolonialism (Puerto Rico and Guantanamo), state terrorism (Chile, Argentina and Uruguay) and institutional- ised violence (El Salvador). The S1 also condemned the economic warfare against Jamaica and the pressure exerted by the IMF.

But the clear, rigorous standpoi~ts adopted by the conference were not the only novelty. Social democrats from El !Salvador and Guatemala and invited guerilla representa-

(Excerpted from Socialist Affairs, No. 1/81, pp. 33-39).

tives spoke unanimously of the necessity of revolution and appealed for understanding for armed struggle as the only remaining expedient and reply to the policy of extermination practised by right-wing forces against opposition of all kinds.

These appeals were not unheeded, and the Santo Domingo meeting marked the be- ginning of general support for the two resistance fronts FDCR in Guatemala and FDR in El Salvador, where social democratic parties have for the first time thrown in their lot with the insurrectionist left.

The SI's first massive presence in Latin America and its much publicised final resolution attracted a great deal of interest all over the continent, not least on the part of the many visiting journalists. In the North American press this event was passed over in complete silence, But it aroused all the more interest in the State Department, where there was evidently a realisation that a new protagonist was present in Uncle Sam's back yard, a protagonist that could not readily be accused of pro-communism o r complete irresponsibility and, to make matters worse, adopted statements dia- metrically opposed to official American foreign policy in an area of such importance to Washington as Central America. A reaction was called for, and the answer was not long coming.

In an unpara1lelled diplomatic offensive, all the European ~ a r t i e s present at the Santo Domingo meeting were contacted, together with a selection of Latin American ones. True to their i n s t~c t ions , American diplomats expressed their country's displeasure on a large number of counts, a displeasure rendered a11 the greater by the fact that a number of leading figures in the S1 had actually been contacted prior to the meeting w-ilh a view to explaining US policy above all in Central America. The protests were delivered to the chaiman of the S1 special committee on Latin Amen- and the Caribbean, the Dominican prty 's secretary-general, Peas Gomez, in the form of a memorandum.

aea r ly the SI's Latin American policy was being taken seriously, which meant that one of the aims of the Santo h m i n ~ o

resolution had been achieved, namely to inaugurate a serious, broad-based dialogue between Washington and international social democracy on the subject of US policy in Latin America. Another positive side effect of the American demarches was that several European partics now had occasion to make a closer study particularly of conditions in Central Ameriu .

'l%c official American arguments, partly presented in various background papers and

m h e s above all by the State Depart- ment's undersecretary for Latin American d a i r s , William Bowdler, and by its fore- most Latin America specialist, Luigi Einaudi, are an improvement on those pr* pounded by previous administrations. Euro- pean social democrats can to a great extent endorse the main contours of the actual background analysis. Our opinions diverge when we come to the ~nc lus ions .

Let us consider one of the State Depart- ment's 'issues analyses' from the end of June 1980, which was distributed to all important US embassies. It was entitled US Policy: Central America and the Caribbean. This paper will provide us with a starting point for a more detailed discussion of the fines of demarcation between international social democracy and Wash- ington and will also explain the motives behind US policies of the last years.

The analysis begins by noting the American change of approach regarding this area: 'US policy in the Caribbean Basin has undergone modification in recent years'. This, we read, stems from 'an acknowledg- ment that f o r m of change are sweeping the area and an attempt to align US policy with the efforts of progressives and dem* mats to effectively preempt extremist solutions. The US has sought to move from being perceived as a supporter of the status quo to defining itself as the ally of progressive, democratic forces'.

Central America has become 'a focal point for the new US po!icy in the area, and an important crucible for the effectivc- ness of that pol~cy*. The situation in the a m , with the exception of Costa R i u and

to some extent of Honduras, is that 'an older order is passing, e r d i n g under the combined pressures of endemic sociw economic problems, popular dissatisfaction ~4th the status quo, the inability of the traditional elite to meet demands for change, and right- and left-wing extremism. Destab- ilking world influences, including world oil prices and Cuba, also contribute to the problems. Central too is the emergence of new leadership elements whose attitudes towards modernization and the role of government and its attendant social respon- sibilities place them at odds with the traditional power structure'.

I n words which are in fact reminiscent of S1 resolutions, it is affirmed that 'reactionary solutions are seen as only post- poning the problems and makinc the pressures for redress more desperate and more violent'.

Two guiding principles are stated for US policy in Central America.

'First, because traditional patterns are in many respects both unjust and unstable, we recognize that change is both natural and inevitable. We believe that peace and democracy in the region depend on broadly based and fundamental socio-economic and poli- ti-l reforms that will increase wellbeing and strengthen the rights of the individual.

'Second, we will not attempt to impose our views. We will not use military force in situations where only domestic groups are in contention. We harbour no illusion that we can define the nature of change or substitute ourselves for Central American leadership; but we can and will support local reform init-iatives'.

G n t r a r y t o an otherwise popular ana virtually unrivalled thesis in the United States, the State Department is not disposed t o regard Cuba as the underlying c a u x of the Central American crisis: Whi le it is argued by many on the *ht that Central America's difficulties are nothing more nor less than "communist subversionn, and in particular renewed Soviet-backed Cuban efforts to export rev- tutmn, it seems clear that Castro, while actively involved in taking advantage of situations that offer him opportunities, is

not the iundamenial problem. The essential need is to remove the conditions which spawn desperation and drive people to radical mlutions'.

Developments in the Caribbean are made the subject of a fresh analysis. 'While older elites in the Caribbean are generally free enterprise and democratically oriented, younger generatiohs of leaders and university students increasingly identify with third world aspirations and seek alternatives to Western democracy and capital- ism. They are attracted by neo-Marxist theories, black power, socialism and Cuba (despite its tarnished image in the wake of the !%vie1 invasion of Afghanistan and the 'refugee* exodus)'.

Here too the State Department concedes in its analysis that a change is desirable. 'Experimentation with new values is inevitable, and in the long run probably desirable'.

But the solution must not be loo radical.

I feel that the official line needs to be thoroughly analysed and seriously discussed in order for us to understand the American dilemma fully. As J said, this analysis k quite different from and more radical than its predecessors, it is on the whole charac- terised by insight and in many respects it concurs with the opinions voiced by social democracy.

But the dilemma ensues when the policy that has been outlined is to be put into practice: the crux for the policy makers of Washington will be to find a centre alternative compatible with their theory. In an article published in the N e w York Times, Alan Riding quotes a State Department official as explaining the problem in the following terms: 'We don't want wild bloody revolutions, but we can't give a blank check to a wild bloody fascist. We want fundamental reforms that lead to democracy, we don't want to choose between revolutions and fascists'.

Paradoxically enough, this is an attitude resembling the main line of the European social-democratic approach to Latin America not all that many years ago. But developments in the area have been moving

fast of late. We have experienced the murder of Allende, the victory of the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, the anachronistic oligarchies and their insane policy of extermination in Central America, and most recently of all the coup in Bolivia. In these countries the centre alternative has either been obliterated by the right-wing forces or else forced into a polarisation and in most cases pined in a species of pcople's front against the dictatorship. Archbishop Romero, for example, was probably assassinated because he could have become a dangerously attractive rallying point for a front of this kind. Many reformists have been obliged by circumstances to adopt revolutionary methods in their endeavour. A revolution has entered reformism. But this change has also been accompanied by reformism within the revolutionary movement, not least in Cuban thinking. A little noticed but important contribution towards this development was made by Fidel Castro in his speech on the first anniversary of the Sandinistas in Managua on 19 July. For the first time the Cuban leader referred to the impartance, indeed the wisdom, of respect- ing party-political pluralism in the Latin America of the 1980s. Thus Castro the revolutionary interestingly enough appears t o have accepted parliamentary democracy as a method, even after a revolutionary struggle for liberation. In this respect, therefore, Cuba comes closer than the traditional Latin American extreme left to the views of social democracy.

Against this background it was not sur- prising that the European social democrats chose to stand up to the pressure from the US. Sensible observers at the State Depart- ment also realised that it was more logical for the Europeans to support their perse- cuted party comrades in El Salvador and Guatemala than to accept the US policy, a policy implying support for regimes which harrass and kill members of our fellow parties, among others.

The main lines of the Santo Doming0 resolution were confirmed at the next S1 summit, the Bureau meeting in Oslo in

June last year. The resolu!ion stated that 'The S1 greet with satisfaction the efforts of Latin American democratic forces to unify in order to fight more effectively for democracy, real independence and social justice'. Once again it was afirmed that 'The S1 fully supports the struggle of the Frente DemocrAtico Revolutionario for freedom and democracy in El Salvador'. This support was further underlined by an appeal m the US 'to consider that support for the present junta in El Salvador is not a viable solution and will not prevent further bloodshed*. The S1 therefore called upon the US t o change its policy. This, it was declared, was 'not a matter of anti-Americanism but an effort to achieve a constructive relationship between the US and the countries in Gn t r a l America'.

The resolution went on to declare the support of social democracy for Frente Democritic0 Contra la Rcpresi6n in Guate- mala and Grupo de Convergencia Demo- crAtica in Uruguay. An earnest appeal was also addressed to the M F for greater sympathy for the precarious position of Jamaica, at the same time as warnings were issued, in a mood of gloomy apprehension, concerning a military coup in Bolivia.

The S1 line has on the whole concurred with that of another very active o r ~ a ~ s a - tion recently established in Latin America: COPPPAL. COPPPAL was forme& on 12 October 1979 at the instigation of the Mexican ruling party PRI. The .formation of COPPPAL is a manifestation of Mexico's new, dynamic foreign poncy which among other things includes support for Cuba and Nicaragua. PR1 put up most of the finance behind COPPPAL offices, organisation, meetings and a bulletin. There is also a great deal of personal union at leadership level between COPPPAL and the S1 Latin America Committee

At present COPPPAL ieprescnts twenty- three parties from fifteen countries which, according to the statutes, define themselves as democratic, nationalist, socialist and antiirnmrialist. * The SI's decision to adhere to its analysis and to its criticism of US policy has also

obliged Washington to abandon another cherished notion, namely that of forming a united front 'in defence of democracy' between the S1 and international christian democracy. Instead Washington now appears to have put all its eggs in the christiandemocratic basket. Thus the christiandemocratic government in Venezuela and President Carazo of Costa Rica have declared their support for the junta in El Salvador.

A conference arranged in Washington last May by the Konrad Adenauer Founda- tion and the American Enterprise Institute was also attended by leading State Depart- ment representatives, who gave lectures there. The State Department representatives can safely be said to have occupied the extreme left of that assembly.

If we regard the background of christian democracy in Europe and the sponsors of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, for example, a marriage between the S1 and these forces becomes even more absurd. Franz- Josef Strauss, a christian democrat, is the leading light in the conservative international, the European Democratic Union (EDU), whose members also include Margaret Thatcher. These politicians are playing a reactionary part in Latin America. Thus Thatcher is lifting the ban placed by the former Labour administration on arms exports t o Chile while denying the same privilege to Grenada. Strauss visits Videla and Pinochet and assures their dictatorships of his respect, saying that they stand for law and order and democracy in their country. It is hard to see the value of such allies in the struggle against dictatorship in Latin America.

The antipathies of Europe have their counterparts in Latin America, particularly where Federal Germany is concerned. The leading figures of the two internationals, the S1 and the EDU, are Willy Brand! and Franz-Josef Strauss respectively. Each of the two schools of opinion has at its dis- posal an organised and financially powerful foundation, the socialdemocratic Friedrich Ebert Stiftung and the christiandemocratic Konrad Adenauer Foundation. Strauss also controls a smaller organisation of a similar

kind, the Hans Seidelstiftung. A species of German ideological tug-of-war is in progress on Latin American soil under the auspices of the two big foundations. As a result of its generous and intrepid commitment - on behalf of progressive forces such as the FSLN, the two fronts in Salvador and Guatemala and Manley in Jamaica - the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung has fallen out of favour with the Americans, and in two quasiofficial statements it has been branded as an undermining factor in Central America. Heavy pressure has been put on Bonn to release the frozen German development assistance grants of 14 million dollars for various rural development projects in El Salvador and to appoint an ambassador to that country once more. In addition, efforts have been made to induce the SPD to refrain from siding so actively with 'revolutionaries and procommunists', but the German social democrats have not responded.

The official American arguments have not been convincing even in the US. Practically all North American organisations with human rights on their programmes have followed the appeals by Archbishop Romero and Amnesty International to Washington to discontinue its military support to the junta in El Salvador. A number of religious organisations have taken the same line.

Edward Zorinskv. chairman of the Senate Subcommittee for the Western Hemisphere, expressed his opposition to US military assistance in the following terms: 'The core of the Salvadorean problem is political - not military. Nor is it susceptible to a military solution which does not command the broad support of the Salvadorean people. T o underscore this point, one has only to recall the recent Nicaraguan experience. There the Sandinistas won, not because they had superior military training and equipment, but because they had strong popular support'.

And in a widely publicised letter to President Carter on 31 March last year. twenty-four Congressmen, headed by Tom Harkin and Ron Dellums. delivered a far

more outspoken and exhaustive protest than is contained in any of the critical resolutions adopted by European socialism:

'We the undersigned firmly oppose the proposed $5.7 million in military assistance to El Salvador. We believe that military assistance to the government of El Salvador at this time is extremely dangerous, poli- tically ill-advised, and immoral . . .

'According to recent reports from a delegation of American church officials, rape. torture, mutilation, decapitation, garroting, and murder of defenceless men, women and children are being carried out by that government, not simply to eliminate opponents but to terrorize the entire population . . .

'We believe that the Administration's view that there is no alternative t o the present government in El Salvador is in error. The popular organisations are widen- ing their support, and a broad coalition of peasant, labour, intellectual, student, religious, and professional people is in the process of formation. Unless and until these elements can be brought into the political process, there can be no peace in El Salvador and no amount of American weapons can procure it.

'We believe that sending military assistance to a government which cannot control its own military, and which continues to brutally repress its own people, is a re- pudiation of the principles upon which the United States was founded'.

It is really a mystery how the US govcrn- ment could enter such a political deadend as that in El Salvador. The massive rejection by popular opinion of the US-supported military regime, the breadth of organised opposition and the impact of armed resistance, together with the international mobilisation, add up t o an apparently irresistible force. The question is whether such a n extensive front has ever been established against any regime in the history of Latin America. Resistance can of course be contained o r temporarily overcome by dint of superior military might, not to mention a catastrophic intervention from outside. But

in both cases the price will be that of immense slaughter and incomprehensible suffering until the unavoidable end eventu- ally comes all the same.

T o surmount popular resistance, the regime, willingly supported by the US, has pursued a policy resembling that once attempted in Vietnam, to try to win the hearts and minds of the people. In El Sal- vador this is being done by promises of a land reform, but since this reform has no popular backing and is partly being implemented by the army, the traditional enemy of the farmers, a measure of co- ercion and oppression is inevitably involved. And so the famous formula 'repressive reformism' has been coined as though a t the command of the worst enemies of democracy. The stick has been replaced with the Run, and the carrot has proved none too edible. With one hand the regime displays a political solution with the promise of elections in a few years' time, while with the other it spreads death and destruction with a view to the physical liquidation of an alternative.

T o justify this fatal contradiction, a traditional ally has been conjured up: the spectre of communism, which in the living world wears Cuban uniform.

But the anticommunist propaganda which is being aimed against the revolutionary groups has lost credibility in the Latin America of the 1980s. Cubans are no longer entering by stealth along jungle tracks together with guerilla soldiers, determined t o unseat the governing regime.

Fidel Castro has come to terms with the realities of the 1980s. Besides. I believe that Cuba's position in Latin American opinion has been misjudged in the US and in many other quarters. As I have already shown, the State Department analysis hints at Cuban attractions in certain situations. I believe that the legendary aura of the Castro revolution still outshines the political and material austerity of everyday life in Cuba.

This is because Cuba has succeeded where all others have failed, in cocking a snook a t the giant of the hemisphere and sumv- ing. In Latin American eyes this i s a n exploit on a par with the, victories which

Bolivar and the other rebels achieved in their day against European colonialism. Fidel Castro, Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos are quite simply a part of the heroic tradition of the continent. No propaganda m the world can dispel this fundamental impression in Latin America, least of all among the rising generation.

The US rather than the Cuban leaders is made to take the blame for Cuba's internal developments subsequently having moved in an undesirable direction for many people, perhaps for the majority. Cuba would not have had any cause to drift into a new state of dependence on a great power if it had not been forced into doing so, partly for security reasons (the Bay of Pigs) and partly for economic reasons (the blockade).

Nor is it any coincidence that Cuba, while capable of sending tens of thousands of troops to Africa, could not dispatch as much as a revolver to Nicaragua. Overt material support from Cuba would be a kiss of death for any left-wing group in Latin America. Fidel Castro's Cuba can exert great moral influence in the tactical and strategic context, but in the present situation Castro is very careful to avoid becoming embroiled in a country's internal power struggle.

There is greater likelihood that a mis- guided and antipopular US policy will force the revolutionary process in Central America to 'go Cuban'.

In August 1980 Fidel Castro gave the following answer to my question about Cuban interference in El Salvador: 'We do not have any Cuban advisers in El Salvador. It would be madness. And we have no need to do this. The guerilla army is very strong. They have a large number of instructors at various levels. They could launch a final offensive shortly. They have tens of thousands of men in arms and a strong popular following. And they have an almost incomprehensible disregard for death. They seem to feel that they have nothing to lose'.

There is reason to take the Cuban premier a t his word. With his two decades' experience, Castro appreciates the importance of

playing his cards skilfully and prudently, not least during election year in the US, so as to avoid doing the hawks any extra favours. And besides, it has been established Cuban policy for many years not to provide military support in Latin America.

It is not much more intelligent either to claim that the Soviet Union is acquiring a bridgehead for itself in Central America. The Soviet Union cannot afford to befriend yet another country which, in the event of a communist takeover, would inevitably be subjected to an efficient and devastating isolation.

What the Soviet Union is instead engaged in is the economic penetration of Latin America - and successful economic penetration at that. The global duel between the superpowers is conducted mainly in economic terms where Latin America is concerned. Ironically enough, President Carter's attempt to bring about a worldwide grain blockade following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan has put a trump card into Moscow's hand, because the Soviet Union today is one of the principal trading partners of anticommunist Argentina.

Shortly a f t e r the US tried to dis- suade the Videla regime from selling to the Soviets, a large Soviet trade delegation visited Buenos Aires. The visit was a success. In 1979 the Soviet Union imported Argentinian goods valued a t 400 million dollars, and this figure is expected to be doubled in 1980. Meat and grain are the principal import commodities. Argentina has done well out of the transaction, because her imports from the Soviet Union are only one-tenth of her 400 million dollar exports to that country.

The American allegations - emanating, for example, from the Pentagon - that Cuba is sending military advisers and arms to El Salvador appear to have a purpose other than that of veracity, namely that of discrediting the opposition. It is to be hoped that there is not an even more sinister motive involved, namely that of preparing the ground for open military intervention by the US in the event of the junta col- lapsing. Seen in this perspective, the State Department's oft repeated thesis that 'we

will not use military force in situations where only domestic groups are in contention' acquires a menacing overtone.

The Church in El Salvador has clearly taken these ominous signs seriously and has repeatedly appealed to the US not to inter- fere in the country's political development. Archbishop Romero first wrote to President Carter in mid-February last year, protesting against Washington's plans to give military aid to the junta. Then on 17 February, just over a month before he died, the Arch- bishop wrote as follows: 'Instead of promoting greater justice and peace in El Salvador, it [military aid from the US] will no doubt sharpen the injustice and repression against the organisations of the people who repeatedly have been struggling to gain respect for their most fundamental human rights.

T h e present junta government and above all the armed forces and security forces unfortunately have not demonstrated their capacity to resolve, in political and struc- tural practice, the grave national problems. In general they have only reverted to rc- pressive violence, producing a total of deaths and injuries much greater than in the recent military regime'.

And referring to a US shipment of tear- gas in November 1979, the Archbishop said: T h e security forces, with better personal protection and efficiency, have repressed the people even more violently using lethal weapons'.

Archbishop Rivera y Damas, the suc- cessor of Romero. has reiterated his murdered predecessor's apprehensions.

On 7th September he attacked the US'S 'uninvited intervention in the internal affairs of El Salvador'.

The new archbishop has gradually stepped up his criticism of the policy of the christiandemocratic military junta: 'Week by week the violence gets worse. The ex- cessive force, cruelty and indiscrimination of military operations cannot be justified'.

A week later, on 13 September, the Archbishop's Legal Aid Office stated that it had evidence showing that at least 4,258 persons had been murdered between l

January and 1 September; 80 per cent of them had been killed by the army and the national security forces and the remainder by parliamentary death squadrons with army protection.

A month later the same organisation up- dated its figures to 5,500 persons murdered, and 27,000 families forcibly evacuated as a result of repression by the regime. Ten priests. Archbishop Romero among them, had also been murdered since 1977, and a large number of churches and other religious institutions had been attacked by the armed forces.

Rivera y Damas once again condemned 'the oppression in the north by the army and the right-wing armed forces'. He also revealed that the regime was arming re- luctant farmers and threatening them with imprisonment or with treatment as subversive~ if they refused to accept arms.

According to persons close to the Arch- bishop, the number of fatal victims will have passed 10,000 by the end of the year. Needless to say, the Archbishop also con- demns revolutionary violence, just as he unambiguously condemned the senseless murder of the kidnapped South African ambassador in October. But in the polarised situation existing today there is no doubt which side he and his assistants support and where they pin most of the blame for the Salvadorean tragedy.

Testimony concerning the grotesque mani- festations of 'repressive reformism' come to us not only from Salvadorean sources. Last June embittered priests and nuns at Santa Rosa de Copan in the neighbouring country of Honduras published their own grief-stricken evidence of the massacre in the village of La Arada. 'Impelled by our faith in God and Truth and Life', they attested among other things to the following: 'Last January, a good number of Salvador- cans, mostly children, women and elderly, sought refuge in our country. In their exodus they were systematically harassed by the Salvadorean National Guard.

T h e most evident example of this harassment and cruelty happened last May 14.

The day before, several trucks and vehicles of the Honduran Army arrivd filled with soldiers. Without stopping, they went 14 kilometers further down, to near the Sumpil River, the border between the Honduras and El Salvador. The megaphones directed to Salvadorean territory shouted out the prohibition against crossing the border.

'On he opposite side, at around 7a.m.. in the Salvadorean village of La Arada and its surrounding area, the massacre began. At least two helicopters, the Salvad- orean National Guard, soldiers and the paramilitary organisation ORDEN opened fire on defenceless people. Women tortured before the finishing shot and infants thrown into the air for target practice were some of the scenes of the criminal slaughter. The Salvadoreans who crossed the river were returned by the Honduran soldiers to the area of the massacre. In mid-afternoon the genocide ended, leaving at least 600 corpses'.

Thus the arguments put forward by our brother party the MNR in January for (caving the junta and joining the FDR have not only been confirmed but have gained credibility and strength, not least in view of the escalation, attested by this account, of state-sanctioned terror. It is obvious, among other things, from the great offensive launched by the junta in October/November against the guerilla strongholds in the north that the military have opted for a military solution to the country's political problems. On 26 October the Archbishop's office once more condemned the army's methods and accused the regime of conducting a war of extermination: 'The repression we are now suffering is worse than the sadism and bloody cruelty in the days of Romero'.

We European social democrats have ourselves repeatedly conveyed our criticism of US policy to Washington.

The so-called reformist centre alternative is unrealistic. I t is a right-wing alternative without any will to reform, from which most of the forces in the centre have defected or else been forced to capitulate. The same process has occurred within the

military establishment, where the reputedly more radical Majano lost a vote to the more hard-line, pro-US Gutierrez.

The purely decorative nature of the part played by the two christian democrats in the junta, in spite of possibty honest inten- tions, is eloquently borne out by the vale dictory letter signed by a group of their party colleagues, including three ministers, last March. Hector Dada, formerly foreign minister and member of the junta, also seceded from the party in protest and formed the Movimiento Popular Social Cristiano, which later merged with the FDR.

Another christian democrat who resigned on 26 March, Jorge Alberto Vilhcorta, was deputy minister of agriculture and respon- attic for the implementation of the land reform. His resignation reflects the im- practicability of that reform. As an active politician in the country at large, he has seen with his own eyes how the army and the paramilitary forces of the right wing have harrassed and murdered farmers. He maintains that, in addition to its failure to stop violence, the government is generating violence through its oppression.

Villacorta's impression is confirmed from many other sources, by aid workers, priests and journalists operating independently of the Church and the FDR. According to one German source, the US international development agency AID has made a study of the first phase of the land reform which turned into a ruthless criticism of the entire project. The person who compiled the study then resigned from AID.

According to other reports the main adviser to the regime on the land reform is a M r Prosterman, on loan from the US trade-union agency AIFLD. Prosterman's qualifications in this connection date back t o his advisory services to President Marcos of the Philippines and to the forced urban- isation programme in Vietnam which was designed to eliminate the support derived by the FNL guerilla from the civilian population.

Similar developments are in progress in Guatemala. The opposition there has long been leading a very dangerous life. By

means of a systematic policy of extermination, the various dictatorships have been able to obliterate practically all resistance ever since the CIA coup of 1954. About 50,000 people have been murdered in the past twenty-five years, and even today the violence is of exceptional proportions. More than 3,000 Guatemalans are estimated to have disappeared or been killed in 1979, and during 1980 this figure has risen con- siderably- Every day ten dead bodies are found, often tortured and mutilated. But resistance survives, and in new forms. The Democratic Front Against Repression, FDCR, was founded in February 1979 a t the instigation of the National Committee for Trade-Union Unity, CNUS. The Front represents about 500 organisations, m e - spending to 95 per cent of all democratic organisations in the country. This member- ship rate, 7-10 per cent of the population, is greater than thai achieved by the Sand- inislas during the war of liberation s~&& Somoza. Pardkl to this widespread civil' resistance, four different guerib groups a re in action and are progressively coordinating their operations.

The FDCR includes the two socialdemocratic parties, the FUR and the PSD. These parties have finally been compened to accept the thought of meeting violence with vio- lencc m sheer self-defence, The last remaining democrat in the government, V i - president Villagran Kramer, resigned after a hopeless struggle in September and went into exile in the US. Asked who was responsible for the murders in his country, he replies: 'The government, who else?' The Ft>CR. unlike El Salvador, is dominated by civilian and moderate forces. The peculiar thing is that the US does not display any exaggerated interest in the democratic opposition. The FDCR has difficulty in gaining the car of top-level people in Washington. In the meantime the work of the death squadrons continues and the ongoing polarisation diminishes the chances of peaceful settlements in future.

From our European vantage point we have asked whether the agreement concluded by

the radical left with the civilians in FDR is to be relied on. After a possible military victory, for example, will they place their armed forces under the authority of the Democratic Front government and respect pluralism, the mixed economy and all the other features of the joint programme? We Europeans, after all, have had long and bitter experience of the underground tactics and unreliability of the extreme left.

The answers received from Latin America have been unequivocal. Our party comrades and other civilians we have spoken to within the FDR trust their allies. The guerilla representatives for their part assure us that they will honour their commitments to the letter. Clearly they are aware of what effect coup methods would have, nationally and internationally, on the no less important postwar phase of consolida- tion and recovery.

Fidel Castro shares this attitude. He is convinced that the guerilla is just as sophi- sticated and responsible as the Sandinistas in Nicaragua. He if anybody ought to know. The Cuban leader also knows what backlash effects a disintegration of the FOR would have on the entire Latin American liberation struggle during the 1980s. There is reason to believe that, against this background and on the strength of his good contacts, Castro is also pursuing this line. Contrary to the allegations made by the Pentagon and other hawks, therefore, it is arguable that Cuba constitutes a factor of moderation in Central America. * We sometimes hear from US quarters that. given this acute situation of crisis in Central America, social democracy ought to stay neutral or at least lie low until US policy has had a chance of gaining effect.

We find it curious and unfortunate that instead of querying and counteracting the involvement of European social democracy the US does not make positive use of it. Our purposes are not extremist or even extreme. We believe, like Mexico for cx- ample, that it is unrealistic to try to exclude from a solution armed resistance against the regime. The guerilla has a substantial following among the people and the country

cannot be governed without it. The solution must be political, not military. This attitude, we believe, is founded on a long-term analysis and on consideration for the interests of all the parties involved.

T h e involvement of social democracy could be used in order to relax positions and further increase the guarantee that victory for the opposition, which we believe to be inevitable, will truly lead to respect for pluralism and nonalignment. Our support for the FDR does not mean that we unreservedly endorse their policies o r actions. We believe that both sides in the conflict will have to compromise, that a new deal will have to be made. For as things now stand, both blocs are powerful. They appear capable o f continuing the conflict for a long time to come. Neither ride can be conclusively defeated. This 'deal' will have to be based on social justice, respect for human rights and national independence. In the meantime a truce will have to be proclaimed and the paramilitary forces dis- banded and kept under control.

Measured in human terms, the junta and the policy of the US have amounted to a bloody tragedy. The bloodshed has not been stilled; on the contrary, it is mounting from day to day. European social democracy therefore refuses to accept any latter-day Monroe doctrine for Central America. We regard our involvement as a contribution towards peace and democracy, for the longer t he minority regimes in El Salvador and Guatemala are propped up from outside, the bloodier and more radical the ulti- mate solution will be.

The future of Latin America will of course be decided by the Latin Americans themselves. The manner in which the liberation struggle is to be waged has been a constantly recurring theme ever since the revolt against European colonialism.

The first attempt in modern times at a continental coordination of the struggle for democracy came during the 1950s, when a group of socialdemocraticallv minded poli-

ticians held joint consultations and s u p ported one another.

The group's strategy was to substitute broad-based popular parties for the dictatorships and to seek support for their struggle in the US. The first of these objectives was difficult, but it was achieved on the whole. The PLN i n Costa Rio, Aod6n Demo- critic* in Venezuela. APRA in P m and the PRD in the Dominican Republic all became the biggest parties in their rcspcc- tive countries. The second objective was illusory. Instead, association with the US became a source of discredit for many of the Latin American freedom fighters. T o the US a t that time, stability and profits counted for more than democracy and national independence.

T h e early 1970s saw a nationalist revival in opposition to the privileged status of the US. All governments, whatever their political hue, realised that the US was reaping most of the profits in all sectors, at the same time as underdevelopment in Latin America was actually being aggravated- The Progressive Alliance had also proved to be a colossal failure. An American analysis showed that there was really only one country that satisfied the criteria of economic and social development which had been defined by the Alliance, namely Cuba - the very country against which the Alliance had been directed!

How was the liberation struggle in each country to be carried further? The left had long since realised that it was practically impossible to build socialism in a country without introducing a new state of tutelage. Perhaps it was also impossible to achieve democracy in a country without considerable support from outside?

The Chilean coup has taught many people that a reformist government must have a stable majority within its own borders if it is to survive. A broad popular home front supported by world opinion seems to be the recipe for success. It goes without saying that a recipe of this kind presupposes compromises and ideological alliances.

Following the coup which took place in Bolivia in July 1980, all six countries making

up what is geopolitically termed the Southern Cone (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay) now have militarydominated regimes. Consequently the Latin American continent is roughly divided into two blocs, the northern one of which is governed by democratic regimes while the southern one is governed by military regimes. There are tendencies towards coordination between the latter.

Secret security cooperation already exists, within the framework of 'Operation Condor', in the form of special agreements between certain countries in this group providing for exchanges of information concerning current activities within various 'terrorist groupings' and consultations on combined efforts to combat them. Since the coup of 17 July, the new military regime in La Paz has at regular intervals been signalling its desire to leave the Andean Pact in order to enter a new foreign-policy constellation which has actually been named "The Southern Cone Pact'.

These insights and experiences have produced in Latin America a new situation in which new alliances have taken shape. Nicaragua was in a manner of speaking a catalyst. Ideology was put to one side and all attention was concentrated on the front against dictatorship, and outside support was widespread and symptomatic of the new situation. European social democracy gave political backing to the Sand- inistas and the Group of Twelve and material assistance to the governments of Venezuela, Mexico, Costa Rica and Panama.

A similar pattern can be seen in Ei Salvador and- will soon become apparent in Guatemala. And following the coup in Bolivia, where the left has shown sacrificial obstinacy in supporting the parliamentary process and the right-wing military have once more thwarted the will of the people, we have been given substantial evidence of the need for a broad front against dictatorship.

As Latin America enters the 1980s, we are perhaps on the threshold of something new: the old dream entertained by the Figueres - de La Torre - Betancourt -

Bosch quarter of coordinating the struggle for democracy within and between the various countries has been revived, this time strengthened by a more militant and conscious opinion in both Latin America and Europe. In this way isolation has been broken and a greater impact achieved. The FDR in El Salvador and the FDCR in Guatemala have been followed by GUN (Gobierno de Unidad Popular) in Bolivia and Convergencia ~ e m o c r ~ t i c a 'in Uruguay, and similar attempts are under way in Argentina, Paraguay and elsewhere.

The change of power in the US will mean a considerable tougher climate for the liberation struggle in Latin America in general. Even if the ~epublicans do not fulfil1 their aggressive promises of the electoral platform, Reagan's victory has already had an effect on the military regimes and their policies. The dictatorships know that Carter's demand for respect for human rights is becoming a fading memory. They know that their scope for action has in- creased and they believe that they have an ally in the new US president in the anticommunist crusade.

In Central America, the Sandinistas will no doubt meet a more hostile US and a more active CIA. In Guatemala, the regime will count upon becoming a bulwark against the revolutionary pressures from the south. In El Salvador, however, the conditions have not changed dramatically. There, in spite of all talk of reformism and democratisa- tion, the US is firmly oft the side of the military against the 'communists'. The front lines are already drawn.

In that struggle social democracy has made its choice, and will continue its policy of solidarity, irrespective of who is sitting in the White House.

The coming trial of strength between dictatorship and democracy in Latin America would be so much briefer and less excruciating if the US could learn to live with liberation movements, to accept a people's right to self-determination also in its own hemisphere, and to realise that free people are not only superior to free-market mechanisms but also better partners in cooperation.

IFDA DOSSIER 23 , MAY/JUNE 1981

MARK1 NGS

THE DOOMSDAY CLOCK CLOSER TO TWELVE * / by Inga Thorsson -

When t o d a y we s t a r t t h e 1981 s e s s i o n o f t h e Committee on d i sa rma-

ment ( C D ) , we have t o look back on two c o n s e c u t i v e y e a r s - t h e

f i r s t two y e a r s o f i t s e x i s t e n c e - o f f a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e r e a l

r e s u l t s i n o u r work. And we s h a l l t h e r e f o r e t e l l o u r s e l v e s i n a l l

s i n c e r i t y t h a t o u r main t a s k now, two y e a r s and a h a l f a f t e r t h e

U n i t e d N a t i o n s Genera l Assembly S p e c i a l S e s s i o n on Disarmament

(SSOD I ) and one y e a r and a h a l f l e f t t o t h e convening o f SSOD 11,

must be t o a n a l y s e t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d t h e s e f a i l u r e s and t r y t o

f i n d new a p p r o a c h e s i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e g e n u i n e p r o g r e s s i n o u r

e f f o r t s .

T r u e , l a s t y e a r t h e CD managed t o e s t a b l i s h working g r o u p s i n

f o u r a r e a s o f o u r a c t i v i t i e s . Sweden i s p a r t i c i p a t i n g and w i l l

c o n t i n u e t o d o s o a c t i v e l y i n t h e y e a r t o come, i n t h e endeavours

o f t h e s e work ing g r o u p s . But it i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e t r u e p u r p o s e

o f t h e s e e n d e a v o u r s t o b e r e a l i s t i c i n t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f what can

be a c h i e v e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e r e q u e s t f o r n e g o t i a t i o n s , w i t h p a r -

t i c u l a r emphas i s on two h i g h p r i o r i t y a r e a s , t h a t i s a Comprehen-

s i v e T e s t Ban T r e a t y (CTBT) and a Chemical Weapons c o n v e n t i o n ,

d i r e c t e d t o u s by t h e UN G e n e r a l Assembly.

I s h a l l n o t now t r y t o make s u c h a n a s s e s s m e n t . A more a p p r o p r i -

a t e t i m e f o r t h a t w i l l come l a t e r . My p o i n t i s r e a l l y t h a t t h e s e

two h i g h p r i o r i t y a r e a s must b e , and r e m a i n , t h e c e n t r e o f o u r

a t t e n t i o n and o u r e f f o r t s i n t h e t i m e r e m a i n i n g t o u s up t o t h e

SSOD 11. ( . . . )

*/ Excerpts from a statement by Inga Thorsson, Swedish Under-Secretary of - State for Disarmament at the UN Committee on Disarmament, 3 February 1981.

I t must be d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e n u c l e a r weapons m y s t i q u e , t h e

n o t i o n t h a t a n u c l e a r weapon i n any way can i n c r e a s e t h e n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i t y o f any s t a t e , i s a f r a u d , what I have e a r l i e r c a l l e d " t h e

g r e a t e s t f a l l a c y o f o u r t i m e " , which f a r f rom i n c r e a s i n g a n y b o d y ' s

s e c u r i t y i s c e r t a i n t o r e d u c e it f o r a l l .

Here , o f c o u r s e , t h e n u c l e a r powers a r e r e q u e s t e d t o r e c o g n i z e

t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o s e t an example. There i s ,

r e g r e t t a b l y , l i t t l e s i g n t h a t such a r e c o g n i t i o n i s f o r t h c o m i n g .

I t would i n d e e d be more a c c u r a t e t o t e r m t h e per formance of t h e

superpowers i n t h i s r e s p e c t a s t u d y i n i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

L e t me t a k e two examples :

Dramat ic r e v e l a t i o n s have been made r e c e n t l y c o n c e r n i n g t h e a l a r m

and n u c l e a r weapons s a f e g u a r d s s y s t e m o f one superpower .

Accord ing t o a U S C o n g r e s s i o n a l r e p o r t i n October 1980 t h e r e were ,

i n an 1 8 month p e r i o d , 147 f a l s e a l a r m s t h a t were s e r i o u s enough

t o r e q u i r e an e v a l u a t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d a p o t e n t i a l

n u c l e a r weapon a t t a c k .

Four o t h e r a l a r m s , i n c l u d i n g two t h a t had n o t been d i s c l o s e d p r e -

v i o u s l y were c o n s i d e r e d even more s e r i o u s and r e s u l t e d i n o r d e r s

t h a t i n c r e a s e d t h e s t a t e o f a l e r t o f B-52 bomber c rews and i n t e r -

c o n t i n e n t a l b a l l i s t i c m i s s i l e u n i t s .

F i n a l l y , t h e r e were a l s o 3.703 l e s s e r a l a r m s , p r i m a r i l y c a u s e d by

a t m o s p h e r i c d i s r u p t i o n s . To u s e a s i m p l e r e x p r e s s i o n : t h u n d e r -

s t o r m s and l i g h t n i n g s . M r . Chairman, I b e l i e v e t h a t such "atmos-

p h e r i c d i s r u p t i o n s " w i l l c o n t i n u e t o o c c u r a round t h e sys tems o f

s u r v e i l l a n c e . Should human s u r v i v a l be dependent on n a t u r a l

phenomena, t e c h n o l o g i c a l o r human f a i l u r e s o f t h i s k i n d ? And how

c o u l d N u c l e a r Weapon S t a t e s f a c e t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ?

From a n o t h e r r e c e n t r e p o r t , a l s o q u o t e d i n t h e US p r e s s , we l e a r n

t h a t a t l e a s t 2 7 a c c i d e n t s , s o - c a l l e d Broken Arrows, have o c c u r r e d

i n v o l v i n g US n u c l e a r weanons. One o f them i s r e p o r t e d t o have

l e f t o n l y one o u t o f s i x c o n t r o l mechanisms i n t a c t t o p r e v e n t t h e

e x p l o s i o n o f a 2 4 megaton n u c l e a r weapon, 1 .800 t i m e s s t r o n g e r

t h a n t h e 1945 Hiroshima bomb, o v e r US t e r r i t o r y . I t h a s f u r t h e r

been a l l e g e d , i n t h e same c o n t e x t , t h a t 10 more a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d

i n t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f o t h e r s t a t e s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o a l l t h i s t h e r e i s i n c r e a s e d a l a r m o v e r l a t e i n c r e a -

s e s i n leukemia a s a r e s u l t o f e x p o s u r e t o n u c l e a r weapons t e s t i n g

i n t h e US i n t h e f i f t i e s .

Some o f t h e c a s e s may b e o v e r s t a t e d o r t e n d e n t i o u s a n d , a s a l w a y s ,

t h e r e i s n o i n f o r m a t i o n o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e from t h e o t h e r s i d e .

There i s , however , l i t t l e r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e same f a l s e

a l a r m s , a c c i d e n t s and e x p o s u r e s a r e n o t o c c u r r i n g t h e r e t o o a s

w e l l a s i n a more l i m i t e d way i n t h e o t h e r n u c l e a r weapon s t a t e s .

But a weapon which c a u s e s such d a n g e r s t o own and o t h e r popula -

t i o n s a l r e a d y i n peace- t ime s h o u l d c l e a r l y b e d e c l a r e d unaccewta-

b l e a l r e a d y on such g r o u n d s , n o t t o t a l k a b o u t i t s i m p o s s i b l e

consequences f o r everybody i f u s e d i n war t ime . There i s much

c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l and o t h e r h a z a r d s o f n u c l e a r

power. P e r h a p s r e c e n t r e v e l a t i o n s w i l l h e l p t o b r i n g home t o

everybody t h a t a l s o t h e peace- t ime d a n g e r s o f n u c l e a r weapons a r e

t o o g r a v e t o c o n t e m p l a t e .

We s h a l l p r o b a b l y b e t o l d t h a t s u c h a l a r m i s t t a l k i s c o m p l e t e l y

unfounded. Management and c o n t r o l r o u t i n e s w i l l be improved, and

s o on and s o f o r t h . But t h e b a s i c f a c t remains t h a t we a r e t a l k -

i n g a b o u t a weapon which can i n a m a t t e r o f m i n u t e s r e a c h e v e r y

c o r n e r of t h e g l o b e , a weapon a few o f which c a n i n a m a t t e r o f

s e c o n d s e x t i n g u i s h c i v i l i z a t i o n a s we know it. Such weapons can-

n o t e v e r b e s a f e l y managed and c o n t r o l l e d , t h e y must s i m p l y be

a b o l i s h e d .

But i n s t e a d o f c h o o s i n g a j o i n t p a t h o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and r e a s o n

t h e superpowers a n d , t o some e x t e n t , t h e l e s s e r n u c l e a r powers

seem b e n t on p u r s u i n g t h e c o u r s e of mutua l and g e n e r a l a n n i h i l a -

t i o n .

A l r e a d y l a s t y e a r SALT I1 was i n t r o u b l e f o r a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r n a l

and e x t e r n a l r e a s o n s . To a s s e s s i t s f a t e t o d a y i s a l l b u t ixnpos-

s i b l e . S t r o n g v o i c e s have been r a i s e d r e c e n t l y t o have t h e s e

e i g h t y e a r s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s s h e l v e d i n a n o t h e r v a i n a t t e m p t a t

a c h i e v i n g t h a t e l u s i v e , y e s i m p o s s i b l e n u c l e a r s u p e r i o r i t y i n s t e a d

o f a p o s s i b l e p a r i t y o r e q u i v a l e n c e o f f o r c e s . New weapons s y s -

t e m s , p r o j e c t s o f a c o m p l e x i t y and c o s t beyond i m a g i n a t i o n b u t o f

d o u b t f u l m i l i t a r y b e n e f i t , a r e a l r e a d y f a r advanced and r e a d y t o

b e implemented. The e r a o f mobi le ICBM's and new ABM's, g round o r

s p a c e b a s e d , would n o t be f a r away i f t h i s new round o f arms com-

p e t i t i o n i s a l l o w e d t o g e t underway. There a r e few e x p e r t s who do

n o t s e e a g r a v e t h r e a t t o s t a b i l i t y i n such p o l i c i e s . I f t h e r e

h a s been any c o n s t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h e n u c l e a r a g e it h a s been t h a t

a c t i o n f e e d s c o u n t e r - a c t i o n a d i n f i n i t u m o r u n t i l such t i m e a s t h e

weapons come t o be u s e d .

We t h e r e f o r e t o d a y r e q u e s t t h e superpowers t o s t o p a f u r t h e r f u -

t i l e round o f armaments , t o f i n d a way t o f i n a l l y comple te t h e

l a b o r i o u s l y n e g o t i a t e d SALT I1 agreement and t o move from t h e r e

t o n e g o t i a t i o n s t o f u r t h e r r e d u c e t h e l e v e l o f n u c l e a r a r m s . ( . . . )

T h i s p o i n t i n t i m e when we open t h e 1981 s e s s i o n o f t h e Committee

on Disarmament, i s marked by u n c e r t a i n t i e s and w a r n i n g s .

E v e n t s have happened r e c e n t l y which make it even more d i f f i c u l t

f o r u s t o s e e c l e a r l y a h e a d , t o u n d e r s t a n d p r e s e n t r e a l i t i e s ,

a g a i n s t t h e background o f which we have t o work and which we s h a l l

have t o t r y t o change .

T h i s p o i n t i n t ime w i t n e s s e s new deve lopments i n t h e f i e l d o f

n u c l e a r weapons t h r o u g h f u r t h e r and g i g a n t i c l e a p s f o r w a r d i n

m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g y . For a t l e a s t t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s c r u c i a l -

l y d e c i s i v e decade t h e s e a r e i l l b o d i n g i n t h e ex t reme. We mus t

a s k o u r s e l v e s i f t h e y a r e i r r e v e r s i b l e a n d , i f t h a t s h o u l d b e t h e

c a s e , where t h a t would l e a d u s .

L e t us k e e p i n mind t h a t e v e r y o n e i n t h e wor ld under t h e age o f

45 h a s no , o r o n l y v e r y vague , memories o f Hi rosh ima, and i t s

r e a l i t i e s . Is t h a t one o f t h e r e a s o n s why t h e r e c e n t UN S tudy on

Nuclear Weapons h a s a l m o s t d i s a p p e a r e d from t h e p u b l i c d e b a t e and

even from t h e d e b a t e on t h e o f f i c i a l l e v e l ? I f i n d it o f u tmos t

impor tance t h a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h e S tudy b e k e p t i n t e n s e l y i n

t h e p u b l i c ' s e y e , i n s p i t e o f , o r - b e t t e r - p a r t i c u l a r l y b e c a u s e

t h e N u c l e a r Weapons S t a t e s b o y c o t t e d t h e E x p e r t Group t h a t p ro-

duced t h e r e p o r t , d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n i t s work, d i d n o t p r o v i d e

i t w i t h t h e r e q u e s t e d open m a t e r i a l .

F o r t u n a t e l y , it was p o s s i b l e f o r t h e E x p e r t Group t o overcome t h e

o b s t a c l e s c r e a t e d by t h e Nuclear Weapons S t a t e s and p r e s e n t i t s

c o n c l u s i o n s b a s e d on a w e a l t h o f f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n .

From t h i s and o t h e r s o u r c e s we know t h a t t h e n u c l e a r a r s e n a l s o f

t h e superpowers a r e many t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n needed f o r t h e

e f f e c t i v e f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e i r d e c l a r e d p u r p o s e o f d e t e r r e n c e .

The t e c h n o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f n u c l e a r weapons h a s made it

more and more d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e s o - c a l l e d b a l a n c e o f

t e r r o r i s a f u n c t i o n i n g i n s t r u m e n t f o r peace . The r i s k s t h a t t h e

development w i l l g e t o u t o f hand a r e i n c r e a s i n g . P a r t i c u l a r l y

w o r r y i n g i s t h a t new d e l i v e r y s y s t e m s p e r m i t n u c l e a r weapons " t o

be u s e d " t h e same way a s o t h e r weapons l e a d i n g up t o t h e i l l b o d i n g

i d e a t h a t a n u c l e a r war c o u l d b e f o u g h t and won. On t h e c o n t r a r y ,

t h e s t u d y shows t h a t t h e r e can b e n o winner i n a n u c l e a r war and

t h a t i t s p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y e f f e c t s would b e c a t a s t r o p h i c f o r

a l l c o u n t r i e s o f t h e w o r l d . The n o t i o n t h a t a n u c l e a r war c o u l d

be k e p t under c o n t r o l i s found t o b e u n r e a l i s t i c . T h i s means i n

p o l i t i c a l t e r m s t h a t t h e superpowers a r r o g a n t l y keep t h e p e o p l e o f

t h e w o r l d h o s t a g e f o r what t h e y p e r c e i v e a s t h e i r own s e c u r i t y

n e e d s . But t h e s t u d y shows t h a t a sys tem b a s e d on a p r e c a r i o u s

b a l a n c e o f n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e c a n n e v e r be a r e l i a b l e l o n g t e r m

s o l u t i o n f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y .

F u r t h e r m o r e , i n t h e gloomy a tmosphere i n which we l i v e and work,

it i s a t l e a s t h e a r t e n i n g t o know t h a t g r o u p s o f d e d i c a t e d phy-

s i c i a n s i n v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d t o b r i n q t o t h e a t t e n -

t i o n o f w o r l d p u b l i c o p i n i o n t h e m e d i c a l e f f e c t s o f a n u c l e a r w a r ,

i n o t h e r words t h e u n b e l i e v a b l e h o r r o r s o f human s u f f e r i n g s t h a t

f o l l o w . T h i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e knowledge s h o u l d be b r o u g h t home t o

c i t i z e n s everywhere , t o e n a b l e them t o r a i s e t h e i r v o i c e s i n a n

i n v i n c i b l e p r o t e s t c r y : No more Hi rosh imas! And s t i l l t h e r e a r e

w i s e men, i n E a s t and West , who from t h e i r d e s k s and t h e i r compu-

t e r s p r e a c h t h e g o s p e l o f t h e l i m i t e d n u c l e a r war t h a t can b e

f o u g h t and won. Shame on t h e i r b l i n d n e s s and t h e i r inhuman t h e o -

r i e s !

The r e a l i t i e s o f t o d a y show u s t h a t i n s p i t e o f what common s e n s e

and an o r d i n a r y amount o f f o r e s i g h t would t e l l t h o s e who c o n s i d e r

t h e m s e l v e s b i g and mighty , we s h a l l i n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e

w i t n e s s no f a r e w e l l t o arms. The p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e e a r l y y e a r s

o f t h i s decade p o i n t t o a c o n t i n u i n g arms r a c e , a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e

i n m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e s beyond t h e d i s g u s t i n g f i g u r e o f w e l l

above 500 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s a n n u a l l y , f u r t h e r l e a p s f o r w a r d i n

m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g i e s . A s t h e new Defence S e c r e t a r y i n one o f

t h e superpowers s a i d : "I am v e r y much aware o f t h e need t o add

g r e a t l y t o my c o u n t r y ' s m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h . "

T h i s would l e a d me t o t h e u n f o r t u n a t e l y r e a l i s t i c a s s e s s m e n t t h a t

i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 ' s and i n s p i t e o f t h e upcoming Second UN Genera l

Assembly S p e c i a l S e s s i o n on Disarmament i n 1982 , t h e r e a r e l i m i t e d

r e a s o n s t o e x p e c t a c o n c l u s i o n o f a CTBT f o r a l l t i m e , a c e s s a t i o n

o f t h e n u c l e a r arms r a c e , a c o n v e n t i o n b a n n i n g p r o d u c t i o n and

s t o c k p i l i n g of chemica l weapons, a s t a r t o f a d i sa rmament p r o c e s s .

And we s h o u l d k e e p i n mind t h a t t h e c r u c i a l f a c t o r t i m e i s n o t on

o u r s i d e . The l o n g e r n e g o t i a t i o n s and agreements a r e d e l a y e d , t h e

more d i f f i c u l t t h e y t e n d t o become.

W e o f t e n speak a b o u t t h e n e e d , even t h e n e c e s s i t y t o have an i n -

c r e a s i n g l y w i d e s p r e a d p u b l i c o p i n i o n e n g a g i n g i t s e l f i n t h e s t r u g -

g l e f o r peace and s u r v i v a l . But we do n o t make it v e r y e a s y f o r

c o n c e r n e d c i t i z e n s t o come on s p e a k i n g t e r m s w i t h u s . The arma-

ment-disarmament d e b a t e d e a l s w i t h f a c t s and f i g u r e s , which under -

s t a n d a b l y t r a n s c e n d what c a n e a s i l y b e g r a s p e d . Who c a n c a t c h t h e

p r o p o r t i o n s o f a r e a l i t y , where t h e p r e s e n t worldwide s t o r a g e o f

n u c l e a r weapons c o r r e s p o n d t o 1 , 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 Hiroshima bombs? And l e t

us f u r t h e r a g r e e , t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e i t s e l f w i t h i t s t remendous

power o v e r t h e human mind, a s w e l l a s o v e r t h e p r o c e s s o f d e c i s i o n -

making h a s been c o r r u p t e d by means o f t h e f r e q u e n t euphemisms,

which have e n t e r e d t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f t h e armaments community,

such a s b o n u s - k i l l s and mega-death. T h i s h a s t h e e f f e c t o f throw-

i n g d u s t i n t o p e o p l e ' s e y e s . Everybody knows what a cannon o r a

gun i s , b u t what i s t h e g e n e r a l c o g n i t i v e v a l u e , one may a s k , o f

a mininuke o r a MIRV, o f Honest John o r F a t Boy?

P a r t o f t h i s development i s f u r t h e r m o r e a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e v e r y

approach t o d i sa rmament , which h a s been a d o p t e d f o r p r a c t i c a l

p u r p o s e s i n t h e a b s e n c e o f g e n e r a l and comple te d i sa rmament : t h e

s t e p by s t e p approach . A s we a l l know disarmament n e g o t i a t i o n s

t h e r e b y n e c e s s a r i l y engage i n h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l m a t t e r s and i s s u e s ,

which u n f o r t u n a t e l y t e n d t o o b s c u r e t h e v e r y purpose o f t h e whole

p r o c e s s . But we must a lways k e e p i n mind, t h a t d i sa rmament i s

t o o i m p o r t a n t t o b e l e f t s o l e l y t o e x p e r t s and governments . We

must be a b l e t o communicate w i t h o e o p l e i n human t e r m s , i n o r d e r t o

g e t t h e i r i n d i s p e n s a b l e s u p p o r t and demand f o r r e s u l t s .

A p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a d e c i s i v e i n c r e a s e i n p u b l i c awareness o f

" p r e s e n t d a n g e r s " i s o f c o u r s e , t h a t a r a d i c a l change i n t h i n k i n g ,

a t t i t u d e s , v a l u e s , dec i s ion-making and a c t i o n s t a k e s p l a c e soon .

Now, i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e b a t e , r e f e r e n c e i s o f t e n made t o t h e

need f o r a d i s p l a y o f p o l i t i c a l w i l l o f n a t i o n s and governments ,

i n o r d e r t o r e a c h r e s u l t s i n t h e d e c a d e s - l o n g , g r a y d r u d g e r y o f

disarmament t a l k s . T h i s i s w i t h o u t d o u b t c o r r e c t , b u t by now,

somewhat worn o u t . Because o f t h a t , a n o t h e r r a d i c a l change i s

needed . What i s r e q u i r e d now i s a c l e a r e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e p o l i -

t i c a l w i l l o f p e o p l e s , m a t e r i a l i z i n g i n t h e a c t i o n needed , t o

make governments m o b i l i z e t h e i r p o l i t i c a l w j . 11 t o move d e c i s i v e l y

towards r e a l and genuine d i sa rmament .

T h i s i s n o t s h e e r r h e t o r i c , a l t h o u g h I sometimes f e e l , t h a t t h e

words we u s e a r e l o s i n g any r e a l meaning. I f , i n t h e medium- o r

long- te rm p e r s p e c t i v e , we a r e g o i n g t o s u r v i v e t h e consequences og

o u r own a c t i o n s , t h e s e worn o u t words must be g i v e n back t h e i r

t r u e and v e r y c o n c r e t e p u r p o r t .

More t h a n two y e a r s and a h a l f have p a s s e d s i n c e t h e SSOD I . What

h a s happened s i n c e t h e n ? Which p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e F i n a l Document 's

A c t i o n Programme have been implemented s i n c e t h e n ? Less t h a n one

y e a r and a h a l f remains t o t h e SSOD 11. What w i l l t h e Committee

on Disarmament have t o r e p o r t t h e n ? Rea l p r o g r e s s i n t h e m u l t i -

l a t e r a l n e g o t i a t i o n s on h i g h p r i o r i t y i s s u e s e n t r u s t e d t o u s ? O r

n o t h i n g e l s e b u t t h e f a c t t h a t s u c h m u l t i l a t e r a l n e g o t i a t i o n s were

d e n i e d u s by f o r c e s beyond o u r c o l l e c t i v e c o n t r o l ?

I t i s h i g h t i m e t o choose . The doomsday c l o c k h a s a g a i n moved

c l o s e r t o t w e l v e . Does t h a t mean t h a t we have shown o u r i n a b i l i t y

t o s t o p what must b e s t o p p e d ?

I a s k e d myself e a r l i e r i n t h i s s t a t e m e n t what amount o f h a r s h

c r i t i c i s m t h e SSOD I1 w i l l bestow upon u s i f we d o n o t improve o u r

per formance . Perhaps t h e S p e c i a l S e s s i o n w i l l remember O l i v e r

Cromwel l ' s famous s h o u t t o t h e Rump P a r l i a m e n t i n 1653: "Give

p l a c e t o b e t t e r men! " But I do hope n o t . I d o hope t h a t f a c i n g

what sometimes seems t h e i m p o s s i b l e , we s h a l l n o t g i v e up , n o r

s h a l l we g i v e i n t o f o r c e s which c o n t i n u e t o p u t o b s t a c l e s i n o u r

way. I b e l i e v e t h a t we a l l a g r e e t o make a n o t h e r and a n o t h e r and

a n o t h e r t r y , t o f i n d new ways, new a p p r o a c h e s .

T h i s i s t h e message t h a t s h o u l d g u i d e us : Four p e r c e n t o f w o r l d

m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e s , l e s s t h a n f o u r t e e n d a y s o f p r e s e n t u s e o f

r e s o u r c e s f o r m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s would e r a d i c a t e t h e w o r s t conse-

q u e n c e s o f mass p o v e r t y and c r e a t e a b e t t e r f u t u r e f o r t h e c h i l -

d r e n o f t h e e a r t h .

INTERACTIONS

A PROPOSAL FOR A DISARMAMENT STRATEGY OF WOMEN AND OTHER C IT IZENS by H i l k k a P i e t i l X :' I n disarmament n e g o t i a t i o n s between governments so f a r most o f t h e p roposa ls d iscussed have been compl i ca ted and p a r t i a l , s e r v i n g more as bases f o r con- t i n u e d n e g o t i a t i o n s than as r e a l p lans seek ing t a n g i b l e r e s u l t s i n s t o p p i n g t h e arms race . I n r e c e n t years n e g o t i a t i o n s have even concen t ra ted m a i n l y on c o n t r o l l i n g t h e arms r a c e r a t h e r than s l o w i n g i t down o r s t o p p i n g i t .

Such p lans do n o t s a t i s f y those peop le l o o k i n g f o r t a n g i b l e r e s u l t s . The c i v i l i a n a n g l e " - t h e f a t e o f c i v i l i a n s i n t h e even t o f modern weapons b e i n g used - has been t o t a l l y f o r g o t t e n and a t t e n t i o n has focussed on e s t i m a t i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g t h e ba lance o f power, on a s s u r i n g t h e a b i l i t y t o coun te r - a t t a c k i f t h e o t h e r s i d e a t t a c k s f i r s t .

I n each c o u n t r y , t h e general pub1 i c can o n l y i n f l u e n c e i t s own government. Our demands must t h e r e f o r e be addressed t o our own r e s p e c t i v e governments and i n each case such demands must be based on t h e s i t u a t i o n and s t a t u s of t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y i n t h e w o r l d s t r u c t u r e . Popu la r movements can, however, s u p p o r t and encourage one ano ther across n a t i o n a l f r o n t i e r s .

The p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e o f t h e new proposal f o r peace a c t i o n b y women and o t h e r c i t i z e n s i s those f a c t o r s which a r e i m p o r t a n t t o c i v i l i a n s , t o women and c h i l - d ren and t o n o n - m i l i t a r y men. I t s reques ts t o governments a r e based on these p o i n t s and a r e expressed s i m p l y and c l e a r l y , so as t o r e l a t e d i r e c t l y t o t h e s i t u a t i o n and s t a t u s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m i l i t a r y s t r u c t u r e o f each c o u n t r y . It aims t o m o b i l i s e people i n t o demanding d e f i n i t e a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e governments o f each c o u n t r y .

Our a im i s t o e s t a b l i s h a p e o p l e ' s movement which w i l l u n i t e t h e p u b l i c o p i - n i o n f o r disarmament t o become a p o l i t i c a l p ressure which w i l l g r a d u a l l y g a i n impetus and focus on t h e governments o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e S o v i e t Union, f o r c i n g them t o r e v i s e t h e i r p o l i c i e s .

The p o p u l a r movement w i l l s t a r t i n t h e n e u t r a l c o u n t r i e s . I t w i l l a t t r a c t women and o t h e r c i t i z e n s f rom s m a l l e r c o u n t r i e s i n b o t h m i l i t a r y b l o c s . F i n a l l y , i t w i l l channel i t s s t r e n g t h th rough t h e cor respond ing movements of c i t i z e n s o f t h e b i g powers c o n f r o n t i n g t h e i r governments and thus c r e a t i n g p o l i t i c a l p ressure t o f o r c e those governments t o s t o p t h e arms race .

*/ Secretary General, The Finnish United Nations Association, Unioninkatu 4 5 B , SF 00170 Helsinki 17.

Nuc lear weapons a r e an a p p a l l i n g t h r e a t t o t h e s e c u r i t y o f a l l peop le .

There i s no defence a g a i n s t n u c l e a r a t t a c k . There fo re , even t h e ma jo r powers c o n c e n t r a t e on c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e i r c o u n t e r - a t t a c k .

I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o t e c t t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e e v e n t o f a n u c l e a r a t t a c k .

No c o u n t r y i s p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t n u c l e a r d i s a s t e r , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f whether i t has n u c l e a r weapons i t s e l f o r n o t .

Those c o u n t r i e s h a v i n g n u c l e a r weapons a r e i n t h e g r e a t e s t danger, because they w i l l c e r t a i n l y be t h e t a r g e t s o f t h e i r oponents.

I f t h e b i g powers use n u c l e a r weapons, t h e b i g g e s t d i s a s t e r w i l l t ake p l a c e i n Europe because b o t h s i d e s w i l l f i r s t a t t a c k t h e i r opponen t ' s bases i n Europe.

The S o v i e t Union and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e arms r a c e . Both a l s o f o r c e t h e i r a l l i e s - t h e members o f NATO and of t h e Warsaw P a c t - t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e arms race .

No l o n g e r can any c o u n t r y p r o t e c t i t s c i t i z e n s by n a t i o n a l measures.

The o n l y way t o a v o i d a n u c l e a r d i s a s t e r i s t o p r e v e n t t h e use o f n u c l e a r weapons.

People everywhere must be made t o r e a l i z e these f a c t s . The movement w i l l t h e r e - f o r e :

- d issemina te i n f o r m a t i o n so t h a t everyone w i l l become aware o f these f a c t s ; - p r o t e s t s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t t h e p r e s e n t t r e n d and t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e

arms race ; - r i s e a p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n which r e f u s e s t o l i v e under such a t h r e a t and w i l l

f o r c e governments t o t a k e a c t i o n t o a b o l i s h i t .

S p e c i f i c demands

The women o f t h e European n e u t r a l c o u n t r i e s ( F i n l a n d , Sweden, A u s t r i a , S w i t z e r l a n d , Cyprus and Yugos lav ia ) can demand t h a t t h e i r governments:

- Stop i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r own s t o c k o f arms because such s t o c k s do n o t i n c r e a s e anybody 'S s e c u r i t y ;

- p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e arms r a c e between t h e b i g powers and t h e i r a l l i e s , and a g a i n s t t h e arms t r a d e ;

- p repare a p l a n f o r a n u c l e a r - f r e e zone t h r o u g h o u t Europe, f r o m Poland t o Por tuga l , and devote a1 1 t h e i r p01 i t i c a l power t o p r o m o t i n g such a p l a n .

The women o f NATO c o u n t r i e s (Norway, Denmark, Ne ther lands , Belgium, Luxembourg, G r e a t B r i t a i n , Federa l Repub l i c o f Germany, France, I c e l a n d ,

I t a l y , Canada, Greece, Por tuga l and Turkey) can demand t h a t t h e i r governments:

- R e f r a i n f rom i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r arms accord ing t o the demands o f t h e U n i t e d S ta tes ;

- c a l l f o r t h e w i thd rawa l o f American t r o o p s , weapons, bases and m i l i t a r y s t o c k p i l e s f rom t h e i r c o u n t r i e s , because these become t a r g e t s , and w i l l cause a h o l o c a u s t t o be unleased on t h e i r own people;

- demand t h a t t h e government o f t h e U n i t e d S ta tes s t o p t h e development and p r o d u c t i o n o f arms and agree w i t h t h e government o f t h e S o v i e t Union on a way o f d i s p o s i n g o f e x i s t i n g weapons.

111. The women o f t h e Warsaw Pact c o u n t r i e s (Poland, Czechoslovakia, t h e German D e m o c r ~ o m a n i a and B u l g a r i a ) can:

- Refuse t o be p r o t e c t e d agains t h e t h r e a t o f t h e U n i t e d S ta tes and t h e NATO by weapons which t h r e a t e n themselves;

- demand t h a t S o v i e t t r o o p s and weapons be wi thdrawn f rom t h e i r c o u n t r i e s , as t h e i r presence w i l l make themselves a t a r g e t and cause a h o l o c a u s t t o be unleashed on t h e i r own people;

- demand t h e i r governments t o p u t p ressure on t h e S o v i e t government t o s t o p t h e development and p r o d u c t i o n o f weapons and agree w i t h t h e government o f t h e U n i t e d S ta tes on t h e d isposa l o f e x i s t i n g weapons.

I V .

V.

V I .

The women o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s can:

- Refuse t o pay taxes t o f i n a n c e t h e arms race which t h e i r government i s conduc t ing , and encourage o t h e r s t o do l i k e w i s e ;

- demand t h e government t o s t o p t h e arms race because i t mere ly acce le - r a t e s t h e s t o c k i n g o f arms i n t h e S o v i e t Union and makes themselves a t a r g e t and causes a h o l o c a u s t t o be unleashed on t h e people o f t h e U n i t e d S ta tes ;

- demand t h e i r government t o agree w i t h t h e government o f t h e S o v i e t Union on s t o p p i n g t h e arms race and on t h e d isposa l o f e x i s t i n g weapons.

The women o f t h e S o v i e t Union can:

- Refuse t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e American people a r e t h e i r enemies;

- demand t h a t t h e i r government s t o p t h e arms r a c e s i n c e i t o n l y acce le - r a t e s t h e s t o c k i n g o f arms i n t h e Un i tes S ta tes and makes themselves a t a r g e t and causes a h o l o c a u s t t o be unleashed on t h e peop le of t h e S o v i e t Union;

- demand t h a t t h e i r government agree w i t h t h e government o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on s t o p p i n g t h e arms r a c e and t h e d isposa l o f e x i s t i n g weapons.

We, t h e women o f Euorpe, t o g e t h e r w i 11 :

- Devote a l l o u r s t r e n g t h t o s u p p o r t i n g o u r American and S o v i e t s i s t e r s i n t h e i r demands on t h e i r governments ;

- f o r c e our own governments t o d isa rm.

we don ' t want t o be t h e l a s t generat ion i n europe.

we do n o t want t o be ex terminated because o f t he madness o f t he b i g powers,

We want t o u n i t e o u r p o l i t i c a l s t r e n g t h i n a11 c o u n t r i e s a g a i n s t t h e i n s a n i t y o f t h e arms race .

We w i l l n o t s t a y s i l e n t any l o n g e r .

Governments must l i s t e n t o us !

Imp lementa t ion i n p r a c t i c e

The Women f o r Peace a c t i o n c a l l s woman t o woman, man t o man, a t t h e h o r i z o n t a l l e v e l . One approach a t t h i s l e v e l i s by l e t t e r . The programme f o r disarmament a c t i o n by women and o t h e r c i t i z e n s w i n be i n i t i a t e d by p r e p a r i n g l e t t e r s a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f t h i s memorandum i n d i f f e r e n t languages:

- Conta in ing t h e b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n on page 2;

- e x p l a i n i n g t h a t we F i n n i s h , o r Nord ic , women a r e j o i n i n g f o r c e s t o p u t p ressure on our own government ( s p e c i f i c demands, p o i n t I . ) ;

- express ing what we w ish women i n t h e r e c i p i e n t c o u n t r i e s c o u l d do ( p o i n t s 11, 111, I V and V ) .

To t h i s end we i n t e n d t o p r i n t l e t t e r s c o n t a i n i n g t h e b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e t e x t addressed s p e c i f i c a l l y t o each i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r y . Each l e t t e r w i l l i n c l u d e a space i n which t h e sender can add h e r own personal message t o h e r s i s t e r i n h e r own o r o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .

The correspondence w i l l :

- Take p lace w i t h i n c o u n t r i e s , f rom woman t o woman, person t o person, so t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e b a s i c f a c t s w i l l be spread and thereby t h e awareness w i l l be c r e a t e d t h a t one can a c t and has t o a c t ;

- pass f rom c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y so t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l spread and we can a c t i v a t e and encourage one ano ther across f r o n t i e r s .

Ue shou ld a l s o urge one ano ther t o promote t h e message by sending t h e l e t t e r t o an a d d i t i o n a l t e n persons.

Th is t y p e o f c h a i n l e t t e r i s an ex t reme ly e f f e c t i v e way o f sp read ing i n f o r - mat ion , o f m o b i l i s i n g people. I f each person sends t h e l e t t e r on t o a t l e a s t t e n people t h e r e w i l l be 100,000 r e c i p i e n t s a l r e a d y on t h e f i f t h round, and t h e s i x t h round would encompass one m i l l i o n . I f each l e t t e r i s s e n t on w i t h i n one o r two weeks, w i t h i n a few months m i l l i o n s o f people w i l l have been reached.

The l e t t e r s w i l l assure us t h a t each o f us can do r e a l i s t i c work f o r peace and a g a i n s t n u c l e a r weapons, each o f us can make a c o n t r i b u t i o n towards dec reas ing t h e r i s k o f n u c l e a r war , and everyone can do someth ing t a n g i b l e f o r t h e s u r - v i v a l o f t h e c h i l d r e n and f o r t h e i r f u t u r e .

THE ITAICI MESSAGE

MESSAGE TO THE CHURCHES AND C H R I S T I A N S OF L A T I N AMERICA

From t h e L a t i n American C o n s u l t a t i o n on T r a n s n a t i o n a l Corpora t ions ( I t a i c i , Sao Paulo, October 1-5, 1980) */

The L a t i n A m e r i c a n C o n s u l t a t i o n on T r a n s n a t i o n a l C o r p o r a t i o n s , CO-sponsored by t h e Commission on t h e Churches ' P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Development (CCPD) of t h e World Counci l of Churches and by t h e Coordenadoria Ecumenica de S e r v i c e s (CESE), met i n I t a i c i , Sao Pau lo , from 1 t o 5 Oc tober , t o s t u d y t h e impact of t r a n s - n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l on t h e L a t i n American economies and the l i v e s of t h e i r peop les .

The mee t ing was p r e s i d e d by Rev. D o r i v a l Rodrigues Beulke of t h e B r a z i l i a n Methodis t Church and by Sa lvador P i r e s of t h e Na t iona l Labour F r o n t ( B r a z i l ) . Manuel d e Melo, P r e s i d e n t of CESE and M i n i s t e r of the P e n t e c o s t a l Church ' B r a s i l p a r a C r i s t o " , gave t h e i n a u g u r a l speech . Other p a r t i c i p a n t s were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f member churches of t h e KCC, the Na t iona l Conference of B r a z i l i a n Bishops (CNBB), t h e L a t i n American Counci l of Churches (CLAI), ecu- menical groups from A r g e n t i n a , B r a z i l , C h i l e , Color-bia, Costa Rica , Ecuador, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, P L ' I U , Puer to R ~ C J and t h e Dominican Re- p u b l i c , o r g a n i z e r s of p a s t o r a l work, urban and r u r ~ i l ~ ~ r k e r s and s e v e r a l L a t i n American socio-economic r e s e a r c h i n s t i i u t e s .

the message The C o n s u l t a t i o n ' s main c o n c e r n was t o r e f l e c t on t h e r e s p o n s i - b i l i t y o f c h u r c h e s and C h r i s t i a n s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i n j u s t i c e and o p p r e s s i o n t o which most p e o p l e of o u r c o n t i n e n t a r e s u b j e c - t e d .

I n t h e i r work f o r t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e o p p r e s s e d and t h e d e f e n c e o f human r i g h t s , t h r o u g h which human b e i n g s , t h e supreme work o f c r e a t i o n , a c h i e v e human d i g n i t y , t h e c h u r c h e s a r e c a l l e d t o b e a r w i t n e s s t o t h e i r m i s s i o n o f b e i n g a s i g n o f redempt ion - a redemp- t i o n f u l f i l l e d by t h e Lord i n o u r p e o p l e s .

We r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s p e r i o d i n human h i s t o r y i s c r u c i a l . TNCs a r e p l a y i n g a d e c i s i v e r o l e i n t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l . i z a t i o n of o u r economies. T h i s r e s u l t s i n a w o r l d which i s d i v i d e d , where in a m i n o r i t y e n j o y s u n l i m i t e d n r i v i l e g e s w h i l e a l a r g e m a j o r i t y i s r e l e g a t e d t o a n e x i s t e n c e which i s sub-human.

*/ Source: S t r u g g l i n g f o r t h e s11.11-in:: L'I I ~ \ . I ~ t l i .incl power (Geneva: World - -..- Council of Churches I '~-oi ; r . i !~ i r ;~- ~ v : ' V s . ' - ; ~ . l i L - t i n S o . 4 , January 1981) .

With the help of analyses and particularly the witness provided by our brothers, the workers and peasants, about the reality of transnationalization and its influence on our economies, we arrived at some conclusions:

1. Transnationalization is a world-wide phenomenon which deeply affects all dimensions of life in our countries: economic, social, cultural and political.

In Latin America the impact of transnationalization is becoming more and more obvious in the following areas:

the establishment of economic policies which protect the mino- rities and place the majorities in a marginal position by promoting income concentration, inequality and unemployment;

the increase of technological dependency;

the spreading of consumeristic attitudes and customs at the expense of depriving and excluding the majority;

the worsening of political and social crises as a result of the establishment of authoritarian regimes;

the hindrance to national sovereignty;

the escalation of the arms race and fratricidal conflicts;

the destruction of cultural values and the identity of our peoples through the transnational control of information which serves to encourage consumption habits oriented toward the superfluous;

the devastating effects on the environment, particularly of the so-called Third World, where TNCs operate with total and unscrupulous abandon from priviledqed positions of power;

the submission of the national dominant classes who subordi- nate national economic development to transnational interests.

3. There is obvious conflict between transnationalization which promotes authoritarian regimes and the emergence of a worldwide struggle for democracy which aims at a redefinition of alternative models of development and of social and political organization of our societies. This type of democracy is founded upon values of social justice, equality and participation, and is a crucial element for the building of a new society where the workers enjoy the benefits of their labour and where, at last, democracy is no longer a hollow notion utilized to manipulate and deceive the hopes of our peoples, but becomes a factor for the humanization of all dimensions of life of our societies.

4. These realities require profound and systematic analysis. The Consultation therefore drew up the following recomrnenda- tions which it presents to the churches and to all Christians in Latin America:

to encourage systematic study and dissemination of information about the transnationalization process and its effects on national societies through the establishment and utilization of international, national and local networks of communication;

to promote wide discussion of the topic with various social movements, particularly with the sectors most affected by that process, such as urban and rural workers, native peoples, those working in cultural, scientific and educational fields, students, parents and teachers, the political and religious leadership of our countries;

to promote solidarity with the social movements which are victims of transnationalization, in their grievances and strug- gles which are of a national and democratic nature, both within our countries and on the international level;

to collaborate with our peoples in their efforts to formulate alternative development proposals which aim at bringing about an economy that fulfills the aspirations of all men and women of our continent - a society that liberates and humanizes;

to encourage churches in Europe and North America to use their moral and economic influence with TNCs and their respective governments to spur them to support movements for social justice and the rights of the peoples of Latin America.

At the close of this Consultation we feel encouraged by the con- viction that the struggle for human rights and the building of a just society, with equality and participation for all, is spreading its roots and gaining strength, despite enormous cost and sacrifice, all over Latin America.

We are convinced that, together with our peoples, we will find answers to the numerous and serious problems of our times, and especially the challenges posed by the TNCs.

INDUSTRIALISATION OF THIRD WORLD FOR BENEFIT OF TNCS OR PEOPLE? 1 / An I n t e r Press Service Feature by Chakravarthi Raghavan -

An entrenched oligopoly of t ransnat ional conglomerates, deploying t h e i r economic and p o l i t i c a l power, now determine pr ices and output in the whole world 's f i b r e s and t e x t i l e economy, an UNCTAD study reports.?/

11 IPS correspondent, Palais des ~ations, Geneva.

2 1 m r e s and Textiles, Dimensions of Corporate Marketing Structures (Geneva: - UNCTAD,1981, UN document TD/B/C.l/219).

The s tudy covers some e i g h t s e c t o r s o f t h e economy c o t t o n p roduc t ion , c o t t o n t r a d e , pe t rochemica ls , chemical f i b r e s , t e x t i l e s , appare l , w h o l e s a l i n g / r e t a i l - i n g and t e x t i l e machinery.

L i k e e a r l i e r UNCTAD s t u d i e s on bananas and tobacco, t h e p r e s e n t s tudy makes no p o l i c y sugges t ions , b u t t h e i ssues i t c o n s i d e r s r a i s e q u e s t i o n s about commodity development and t r a d e and i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n p o l i c i e s i n t h e Nor th-South c o n t e x t , and t h e f u t i l i t y o f some c u r r e n t p o l i c y i deas t h a t do n o t s t r i k e a t t h e r o o t of TNCs and t h e i r g l o b a l power.

An o l i g o p o l y i s a s i t u a t i o n i n which l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s a c t as pr ice-makers as opposed t o a s i t u a t i o n o f f u l l c o m p e t i t i o n where i n d i v i d u a l e n t e r p r i s e s a r e p r i c e - t a k e r s .

The f i b r e s and t e x t i l e marke t , i n v o l v i n g n a t u r a l and chemical f i b r e s and a l l i e d t e x t i l e s , a f f e c t s and i n v o l v e s producers, i n t e r m e d i a r i e s and consumers, l a r g e and sma l l f a r n e r i , r u r a l and u rban workers, manu fac tu re rs i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , consumers everywhere, and t h e banks and t r a d i n g communi t y .

The o l i g o p o l y f u n c t i o n s d i f f e r e n t l y i n t h e p r imary commodity t r a d e and i n i ndus - t r y . Bu t i n bo th , a c c o r d i n g t o the s tudy , a t i n y number o f l a r g e f i r m s e x e r - c i s e power t o o b t a i n p r i c e s g e a r e d t o p r o f i t m a x i m i s a t i o n .

The g rowth o f t h e o l i g o p o l y now c l o s e l y l i n k s t h e f u t u r e and f a t e o f t h e c o t t o n t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y w i t h t h a t o f chemical f i b r e s .

There i s one c h a i n , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c o t t o n , th rough i t s p r o - cess ing i n t o y a r n and t e x t i l e s and then i n t o c l o t h i n g and appare l , and end ing w i t h i t s w h o l e s a l i n g / r e t a i l i n g t o t h e p u b l i c .

There i s a second m a r k e t i n g cha in , i n t i m a t e l y a f f e c t i n g t h e c o t t o n economy, b e g i n n i n g a t t h e o i l f i e l d s , meandering th rough r e f i n e r i e s and pe t rochemica l complexes t o t h e f i b r e p l a n t s , and i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e f i r s t c h a i n a t t h e s t a g e of t h e t e x t i l e p l a n t s .

C o t t o n p r o d u c t i o n i s dominated by t h e USSR, China and t h e USA. B u t i n some 60 T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , c o t t o n i s produced i n a h i g h l y f ragmented way.

The m a r k e t i n g o f t h i s c o t t o n t o t h e s p i n n e r s i s an o l i g o p o l i s t i c s t r o n g h o l d o f t h e TN conglomerates, w i t h head o f f i c e s m a i n l y l o c a t e d i n t h e USA, S w i t z e r l a n d and Japan.

T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s now have a s u b s t a n t i a l share i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f y a r n . B u t t h e c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e n e x t s t a g e o f t e x t i l e weaving and k n i t t i n g i s p r ima- r i l y s t i l l t h e domain o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s .

h e appare l s e c t o r has so f a r been l e s s amenable t o comprehensive mechan isa t ion , -and p r o d u c t i o n i s ove rwhe lm ing ly i n s m a l l - s c a l e and f a i r l y c o m p e t i t i v e economic u n i t s , b u t au tomat ion i s making i n r o a d s here, f o r c i n g even T h i r d Wor ld coun- t r i e s t o automate and thus reduce employment i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n marke t s ha re8

The w h o l e s a l e / r e t a i l l i n k , o p e r a t i n g i n n a t i o n a l markets, has medium l e v e l s o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n many i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s and i s h i g h l y f ragmented i n t h e T h i r d World.

The t e x t i l e machinery i n d u s t r y , w i t h s o p h i s t i c a t e d eng ineer ing des ign and r e - search, i s d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e e r o s i o n o f t h e market share o f c o t t o n by i n t r u s i o n o f chemical f i b r e s . Th is s e c t o r i s h i g h l y concen t ra ted geographica- l l y , w i t h t h e T h i r d World accoun t ing f o r l e s s than f i v e percen t o f t h e w o r l d e x p o r t markets and f a c i n g poor p rospec ts o f i n c r e a s i n g t h i s share.

The chemical f i b r e s i n d u s t r y has a d i r e c t b e a r i n g on t h e c o t t o n economy. Due t o n a t u r a l endowments, t h e USSR, USA and China a r e t h e leaders i n o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n . Bu t a l i m i t e d number o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e a l s o i n t h e p i c t u r e .

The p rocess ing o f n a t u r a l gas and pe t ro leum i n t o pe t rochemica ls has been domi- na ted by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s . B u t severa l s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , t h e OPEC, and Mexico a r e a l s o now i n v o l v e d , and t h e i n d u s t r y i s sp read ing i n t o t h e s o c i a l i s t and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .

Wh i le compara t i ve ly few resources a r e needed t o s e t up chemical f i b r e p l a n t s , t h e c a p i t a l resources needed f o r b a s i c and a p p l i e d research a r e enormous. The TN conglomerates, p romot ing chemical f i b r e s , i n t e r s e c t t h e c o t t o n c h a i n a t t h e s tage o f t e x t i l e manufacture and a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y and i r r e v e r s i b l y e r o d i n g t h e share o f c o t t o n i n end f i b r e uses.

From a 70 p e r c e n t share i n 1955 o f t h e end use markets, c o t t o n ' s share has now been reduced t o under 50 percen t by chemical f i b r e s .

I n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e s tudy ques t ions concepts o f " i n t e r f i b r e c o m p e t i t i o n " between c o t t o n and chemical f i b r e s and suggests t h a t t h e c o m p e t i t i o n i s r e a l l y between t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s p roduc ing t h e two commodit ies.

A t one end o f t h e c h a i n i s t h e power o f t h e TNCs engaged i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n and marke t ing o f chemicals and pe t rochemica ls and t h e r e l e v a n t research, and a t t h e o t h e r end a r e t h e m i l l i o n s o f sma l l farmers, subtenants and l a n d l e s s l a b o u r i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld where subs is tence income i s t h e norm.

As c o t t o n moves i n t o p rocess ing and manufac tu r ing , o l i g o p o l y e n t e r s t h e scene. F i f t e e n g i a n t t r a d e r s , a l l o f them mu l t i commod i ty conglomerates, c o n t r o l 85-90 p e r c e n t o f t h e w o r l d c o t t o n t r a d e .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e fragmented s t a t e o f t h e c o t t o n economy, t w e l v e l a r g e f i r m s produce 3 1 5 t h ~ o f t h e w o r l d ' s chemical f i b r e s and account f o r 80-90 percen t o f t h e w o r l d ' s t r a d e i n these f i b r e s . F i b r e s account f o r o n l y o n e - f i f t h o f t h e t o t a l s a l e s of these f i r m s , and they can c a p t u r e markets by lower p r i c i n g .

The t e x t i l e p rocess ing s tage has a l e s s cohes ive o l i g o p o l i s t i c s t r u c t u r e , b u t approx imate ly 35-40 l a r g e t e x t i l e c o r p o r a t i o n s do c o n t r o l a broad range o f t e x t i l e and n o n - t e x t i l e a c t i v i t i e s . These TNCs, many o f them chemical f i r m s , l a r g e l y dominate t h e w o r l d t e x t i l e t r a d e i n b o t h t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .

The c e n t r e s of power a r e i n s i x c o u n t r i e s - USA, Japan, France, UK, West Germanyand I t a l y . The apparel s tage i s h i g h l y fragmented though r e c e n t tech- n i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s have opened t h e gates f o r f u t u r e c o n c e n t r a t i o n .

Bu t a t t h e wholesale and r e t a i l i n g l e v e l , o l i g o p o l i s t i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n has become much t i g h t e r , w i t h wholesale and r e t a i l gross margins now absorb ing as much as h a l f t h e r e t a i l p r i c e o f t h e t e x t i l e p roduc ts .

A t t h e t e x t i l e machinery l e v e l , a lmost every advance s i n c e w o r l d war two has favoured chemical over n a t u r a l f i b r e s . There a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y c l o s e copora te l i n k s between t h e chemical f i b r e s o l i g o p o l y and t h e t e x t i l e machinery producers. The l a t t e r market i s c o n t r o l l e d by a hand fu l o f TNCs l o c a t e d i n West Germany, USA, UK, Swi tze r land , France, Belgium and I t a l y .

Th is o l i g o p o l y , besides i n f l u e n c i n g f i b r e c h o i c e (between c o t t o n and chemicals) i s sp read ing s o p h i s t i c a t e d e n g i n e e r i n g techno logy th roughou t t h e w o r l d i n v o l - v i n g h i g h c a p i t a l i n t e n s i t y and hence r e d u c t i o n s i n t h e w o r k f o r c e .

I n t h e absence o f c o u n t e r v a i l i n g powers a g a i n s t t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l conglomerate o l i g o p o l y i n t h e w o r l d f i b r e s and t e x t i l e s market, t h e r e w i l l be no r e t u r n t o t h e "normalcy" o f t h e 50s, however such normalcy i s de f ined , accord ing t o t h e UNCTAD r e p o r t .

The 260-page r e p o r t s t u d i e s t h e dimensions o f t h e c o r p o r a t e m a r k e t i n g s t r u c - t u r e s i n t h e w o r l d f i b r e and t e x t i l e economy. The s tudy has concluded t h a t a t p resen t an o l i g o p o l y o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l conglomerates dominates t h e economy and determines p r i c e s and o u t p u t .

V iewing t h e g rowth o f t h e o l i g o p o l y i n t h i s s e c t o r a g a i n s t t h e background o f t h e g l o b a l economic scene and t h e general growth o f o l i g o p o l i e s s i n c e t h e end o f t h e 1 9 t h cen tu ry , t h e UNCTAD s tudy suggests t h a t " t h e r e w i l l be no r e t u r n t o t h e normalcy o f t h e 1950s, however such 'no rma lcy ' be cons t rued" .

The sharpening o f t h e c r i s i s o f t h e 1980s i n i t s view, w i l l speed up two f o r c e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e p r e s e n t c a p i t a l accumula t ion process: an a c c e l e r a t e d e l i m i n a - t i o n o f t h e sma l l and medium s c a l e e n t e r p r i s e s w i t h l i q u i d i t y problems p l a y i n g a p i v o t a l r o l e , and a speedup o f t h e conglomerate t h r u s t s o f t h e TNCs.

I n t h e absence o f c o u n t e r v a i l i n g powers, t h e deployment o f such a concen t ra - t i o n o f conglomerate power p o i n t s t o f u r t h e r and i n t e n s i f i e d c o r p o r a t e take- overs and economic c o n f l i c t s , which would r u n coun te r t o t h e o b j e c t i v e s sought i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e NIEO", t h e r e p o r t says.

The UNCTAD s tudy , w i t h i t s m u l t i s e c t o r a l approach, p rov ides some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e r e l a t i v e power o f t h e success ive stages o f p r o d u c t i o n and marke t ing c h a i n r e f l e c t e d i n t h e r e t a i l p r i c e o f t h e p r o d u c t .

F o r most commodit ies e n t e r i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e , va lue added by t h e f o r e i g n e n t e r p r i s e s accounts f o r 80-90 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e t a i l p r i c e .

I n t h e case o f c o t t o n , t h e p r o d u c t i o n and marke t ing s t r u c t u r e o f t h e w o r l d c o t t o n i n d u s t r y v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l . The r e a l ea rn ings o f t e n a n t farmers and t h e l a n d l e s s wage earners a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y o r d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by a r i s e i n p r i c e s on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l market .

The employment c r e a t i o n i s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o o u t p u t va lue, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e T h i r d World, where n a t u r a l f i b r e s a r e as i m p o r t a n t as f i b r e p rocess ing i n p r o v i d i n g j o b s - 39 m i l l i o n people a r e engaged i n f i b r e p r o d u c t i o n and 36 m i l l i o n on n a t u r a l f i b r e manufacture.

I n 1979, r o u g h l y o n e - t h i r d o f w o r l d c o t t o n ou tpu t , w i t h an es t imated va lue o f 6.1 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s , en te red t h e g l o b a l market.

P r o d u c t i o n i s v e r y v a r i e d . The t h r e e ma jo r producers a r e USSR, China and t h e USA, accoun t ing f o r 56 percen t o f w o r l d o u t p u t . Bu t i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e i r r e l a t i v e shares have a l t e r e d d r a s t i c a l l y , w i t h t h e s o c i a l i s t forms o f produc- t i o n i n USSR and China, and some o t h e r c o u n t r i e s accoun t ing now f o r t w o - f i f t h s o f t h e w o r l d c o t t o n p r o d u c t i o n '

Besides t h e t h r e e ma jo r producers, c o t t o n i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l cash economy o f 7 7 c o u n t r i e s , and i s an i m p o r t a n t f o r e i g n exchange earner as a f i b r e f o r more than 60 o f them,

The f o r e i g n exchange earn ings o f c o t t o n i s as h i g h as 70 p e r c e n t f o r Chad, 40 p e r c e n t f o r Sudan, and 25 p e r c e n t f o r Yemen, Egypt, M a l i , C e n t r a l A f r i c a n Republ ic , Benin, Nicaragua, and Upper V o l t a . Co t ton p rov ides employment f o r 71 percen t o f t h e peop le o f Chad, 35 p e r c e n t i n Nicaragua, 20 p e r c e n t i n Guatemala, 16 i n S y r i a , and 13 i n Sudan;

The o u t p u t of n a t u r a l f i b r e and manufactures accounted i n 1972-74 f o r 5.3 per - c e n t o f GDP i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s as a g a i n s t a mere 1 '2 percen t i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d wor ld. Bu t i n b o t h T h i r d World and i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s , t h e r e i s a r e g u l a r d e c l i n e i n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l f i b r e s and assoc ia - t e d manufactures t o GDP, r e f l e c t i n g t h e i n c r e a s i n g s u b s t i t u t i o n o f man-made f o r n a t u r a l f i b r e s . I n b o t h i n d u s t r i a l i s e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , p rocess ing accounts f o r a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f GDP than raw f i b r e p roduc t ion : i n t h e T h i r d World t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n i s t w i c e as l a r g e - i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d w o r l d p rocess ing 's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o GDP i s s i x t imes t h a t o f n a t u r a l f i b r e p roduc t ion .

Con t ra ry t o t h e widespread myth o f f r e e market p r i c e fo rmat ion , a sma l l number o f mul t i -commodi ty t r a d e r s and s p e c u l a t o r s e x e r t a power fu l and p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e on s h o r t - t e r m movements o f w o r l d c o t t o n p r i c e s . The l o n g e r te rm p r i c e movements a r e c o n d i t i o n e d by o t h e r f a c t o r s o f which t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t a r e t h e p r i c i n g and m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e pe t rochemica l and chemical companiesi

As a r e s u l t t h e s o c i a l i s t and T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s , p roduc ing f o u r - f i f t h s o f t h e w o r l d c o t t o n , p l a y a marg ina l r o l e i n t h e s h o r t - t e r m and long- te rm movements o f c o t t o n p r i c e s a t t h e g l o b a l l e v e l , and a r e f o r c e d t o accep t t h e p r i c e f l u c t u a t i o n s and s u f f e r t h e i r p o t e n t i a l l y harmful e f fec ts .

Whi le t h e New York c o t t o n exchange p lays a n e g l i g i b l e r o l e i n t h e a c t u a l c o t t o n t raded and d e l i v e r e d , t h e New York c o t t o n f u t u r e s p r i c e s p l a y a r o l e s i m i l a r t o t h e o l i g o p o l i s t i c a l l y determined pos ted p r i c e s o f s y n t h e t i c f i b r e s . Sales o f t h e l a t t e r a r e based on markups o r markdowns o f t h e dec la red p r i c e s .

The i n h e r e n t l y u n s t a b l e p r i c e q u o t a t i o n s o f t h e New York f u t u r e s a r e dissemina- t e d g l o b a l l y , de te rmin ing p r i c e s elsewhere. The o p e r a t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e s markets i n c o t t o n has m o d i f i e d t h e mechanism o f t h e market f o r c e s o f supp ly and demand.

The f u t u r e s market i s s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e l a r g e r t r a d e r s who tend t o pursue p o l i c i e s t h a t c i r cumvent t h e c o m p e t i t i v e f o r c e s of an e a r l i e r epoch.

I n sharp c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e chemical f i b r e p r i c e s , specu la to rs i n c o t t o n f u t u r e s tend t o h e i g h t e n t h e peaks and deepen t h e t roughs, adding ano ther d imension t o t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e c o t t o n p r i c e s .

SMALL FISHERMEN MEET AT KUANTAN, MALAYSIA */ by Danieul Muda l i -

Twenty f o u r p a r t i c i p a n t s f rom d i v e r s e background - i n c l u d i n g s i x v i l l a g e development committees - met i n Kuantan, Pahang, Ma lays ia i n October 1980, t o d i s c u s s t h e s u b j e c t "Consumers and Technology - A C o n s u l t a t i o n on Outboard Motors".

The Workshop - organ ised by t h e Pahang A s s o c i a t i o n o f Consumers - was a r e s - ponse t o t h e PAC's growing concern o f t h e f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y . F i s h i n g i s a most i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r y i n Malaysia. I t n o t o n l y p rov ides employment f o r some 100,000 f ishermen, b u t f i s h i s a l s o by f a r t h e g r e a t e s t source o f p r o t e i n f o r most Malaysians, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e low income groups,

I n r e c e n t years Malaysians have been w i t n e s s i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e indus- t r y : -

- A r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r i c e o f f i s h ; y e t t h e sma l l f i shermen community i s among t h e p o o r e s t i n t h e coun t ry ,

- C o n f l i c t between t r a w l e r f i shermen and sma l l f i shermen i n t h e West c o a s t o f Malaysia.

* / Executive Secretary, Pahang Association of Consumers, B-1455, 1st Floor, - Jalan Beserah, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia.

- D e c l i n i n g catches o f q u a l i t y f i s h - as opposed t o t r a s h f i s h used m a i n l y f o r making o f feedmeal - i n s p i t e o f t h e inc reased imputs ( b o t h i n t h e num- bers and tonnage o f boats and modern methods o f f i s h i n g ) *

Th is c r i s i s i n Ma lays ian F i s h i n g I n d u s t r y and t h e i n f l a t e d p r i c e o f f i s h has been b rough t abou t by a comb ina t ion o f f a c t o r s : -

- O v e r f i s h i n g by t r a w l e r s and o t h e r b i g boats.

- The use o f d e s t r u c t i v e and i l l e g a l methods o f f i s h i n g .

- P o l l u t i o n o f sea, r i v e r s and f i s h ponds.

- P r o f i t e e r i n g middlemen.

- Expor t o f f i s h and f i s h p roduc ts t o overseas markets ( t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e Ma lays ian f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y i n t o t h e " g l o b a l Supermarket" ) .

The low p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t r a d i t i o n a l f i s h i n g gear used by t h e sma l l f i shermen was a cause f o r concern f o r t h e Ma lays ian government. As p a r t o f a programme t o improve p r o d u c t i v i t y s u b s i d i e s o f ne ts , boats and motors ( b o t h i n - b o a r d and sma l l ou tboard moto rs ) were g i v e n t o t h e smal l f ishermen.

The I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n o f Consumers Union (IOCU) sponsored a wor ld - wide t e s t on ou tboard motors a f t e r consumer groups, b o t h t h e T h i r d World and i n - d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s expressed concern over t h e problems o f ou tboard motors; The low horse power models were d e l i b e r a t e l y chosen t o cover t h e needs of sea- bound T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s where ou tboard motors a r e used f o r t r a n s p o r t and f i s h i n g by low income groups. Twenty-two d i f f e r e n t brands, r a n g i n g f rom 3;s t o 7.5 HP were t e s t e d . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s t e s t would be u s e f u l t o t h e smal l f i shermen i n Ma lays ia as many o f t h e ou tboard motors a r e used by them.

A p r e l i m i n a r y s tudy on t h e t e c h n i c a l and economic aspects o f t h e f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y was done i n f i v e f i s h i n g communi t iese I n f o r m a t i o n was ob ta ined by a s k i n g t h e v i l l a g e r s t o answer a q u e s t i o n n a i r e as w e l l as by observa t ion . Va luab le i n s i g h t s were ga ined by speaking t o t h e f i shermen and community l e a - ders

The s p e i c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e workshop were as f o l l o w s : -

- To i d e n t i f y t h e problems faced by sma l l f i shermen i n t h e Eas t Cost o f Malaysia.

- To d iscuss t e c h n i c a l , f i n a n c i a l and socio-economic aspects o f t h e f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y .

- To e s t a b l i s h d ia logue and c h a r t o u t areas o f coopera t ion between t h e par - t i c i p a t i n g groups.

The main s u b j e c t s d iscussed a t t h e workshop were:-

- The c r i s i s o f t h e Malaysian f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y .

- The socio-economic problems o f t h e f ishermen.

- The problems faced i n t h e use o f smal l outboard motors ( b o t h economic and t e c h n i c a l ).

- The r e p o r t on t h e I O C U t e s t on ou tboard motors

The p a r t i c i p a n t s agreed t o adopt t h e r e s o l u t i o n s l/ o f t h e smal l f i shermen seminar h e l d i n Bangkok on 22-26 May 1978 i n i t s t o t a l i t y .

A c h a r t e r f o r j o i n t a c t i o n was drawn up which reads as f o l l o w s : "We t h e r e p r e - s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e f i s h i n g communit ies and of t h e Pahang A s s o c i a t i o n o f Consumers b e l i e v e t h a t o u r common problems v e r y o f t e n have t h e i r r o o t s i n greed, igno- rance and i n e f f i c i e n c y . There i s a need f o r j o i n t a c t i o n between and coopera- t i o n between c i t i z e n s groups t o f i g h t f o r ou r r i g h t s as consumers and as c i t i z e n s . We pledge t o h e l p each i n i d e n t i f y i n g and s o l v i n g o u r common prob- 1 ems. "

Three areas o f coopera t ion and c o n c r e t e a c t i o n have been i d e n t i f i e d : -

1. Consumer Educat ion Programmes i n t h e F i s h i n g v i l l a g e s ,

2 - Bu lk Buying Schemes i n t h e f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s ,

3. D i r e c t Buying Programmes between t h e f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s and consumers i n t h e urban areas.

The workshop was an i n n o v a t i v e method f o r d i s s e m i n a t i n g t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n , Too o f t e n t h e w r i t t e n word i s used and i s inadequate. We a l s o found t h i s method o f d i s s e m i n a t i n g t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n u s e f u l as t h e immediate feedback p o i n t e d o u t more areas t o be t e s t e d i f f u r t h e r work on ou tboard motors i s t o be done.

The workshop w i l l f u n c t i o n as an e n t r y p o i n t f o r f u r t h e r consumer educa t ion f o r change and consumer p r o t e c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s d i r e c t e d a t t h e r u r a l f i s h i n g c o m m u n i t i e s ~ The i n i t i a t i o n and o r g a n i s a t i o n o f genuine f ishermen coopera- t i v e s i s one area t o be looked i n t o .

I / IFDA Dossier 3, January 1979; Interactions - Small Fishermen's Charter.

ON NE F I N I T PAS D'APPRENDRE INTERVIEW DE MAHDI ELMANDJRA PAR MICHEL DEBOSTE (Radio France ~ n t e r n a t i o n a l e ) ~ /

- &I ne fin-it pas d'apprendre, apprendre quoi, pour fa ire quoi, duns quel but?

- Je c r o i s q u ' i l s ' a g i t d 'apprendre pour v i v r e ou p l u t 6 t pour s ' e p a n o u i r a f i n de s u r v i v r e e t de ne pas s u b i r .

- Alors, 6 votre avis , eela vous semble-t-il une question-cl& 6 un moment 02 l e s nations s ' en l i sen t duns un impossible dialogue Nord-Sud e t que l ' on s ' in terroge sur la proehaine ddeennie du ddveloppement, s i e2Ze sera un dchec come l e s autres?

- Je c r o i s que c ' e s t l e probleme fondamental . Le probleme de l a s u r v i e a u j o u r - d ' h u i se pose d ' u n e maniere t r e s a igue e t pas simplement t h e o r i q u e . L'huma- n i t 6 a u j o u r d ' h u i a une c a p a c i t e de d e s t r u c t i o n q u i e s t @ga le a presque d i x f o i s l e nombre d i 6 t r e s humains q u i se t r o u v e n t s u r c e t t e p lane te , c ' e s t - a - d i r e que l ' a r s e n a l atomique a l u i s e u l , d ' a p r e s l e s d e r n i e r s c h i f f r e s c i t e s p a r 1e S e c r e t a i r e general des Nat ions Unies e t p a r 1'Agence atomique i n t e r - n a t i o n a l e , nous demontrent que s i T o n u t i l i s a i t t o u t l ' a r s e n a l m i l i t a i r e , i 1 s e r a i t non seulement p o s s i b l e d ' e l i m i n e r t o u t e 1a race humaine, mais p o t e n t i e l l e m e n t , sep t a d i x f o i s l e nombre d ' h a b i t a n t s su r c e t t e p l a n e t e . Donc, ce n ' e s t p l u s un probleme t h e o r i q u e , c ' e s t un probleme r e e l .

I 1 e s t auss i ecoeurant de v o i r , a l a f i n du v ing t ieme s i e c l e , que l e s sommes q u i son t depensees annuel lement su r l e s armements, p l u s de c i n q cen ts m i l l i a r d s de d o l l a r s p a r an, s o n t au moins egales, s inon super ieu res .3 1a t o t a l i t 6 des sommes depensees s u r l ' e d u c a t i o n , l a fo rmat ion , l ' a p p r e n - t i s s a g e dans 1e monde. Je c r o i s qu 'une s o c i e t e mondia le q u i n ' a pas encore c h o i s i ses p r i o r i t e s ou q u i p l u t c t , ac tue l lement , accorde une p r i o r i t 6 su- p e r i e u r e 2 l a d e s t r u c t i o n par r a p p o r t a l a c o n s t r u c t i o n de l ' e s p r i t e s t une s o c i e t e malade e t q u i a beso in d ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e .

- Alors, justement, vous avez lance un mot que I'on retrouve beaucoup duns votre ouvrage, Le mot upprentissaqe. L'apprentissaqe en f in de compte, t e l que nous Ze eonnaissons, c ' e s t surtout apprendre 2 Stre macon, 2 Ztre pl6- t r i e r , 6 Stre plombier. Alors, quel sens donnez-vous 2 c e t apprentissage? En quoi eela nous concement-i-ts tous?

- Evidemment, c ' e s t une t r a d u c t i o n d ' u n concept q u ' e n a n g l a i s on a p p e l l e l e a r n i n g . E f fec t i vement , pour l e t r a d u i r e en f r a n ~ a i s , 1e mot appren t i ssage a l u i seu l ne s u f f i t pas. I 1 s ' a g i t a l a f o i s d 'appren t i ssage , i 1 s ' a g i t d ' e d u c a t i o n , i 1 s ' a g i t de fo rmat ion . Mais, dans ce l i v r e , ce que nous en- tendons p a r appren t i ssage ne se l i m i t e pas a l a n o t i o n que vous avez d e c r i - t e , ne se l i m i t e pas non p l u s au systeme e d u c a t i f , mais s ' a p p l i q u e aux

*/ Mahdi Elmandjra est l'auteur, avec Mircea Malitza et James Botkin du dernier - rapport au Club de Rome intitule, en franqais. On ne finit pas d'apprendre et en anglais No limits to learning, tous deux publies par Pergamon Press, Oxford.

mecanismes et aux processus par lesquels on apprend et evidemment, dans l'esprit de ce livre, c'est un processus qui ne se termine jamais. On apprend toute sa vie, mais ce qui compte c'est comment on nous a appris a apprendre. Et, nous constatons que 1es systemes d'apprentissage actuels pris dans ce sens tres large du terme, sont des systemes essentiellement conservateurs, dont le but est tout simplement de reproduire des especes semblables de generation en generation. I1 y a un phenomene de conserva- tion qui est ancre par 1es methodes d'enseignement, par les methodes de formation de professeurs, dans le contenu des programmes scolaires, dans le contenu des manuels scolaires, dans les demarches pedagogiques, qui tue la creativite et qui limite l'imagination et qui, de ce fait, reduit 1e potentiel humain qui est enorme a des proportions tres inferieures aux possibilites que l'esprit humain a pour creer et pour faire face a la complexit6 croissante du monde actuel.

Et cela explique, 2 votre av i s , que fhomme moderne n'arrive plus 2 mattr-i- ser sa soc i6 t i contrairement 2 ce lu i d ' d y a quelques si2cZes, qui savait encore trouver l e s gestes qu'i.1 f a l I a i t pow 6voIuer e t se comporter dans la soc i6 t i duns laquelle it v iva i t?

Certainement, c'est-a-dire qu'aujourd'hui, i1 ne fait plus aucun doute que nous ne sommes plus capables de maitriser la complexit6 que nous generons nous-m6mes par 1e developpement des connaissances et de la technologie, c'est ce que nous appelons dans ce livre le fosse humain qui est croissant; c'est ce contraste entre notre habilete de developper les connaissances a une rapidite extraordinaire, d'aller sur la lune, d'etudier 1a cellule, d'etudier le fond des mers, de developper l'informatique, mais d16tre incapable~, sur 1e plan socio-culturel, de maitriser ces m6mes technologies que nous avons creees.

Alors, M . EZrnand,jra, Zorsque I'on vous &oute e t lorsque Z'on l i t Ie l i v r e , on a un peu Ie sentiment que I'on s r e s t peut-Stre fourvoyd duns ce dialogue Nord-Sud, que t e s nigociations globaZes ne sont peut-Stre pas Ie v&itable su je t dont i.1 faudrait d iseuter , mais que c r e s t finalement tous des probls- mes de s tructures en profondeur q u ' i l faudrait remodifier. Mats, est-ce possible?

Je crois que c'est possible. Personnellement, je ne crois pas dans le dialogue Nord-Sud. Je ne crois pas dans les negociations globales et je crois que, m6me la notion du Nouvel Ordre Economique International, qui avait un sens i 1 y a encore six ans, du fait qu'elle a et6 rejetee par les pays industria- lises, e11e non plus n'a plus de sens. Parce que quand on dit Nord et Sud, nous avons d'abord un @cart enorme entre les deux regions du monde. L'ecart ne se mesure pas tenement par le produit national brut ou par 1e niveau d'industrialisation. Je crois que l'ecart le plus serieux se mesure au niveau des ressources humaines. Comme on 1'a constate cette annee, nous sommes heureux de voir que m6me une institution comme la Banque mondiale, qui opere selon des criteres economiques et financiers tres stricts, se reveille et se rend compte que l'investissement 1e plus important est celui des ressources humaines. Le Tiers Monde est presque paralyse avec cette masse enorme d'analphabetes et je crois que tant qu'on n'aura pas pris conscience de l'importance de rattraper ce retard, d'abord au niveau du developpement des ressources humaines et de ce potentiel humain, on ne pourra rien faire.

P l u s que 1a Banque m o n d i a l e , i 1 e s t i n t e r e s s a n t de v o i r que de g rands eco - n o m i s t e s comme G a l b r a i t h , que c e r t a i n s hommes p o l i t i a u e s cornrne Jean-Jacques Se rvan -Sch re ibe r , dans l e u r s d e r n i e r s l i v r e s , t o u s cornmencent 2 d e c o u v r i r c e t e l emen t humain, c e t t e d i m e n s i o n humaine dans 1e deve loppement . C ' e s t p o u r c e l a que j e c r o i s que l a c r i s e e s s e n t i e l l e e n t r e 1e Nord e t l e Sud n ' e s t pas d ' o r d r e economique, e l l e n ' e s t meme pas d ' o r d r e p o l i t i q u e . E l l e e s t b i e n p l u s s e r i e u s e e t p l u s p r o f o n d e : e l l e e s t au n i v e a u c u l t u r e l . Au n i v e a u c u l t u r e l , q u a n t i t a t i v e m e n t , c ' e s t - 2 - d i r e du f a i t que d ' u n c o t e , V O U S

avez c e t t e masse d ' a n a l p h a b e t e s ( p r e s d ' u n m i l l i a r d ) . E l l e e s t a u s s i c u l t u - r e l l e s u r l e p l a n q u a l i t a t i f , c ' e s t - 2 - d i r e au n i v e a u des sys temes de v a l e u r s q u i ne s o n t pas 1es memes. E t , i 1 y a, i 1 f a u t u t i l i s e r l e terrne, i 1 y a une a g r e s s i o n c u l t u r e l l e du c o t e des pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s . 11 y a b i e n p l u s que c e t t e a g r e s s i o n c u l t u r e l l e , i 1 y a une a r r o g a n c e , i 1 y a un e g o c e n t r i s - me, i 1 y a une i n c a p a c i t e de comprendre l ' a u t r e e t de v o u l o i r comprendre l ' a u t r e e t d ' e x i g e r constamment que ce s o i t l ' a u t r e q u i se m e t t e 2 v o t r e f r e q u e n c e c u l t u r e l l e , q u i s u i v e v o t r e c a d r e de r e f e r e n c e . C ' e s t une m a n i e r e de v o u l o i r t u e r l ' i d e n t i t e c u l t u r e l l e de l ' a u t r e , e t j e c r o i s que c e l a e s t d e j a l a cause des p r i n c i p a l e s c o n f r o n t a t i o n s e t que c e l a va s ' a c c e n t u e r enormement dans 1a p r o c h a i n e d e c e n n i e e t que 1a s e u l e s o l u t i o n e s t j u s t e - ment au n i v e a u de l ' e l e m e n t humain e t au n i v e a u de c e t a p p r e n t i s s a g e q u i d o i t 6 t r e a l a h a u t e u r des d e f i s a u x q u e l s l ' h u m a n i t e d o i t f a i r e f a c e a c t u e l - l ement.

- 11 s e r a i t p r e t e n t i e u x de ma p a r t d ' y r e p o n d r e p a r c e que, comme c e s o n t des d e c i d e u r s , i l s d i s p o s e n t d ' e l e m e n t s d o n t j e ne d i s p o s e pas . 11s se t r o u v e n t dans des s i t u a t i o n s p s y c h o l o g i q u e s , comme d e c i d e u r s , que j e ne c o n n a i s pas, n ' e t a n t pas moi-meme un d e c i d e u r , ma i s en t a n t q u ' i r r e s p o n s a b l e . d o n t 1e s e u l b u t e s t d ' e s s a y e r de r e f l e c h i r , j e d i r a i s , q u ' a mon a v i s , i l s ne se p o s e n t pas ces p r o b l e m e s - l a . J ' i r a i s p l u s l o i n , j e d i r a i s que meme s ' i l s se 1es p o s e n t p a r f o i s , i l s 1es e a r t e n t consc ienmen t . Je p ronds 1e p rob l@me de l ' a n a l p h a b e t i s m e e t 71 e s t connu a u j o u r d ' h u i . Tous l e s s p e c i a l i s t e s s a v e n t que l ' e l i m i n a t i o n de l ' a n a l p h a b e t i s m e p e u t se f a i r e en c i n q ans, d i x ans avec t r e s peu de r e s s o u r c e s , sans a i d e e x t e r i e u r e , en a y a n t r e c o u r s t o u t s imp lemen t aux moyens l o c a u x . Ma i s , combien de d i r i g e a n t s , combien de d e c i - d e u r s dans l e T i e r s Monde s o u h a i t e n t r e e l l e m e n t e l i m i n e r l ' a n a l p h a b e t i s m e ? Car , on s a l t que l ' e d u c a t i o n e s t l ' e l e m e n t q u i a p p o r t e l e p l u s g r a n d changement e t l a p l u s g rande i n n o v a t i o n s o c i a l e e t q u i de range l e s s t r u c t u r e s e x i s - t a n t e s . J e n ' a c c u s e pe rsonne , m a i s j e c o n s t a t e t o u t s imp lemen t q u ' i l n ' y a pas e n c o r e 1a v o l o n t e p o l i t i q u e dans 1e T i e r s Monde p o u r e l i m i n e r l ' a n a l p h a - b e t i s m e . Ce q u i e s t v a l a b l e l 2 p o u r 1es pays du T i e r s Monde l ' e s t ega len ient p o u r l e s pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s q u i , eux de l e u r c o t e , ne s o n t pas du t o u t de - r a n g e s p a r c e p rob leme e t i 1 e s t ev idemment dans l e u r i n t e r e t que 1es s t r u c - t u r e s e x i s t a n t e s , que l e s sys temes des r a p p o r t s i n t e r n a t i o n a u x e x i s t a n t s demeurent t e l s q u ' i l s s o n t p o u r l e m a i n t i e n du s t a t u quo. 11s o n t p e u t - e t r e b e s o i n de c e t t e masse d ' a n a l p h a b e t e s . I l s o n t b e s o i n d ' u n a p p r e n t i s s a g e con- s e r v a t e u r q u i e x i s t e e t q u i m a i n t i e n d r a , p o u r enco re q u e l q u e s annees, j e ne s a i s pas combien, j e ne c r o i s pas p o u r t r o p l ong temps , l e s s t r u c t u r e s i n t e r - n a t i o n a l e s a c t u e l l e s q u i , q u ' o n l e v e u i l l e ou non, s o n t amenees a change r .

Je c r o i s que c ' e s t t o u s 1es t r o i s ensemble, pa rce que d ' u n e p a r t , pour ces p rob lemes- la , i 1 e s t t r e s d i f f i c i l e de 1es c o n c e v o i r ou de 1es resoudre a t r e s c o b r t terme. Les problemes d ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e don t nous p a r l o n s i c i r e - q u i s r e n t une v i s i o n a moyen terme ou a l o n g terme c a r on n ' a p p o r t e pas des changements dans 1es systemes d ' e d u c a t i o n , dans l e s systemes d ' a p p r e n t i s s a - ge en moins de d i x , qu inze , v i n g t ans.

Le malheur , c ' e s t que l e s hommes p o l i t i q u e s , l e s dec ideurs , q u ' i l s s o i e n t du Nord ou du Sud$ son t des @tt -es q u i s o n t programmes pour penser a c o u r t terme, pour penser aux p rocha ines e l e c t i o n s , pour penser au p r o c h a i n budget , pour penser aux p rocha ines e l e c t i o n s meme a I ' i n t e r i e u r des p a r t i s p o l i t i - ques. Donc, t o u t e l ' a c t i o n des dec ideurs e s t o r i e n t e e v e r s l e c o u r t terme, e t j e c r o i s que c ' e s t 1a que ce decalage que nous cons ta tons , ce fosse humain que nous avons d e c r i t s 'accen tue , c ' e s t que l e p l u s on se concen t re s u r l e c o u r t terme, I e moins on e s t en mesure d ' a p p o r t e r des s o l u t i o n s du- r a b l e s a des problemes q u i dev iennen t de p l u s en p l u s complexes.

Je c r o i s que c ' e s t d ' a b o r d l e pourquo i . Je c r o i s que l ' o n ne s o u l i g n e pas assez l ' i m p o r t a n c e du pourquo i . Ce q u i e s t a l a mode a u j o u r d ' h u i pour 1e d@veloppement, ce q u ' o n e s s a i e d ' a p p r e n d r e a t o u t I e monde e t notamment aux pays en developpement, c ' e s t c e t t e n o t i o n de know how. Ce son t t o u s l e s systsmes de v a l e u r s q u i s o n t l i e s a une s o c i e t e techno log ique oa on e s t absolument obsed6 p a r l e comment mais sans se pencher s u r l e pourquo i . Mais 1e pourquoi a 1 u i seul ne s u f f i t pas, c ' e s t - a - d i r e que l e pourquoi en lui-meme peu t changer e t i 1 f a u t p r e v o i r l e s moyens pour a t t e i n d r e ces o b j e c t i f s . Ce q u i e s t e s s e n t i e l , c ' e s t de t r a n s f o r m e r l e s s t r u c t u r e s men- t a l e s , e t vous ne pouvez pas t r a n s f o r m e r l e s s t r u c t u r e s menta les sans toucher a l ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e , l ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e de l ' i n d i v i d u e t des s o c i e t e s , parce que, comme nous I e d e c r i v o n s dans ce l i v r e , i 1 n ' y a pas que 1es i n d i v i d u s q u i apprennent , l e s s o c i e t e s apprennent , l e s groupes apprennent . 11 f a u t un appren t i ssage i n n o v a t e u r , d o n t l e s deux p i l i e r s s e r a i e n t , d ' u n e p a r t l a p a r t i c i p a t i o n , e t , d ' a u t r e p a r t l ' a n t i c i p a t i o n . L ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e e s t quelque chose de dynamique base s u r l ' i n t e r a c t i o n e t , sans a s s o c i e r a 100" ceux q u i son t en t r a i n d ' a p p r e n d r e au processus d ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e , on l i m i t e l e developpement du p o t e n t i e l humain.

D ' a u t r e p a r t , i 1 e s t i nconcevab le de deve lopper un appren t i ssage q u i n ' e n - courage pas l ' a n t i c i p a t i o n , c ' e s t - a - d i r e q u i p repare l e s e t r e s humains 2 des s i t u a t i o n s a u x q u e l l e s i l s ne s o n t pas encore parvenus, mais a u x q u e l l e s on s a i t q u ' o n va p a r v e n i r e t pour q u ' i l s s o i e n t d i sposes e t p r e t s avan t q u ' o n y pa rv ienne . E t l a , p a r s i m p l e i l l u s t r a t i o n , on c o n s t a t e dans ce l i v r e que ce que nous d isons 1a n ' e s t pas t e n e m e n t nouveau parce que c ' e s t d e j a ce q u i e s t mis en p r a t i q u e p a r deux i n s t i t u t i o n s dans l e monde : d ' u n e p a r t 1es armees des grandes puissance8 operen t p a r a n t i c i p a t i o n e t f o n t des e t u - des b i e n a I ' a v a n c e des developpements q u i d o i v e n t se passer , que ce s o i t d u p o i n t de vue de 1a t e c h n o l o g i e , de l 'armement , de l a strategic e t a i n s i

de s u i t e . E t , nous cons ta tons auss i que l e s grandes t r a n s n a t i o n a l e s f o n t d e j a beaucoup d ' a n t i c i p a t i o n , beaucoup de p r o s p e c t i v e e t ne m i s e n t pas que s u r l e c o u r t terme. Ce son t l e s deux s e u l e s e x c e p t i o n s que nous avons cons- t a t e e s .

Par c e n t r e , tous l e s pays du monde, i n d u s t r i a l i s e s ou en v o i e de developpement, c a p i t a l i s t e s ou s o c i a l i s t e s , tous 1es reg-ines o n t des systemes d ' 6 d u - c a t i o n q u i s o n t desuets, q u i s o n t depasses, q u i ne p r e p a r e n t pas l'homme e t l a femme a l ' a v e n i r e t meme encore moins au p r e s e n t .

- A nouveau, comme ce r a p p o r t l ' i n d i q u e , avec l ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e a c t u e l , q u i e s t un a p p r e n t i s s a g e c o n s e r v a t e u r e t de r e p r o d u c t i o n , on n ' a p p r e n d que p a r chocs. On a t t e n d que l e choc se p r o d u i s e , on e s s a i e d ' e n t i r e r l a l eqon e t on avan- ce s u r c e t t e base. Dans l e passe, on p o u v a i t se 1e p e r m e t t r e . A u j o u r d ' h u i , l e moindre choc p e u t 6 t r e f a t a l , e t on ne p e n t pas se p e r m e t t r e 1e l u x e d ' a t t e n d r e l e choc pour apprendre; c ' e s t pour c e l a que nous sommes en fa- veur du developpement d ' u n a p p r e n t i s s a g e i n n o v a t e u r oG il y a l ' a n t i c i p a t i o n q u i permet d ' a n t i c i p e r ces chocs e t de l e s c o n t r e c a r r e r avan t q u ' i l s ne se deve loppen t . Mais, s i j e s u i s o p t i m i s t e a l o n g terme, c ' e s t - 2 - d i r e que j e c r o i s que ces chocs, q u i se p r o d u i s e n t a c t u e l l e m e n t , q u i von t s ' a c c e n t u e r , v o n t a p p o r t e r des t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s r a d i c a l e s dans l e s systemes d ' a p p r e n t i s - sage q u i e x i s t e n t a t r a v e r s l e monde, j e s u i s malheureusement assez p e s s i - m i s t e en ce q u i concerne, j e d i r a i s , au moins l e s c i n q annees a v e n i r 06 on va payer t r e s cher pour t o u t e s l e s e r r e u r s des syst$mes d ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e que nous avons eus j u s q u ' a p r e s e n t e t q u i s o n t t o t a l e m e n t i nadap tes , j e 1e r e - pÂ¡te 2 l a p rob lemat ique mond ia le .

- 11 ne f a u t pas desesperer pa rce que j e c r o i s que ces d i a l o g u e s de sourds, j e m'excuse de l ' e x p r e s s i o n , r i d i c u l i s e n t ceux q u i l e s e n t r e p r e n n e n t de p a r t e t d ' a u t r e , quand on s a i t que 1a v o i e e s t bouchee. Ce n ' e s t , j e l e r e - pe te , q u ' a u n i v e a u de t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s de s t r u c t u r e s menta les, d ' a t t i t u d e s e t de r e a c t i o n s e n t r e c e r t a i n s ego'ismes q u i s o n t t r e s developpes dans 1es pays jus tement d i t s developpes, ce n ' e s t q u ' e n changednt ces s t r u c t u r e s men- t a l e s , ces a t t i t u d e s que l ' o n p o u r r a commencer a d i a l o g u e r v e r i t a b l e m e n t . Mais, a l ' h e u r e a c t u e l l e , j e c r o i s que, malheureusement a nouveau, d ' a p r e s ce q u ' o n p e u t c o n s t a t e r , que ce s o i t m6me 1e r a p p o r t de l a Commission Brand t , que ce s o i t l e s debats q u i v i e n n e n t d ' a v o i r l i e u a 1 'Assemblee genera le des N a t i o n s Unies dans l a s e s s i o n s p e c i a l e s u r l e d i a l o g u e Nord-Sud, que ce s o i t 1es debats q u i se p o u r s u i v e n t a c t u e l l e m e n t , que ce s o i t m6me c e r t a i n e s idees dans l ' a i r s u r des d i a l o g u e s ou des t r i l o g u e s ou des q u a d r i l o g u e s , j e c r o i s q u ' o n n ' e s t pas d u t o u t s u r l a v o i e de 1a r e a l i t 6 des problenies e t s u r t o u t des probl6mes q u i touchen t de t r e s p res 1a m a j o r i t e de l a p o p u l a t i o n mon- d i a l e , d o n t on i g n o r e 1es beso ins r e e l s e t d o n t on n ' e s t pas d i spose a c t u e l - lement a examiner 1es s o l u t i o n s pour p a l l i e r 2 une s i t u a t i o n q u i ne pour ra

pas d u r e r t r o p l ong temps . J e c r o i s que nous r e n t r o n s dans une p e r i o d e de c o n f r o n t a t i o n , d ' a f f r o n t e m e n t s , q u i n e s e r o n t pas t o u j o u r s n e c e s s a i r e m e n t v i o l e n t s , ma i s q u i v o n t se p a s s e r de p l u s en p l u s alJ n i v e a u c u l t u r e l .

- 11 a u r a i t pu e t r e c e l a , ma i s j e c r o i s que l e s peup les o n t d e j i commence a s ' e v e i l l e r . I 1 s ' a c i t de s a v o i r m a i n t e n a n t s i l e u r s d i r i g e a n t s v o n t s ' e v e i l - l e r avec eux s i m u l t a n e m e n t ou v o n t d e v e n i r des somnarnbules.

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En F rance , 2": : de 1a p o p u l a t i o n a c t i v e ( c ' e s t - & - d i r e e n v i r o n 10% de l a p o p u l a - t i o n t o t a l e ) e s t f o n c t i o n n a i r e p u b l i c . Dans 1a p l u p a r t des pays membres de 1 ' O r - g a n i s a t i o n des N a t i o n s U n i e s , l e s p r o p o r t i o n s s o n t s e n s i b l e m e n t s e m b l a b l e s . ( 11 f a u t b i e n remarque r que 1'ONU n ' e s t une " o r g a n i s a t i o n des p e u p l e s " ma is p l u t b t un s u p e r - s y n d i c a t m o n d i a l du f o n c t i o n n a r i a t e t que, de ce f a i t , e l l e n ' e s t r e - p r e s e n t a t i v e que d ' u n e f r a c t i o n de 1a p o p u l a t i o n m o n d i a l e ) .

Nous c o n n a i s s o n s l e s r a i s o n s de c e t t e p l e t h o r e de f o n c t i o n n a r i a t : d ' a b o r d , l a ' l o i de P a r k i n s o n " ( s u i v a n t l a q u e l l e chaque f o n c t i o n n a i r e s ' e f f o r c e d ' a u g m e n t e r 1e nombre de ses subordonnes, a f i n de r e h a u s s e r son i m p o r t a n c e ) , p u i s 1e p r i n - c i p e du " c o n t r b l e u r c o n t r b l 6 " q u i c o n t r b l e un a u t r e c o n t r b l e u r e t e n f i n , l a c o n v i c t i o n q u a s i - g e n e r a l e s u i v a n t l a q u e l l e " l l @ t a t , c ' e s t l e f o n c t i o n n a r i a t " ( c o n v i c t i o n q ~ i rernp lace c e t t e a u t r e a p p r i s e i 1 ' 6 c o l e : " 1 ' 6 t a t d e s i g n e l ' e n - semble des c i t o y e n s " ) . C e t t e i d e e " d ' e t a t des f o n c t i o n n a i r e s " a c o n d u i t aux c o n f l i t s a c t u e l s , p a r f o i s s i v i o l e n t s , e n t r e " e t a t s " e t " c i t o y e n s " .

Le p rob lems n ' e s t pas l ' o i s i v e t e des f o n c t i o n n a i r e s , i l s f o u r n i s s e n t s o u v e n t un g r o s t r a v a i l , m a i s c e l u i - c i e s t s o u v e n t i n u t i l e e t c o h t e u x . L ' e t a t f a i t f i g u r e de " m a f i a " , p a r 1 ' i n t e r m e d i a i r e de l a q u e l l e l e s f o n c t i o n n a i r e s p e u v e n t u t i l i s e r 1 e u r p o s i t i o n p o u r a t t e i n d r e des o b j e c t i f s p e r s o n n e l s q u i n ' o n t r i e n 2 v o i r avec 1s b i e n p u b l i c . Un d i x i e m e de 1a p o p u l a t i o n du monde t r a v a i l l e done sans t r o p se p r e o c c u p e r des a s p i r a t i o n s des n e u f a u t r e s d i x i e m e s ; nous pouvons meme a l l e r j u s q u ' a d i r e q u ' i l s c o n t r e c a r r e n t s o u v e n t l e s espe rances de ces n e u f d i x i e m e s , aux f r a i s de ces d e r n i e r s q u i f i n a n c e n t 1 e s a l a i r e des f o n c t i o n n a i r e s .

C e t t e s i t u a t i o n a son p a r a l l e l s dans l ' h i s t o i r e : p resque p a r t o u t , de t o u t temps, 1 'a rn iee a j o u i de c e t t e meme p u i s s a n c e q u a s i - f e o d a l e . Cohteuse, i n e f f i c a c e , sauf quand i 1 1 u i f au t . i m p o s e r ses p r o p r e s l o i s , t e l l e e s t l ' a r r n e e de m e t i e r : l e s t r o u p e s p r e t o r i e n n e s o n t t o u j o u r s e t @ l e s v r a i s d e t e n t r i c e s du p o u v o i r . A u j o u r - d ' h u i p o u r t a n t 1e s e r v i c e n a t i o n a l - l e c o n t i n g e n t - q u i r e m p l a c e l ' a n n e e de i & t i e r r e n J 1a s i t u a t i o n p l u s s u p p o r t d b l e : 1e s o l d a t d u c o n t i n g e n t n ' e s t pas

- -. . - - - - - 33, Ed ' . i t - i b a l d i , 75015 P a r i s , F rance

soldat a vie, ses objectifs personnels se situent en dehors de sa breve carrie- re militaire; i 1 fait done beaucoup moins partie de la "mafia" qu'est devenu ]'@tat (surtout si 1a duree du service militaire obligatoire est courte). Les 'postes de soldat de deuxieme classe" sont attribues chaque annee a d'autres titulaires; une armee oi ces "postes" seraient assignes pour longtemps devien- drait par centre, tres certainement, une armee pretorienne.

Si le systeme du contingent a democratise l'armee, alors pourquoi ne pas appli- quer ce meme systeme a la majeure partie du fonctionnariat? Pourquoi ne serait- ce pas 1e contingent qui fournirait les agents de police, les inspecteurs des contributions, le personnel enseignant ou medical, les cheminots? Les appeles d'un service national, auxquels seraient configs des postes dans 1es services publics, ne seraient pas necessairement moins efficaces que des fonctionnaires a vie, mais surement moins coiteux a l'etat et leurs postes ne risqueraient pas d'etre transforrnes en bastions d'interets particuliers. En admettant volon- tiers que ceux qui detiendraient ces postes pour un an seraient inexperimentes, i 1 n'en reste pas moins qu'ils ne couteraient pas plus au budget national qu'un titular is^" travaillant a soigner son avancement personnel. Si le systeme du contingent fonctionne bien quand i 1 s'agit des pompiers (qui sont des specia- listes), pourquoi ne fonctionnerait-il pas tout aussi bien ailleurs?

Certains objecteront que "reduire" 1e fonctionnariat 2 un service de contingent, c'est saper le pouvoir de ]'@tat. C'est tout a fait faux : confier 1es tiches des fonctionnaires a un contingent n'affaiblit pas l'etat, i 1 ne diminue que la possibilite de 1a mise en place d'une mafia ou d'une dictature implicite. L'ins- tauration du contingent n'a affaibli ni l'armee ni l'etat. De meme, l'abandon du systeme de la royaute pour la presidence de la republique (systeme particulier de contingent, oppose a la royaute "de metier") n'a pas nui a 1a puissance de 1 'etat.

Du point de vue des depenses publiques, le service par un contingent ne serait . pas plus couteux qu'un service de metier : l'armee du contingent n'est pas plus cohteuse que l'armee des mercenaires. Faire appel au contingent pour 1es ttiches administratives ne serait pas plus coiteux au tresor public que ne T e s t 1e "fonctionnariat de metier"; i 1 faut remarquer que l'effectif du contingent peut plus facilement varier en nombre que celui des "titularises", ce qui rend possible un usage plus rationnel du budget tout en permettant, pour une certaine pe- riode, l'absorption d'une certaine partie des ch6meurs, (ce qui, de plus, assu- rerait une utilite publique 2 cette "aide aux ch6meurs1'). Que 1a croissance du manque d'emploi entraine l'amelioration des services publics, n'est-ce pas li une idee a creuser?

A premiere vue, 1e fait de confier ces tgches de fonctionnariat au contingent semble reduire le nombre des postes (quand bien meme 1a transformation de ces postes en service national se ferait lentement et par etapes). Mais, si nous examinons 1a question plus attentivement, nous allons voir qu'il s'agit, en fait, de confier les postes actuellement occupes par environ deux millions de personnes pour une duree de 40 ans a 20 millions de conscrits pour quatre ans chacun. Autrement dit, i 1 s'agit d'introduire dans les postes de l'etat un "partage de 1 'emploi".

En dehors d ' u n e d i s t r i b u t i o n p l u s j u s t e des pos tes p u b l i c s , i 1 e s t i m p o r t a n t de remarquer auss i que l e u r o u v e r t u r e au c o n t i n g e n t e n t r a i n e r a i t probablement une c e r t a i n e d i m i n u t i o n de l a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s o c i a l e . A u j o u r d ' h u i , beaucoup de chbmeurs n ' a c c e p t e r a i e n t pas v o l o n t i e r s un emp lo i , d i sons , d ' u n e g o u t i e r , em- p l o i p l u t b t mepr ise p a r c e r t a i n s ; p a r c o n t r e , s i l e s pos tes d ' e g o u t i e r s f a i - s a i e n t p a r t i e du s e r v i c e n a t i o n a l , un u n i v e r s i t a i r e ne s e r a i t pas gene de rem- p l i r c e t t e t i c h e d u r a n t une annee de son s e r v i c e ( t o u t comme 41 peu t G t r e s o l - d a t de deuxieme c lasse , m e t i e r q u i ne j o u i t pas non p l u s d ' u n t r e s hau t p res - t i g e s o c i a l ) ; l ' e g a l i t e s o c i a l e y g a g n e r a i t . . .

Redu i re l e s c o u t s d e 1 ' admini s t r a t i o n , e v i t e r l e neo- feodal isme du f o n c t i o n - n a r i a t , d i s p o s e r d 'une marge de s e c u r i t e c o n t r e 1e manque d 'emp lo i , t o u t c e l a i m p l i q u e r a i t que chaque F r a n c a i s accepte de f a i r e un s e r v i c e n a t i o n a l (avec s a l a i r e a p p r o p r i e ) de 2 3 4 ans du ran tsa v i e , p a r des p e r i o d e s de un an. Ces p e r i o d e s de s e r v i c e ne se f e r a i e n t pas, a chaque f o i s , dans l e meme genre de "pos te " : un an s o l d a t , un an cheminot , un an en p o s t e dans 1 ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , p a r exemple. La " m o b i l i t e de 1 ' e m p l o i " commencerait done p a r 1e s e r v i c e na- t i o n a l .

L 'armee du c o n t i n g e n t e s t supposes G t r e l a g a r a n t i e de l a democratic. Que penser du f o n c t i o n n a r i a t du c o n t i n g e n t ?

11 e s t e v i d e n t que l a r e a l i s a t i o n de c e t t e i d e e n ' e s t n i f a c i l e n i s i m p l e : e l l e i m p l i q u e l ' e l a b o r a t i o n de rsg lements complexes, une mise au p o i n t budge- t a i r e 3 a d a p t e r aux c i r c o n s t a n c e s , e t , s u r t o u t , un c a l e n d r i e r . 11 s e r a i t im- p o s s i b l e d ' i m a g i n e r p o u v o i r i n t r o d u i r e une r e o r g a n i s a t i o n des s e r v i c e s p u b l i c s de c e t t e envergure e t de c e t t e impor tance autrement que p a r etapes p ruden tes e t echelonnees. Aprss t o u t , l a d e m o b i l i s a t i o n d ' u n e armee (done l a convers ion de pos tes de " s o l d a t du c o n t i n g e n t " en pos tes c i v i l s ) se f a i t p a r etapes e t ces etapes peuvent s e r v i r de modele au c a l e n d r i e r d ' u n e r e o r g a n i s a t i o n des f o n c t i o n s p u b l i q u e s en un f o n c t i o n n a r i a t du c o n t i n g e n t .

P o u r t a n t i 1 n ' y a aucune i l l u s i o n a se f a i r e : s e u l e une t e r r i b l e c r i s e , un e t a t d ' u r g e n c e admis p a r t o u s , p o u r r a i e n t amener l a r e a l i s a t i o n r a p i d e d ' u n e t e l l e p r o p o s i t i o n , e t , s incs rement , j e p r e f e r e espere r que nous n ' e n a r r i v e r o n s pas l a .

Mais i 1 y a u r a i t une man is re p l u s "douce" d 'amorcer c e systeme du f o n c t i o n n a - r i a t du c o n t i n g e n t (sans dec lencher de c o n f l i t s o c i a l auss i l o u r d e que p a r une r e o r g a n i s a t i o n r a d i c a l s , meme l e n t e ) : i t s ' a g i r a i t de ne p l u s r e c r u t e r de nouveaux f o n c t i o n n a i r e s s a l a r i e s . Les f o n c t i o n n a i r e s a c t u e l l e m e n t en a c t i v i t e c o n t i n u e r a i e n t l e u r c a r r i s r e j u s q u ' a 1a r e t r a i t e e t l e u r s pos tes s e r a i e n t en- s u i t e c o n f i e s au c o n t i n g e n t .

Dans c e t a r t i c l e , i 1 s ' a g i t simplement d ' e s q u i s s e r c e t t e i d e e du f o n c t i o n n a r i a t du c o n t i n g e n t ( i d e e q u i n ' e s t meme pas neuve c a r e l l e a d e j a e t 6 app l iquee , du- r a n t l ' h i s t o i r e , avec des r e s u l t a t s souvent assez s p e c t a c u l a i r e s pour p a l i e r a c e r t a i n e s c r i s e s , economiques ou s o c i a l e s ) ; e t i 1 e s t p l u t 6 t i n q u i e t a n t qu 'une r e f l e x i o n s u r c e s u j e t n ' a i t pas encore e t e entamee, a l o r s que nous sommes d e j a enfonces dans l a c r i s e .

Repetons- le : 20 m i l l i o n s de nouveaux emp lo is , chacun pour une duree de 2 a 4 ans s o n t p l u s p r o f i t a b l e s a l a s o c i e t e de t o u s p o i n t s de vue que 2 m i l l i o n s de pos tes r e s e r v e s a une m i n o r i t 6 pour 20 a 40 ans.

11 f a u d r a i t y r e f l e c h i r e t peser l e pour e t l e c o n t r e .

LE CENTRE D'ETUDES POUR LE DEVELOPPEMENT AFRICAIN *-I

Depuis 20 ans des o p e r a t i o n s d i t e s de developpement son t e t u d i e e s e t r e a l i s e e s en A f r i q u e . E l l e s r e p r e s e n t e n t une somme i m p o r t a n t e d ' i n f o r m a t i o n s p a r :

. l e u r d i v e r s i t e s e c t o r i e l l e e t geographique,

. l e u r r e u s s i t e ou l e u r echec,

. 1e cadre s o c i o - p o l i t i q u e dans l e q u e l e l l e s o n t e t e condu i tes ,

. l e u r s methodes d % v o l u t i o n , l e u r mode de g e s t i o n e t l e u r s e f f e c t s .

Une ana lyse de ces exper iences d o i t e t r e e n t r e p r i s e .

L ' A f r i q u e n ' a pas r e t i r e de ces a c t i o n s un r e s u l t a t a l a d imension des e f f o r t s accomp l i s : e f f o r t d 'e l le-meme ( t r a v a i l de ses h a b i t a n t s e t endet tement c o n s i - d e r a b l e ) e t e f f o r t de ceux q u i , du dehors s o u h a i t a i e n t a p p o r t e r l e u r c o n t r i b u - t i o n . C e t t e d i s p r o p o r t i o n e n t r e moyens e t r e s u l t a t s c o n d u i t 2 r e m e t t r e en cause l es model es u t i l i s e s .

Le developpement a e t e vu au t r a v e r s du seu1 impac t economique e t f i n a n c i e r avec l ' i d e e sous - jacen te - non expr imee c a r p e u t - e t r e non percue - que l e s s t r u c t u r e s s o c i a l e s , l e s c u l t u r e s , 1es modelages de l l H i s t o i r e , n e p o u r r a i e n t que s ' e f f a c e r e t s u i v r e l a l i g n e imposee p a r l a " r e a l i t 6 " economique. Les f a i t s o n t demontre que l e p o i d s de ces f a c t e u r s ne p o u v a i t 6 t r e n e g l i g e .

Le probleme de l a d e f i n i t i o n e t des o b j e c t i f s du developpement r e s t e pose. On p e u t e s p e r e r que l e s succ@s s e r o n t p l u s nombreux e t p l u s s i g n i f i c a t i f s s i des reponses a f r i c a i n e s s o n t donnees a ces q u e s t i o n s .

A i n s i e s t nee l ' i d e e d ' u n " a u t r e d ~ v e l o p p e m e n t " , endogsne. 11 c o n v i e n t de donner a c e t t e n o t i o n confusement r e s s e n t i e un contenu c o n c r e t .

I 1 - Le cadre

Ces problemes o n t d e j a p l u s ou moins 6 t e abordes, s o i t p a r des c e n t r e s d ' e t u d e s - l e p l u s souvent e x t e r i e u r s 3 1 ' A f r i q u e - s o i t p a r des independants : c h e r - cheurs, soc io logues , h i s t o r i e n s , economistes. La p r i s e en compte de t o u s l e s f a c t e u r s evoques c i -dessus , impose de t r a v a i l l e r dans l e m i l i e u meme que 1 ' o n se propose d ' a n a l y s e r .

*/ B.P. 606 Ouagadougou, Haute Vol t a -

C e t t e v o l o n t e de t r a v a i l " i n s i t u e t i n v i v o " ne dev ra pas c o n d u i r e 2 r e j e t e r l ' a p p o r t que c o n s t i t u e n t l e s t r a v a u x e t l e s methodes e laborees p a r a i l l e u r s . 11 e s t necessa i re , avan t un even tue l r e j e t , de l e s c o n f r o n t e r avec 1es expe- r i e n c e s vecues pour en v e r i f i e r l a f i a b i l i t e e t 1e cas echeant y a p p o r t e r 1es amenagements necessa i res .

Des l o r s que l ' o n se f i x e comme o b j e c t i f de d e f i n i r des modeles i n t e g r a n t l e s c o n t r a i n t e s 6conomiques, s o c i a l e s , c u l t u r e l l e s , h i s t o r i q u e s e t techn iques , i 1 c o n v i e n t de se f i x e r un espace d ' a p p l i c a t i o n p r e c i s . Les donnees a f r i c a i n e s ne s o n t pas c e l l e s de 1 ' I n d e n i c e l l e s de 1 'Amer ique L a t i n e ma lg re d ' e v i d e n t e s convergences. E t l ' e f f i c a c i t e de l ' a c t i o n c o n d u i t dans un p remie r temps, a r e - t e n i r 1 ' A f r i q u e de 1 'Oues t comme l e cadre p r i v i l e g i e d ' a n a l y s e e t d 'exper imen- t a t i o n .

11 a e t e imagine due 1e cadre dans l e o u e l s ' e f f e c t u e r a ce t r a v a i l d ' a n a l v s e d 1 e x p @ r i m e n t i t i o n ' e t de r e f l e x i o n p o u i r a i t 6 t r e un Cen t re d lE tudes pour i e Developpement A f r i c a i n (C.E.D.A.).

111 - P-lethodologie e t a c t i v i t e s

La v o c a t i o n de ce Cen t re l e d i s t i n g u e r a des I n s t i t u t s e t organes de recherches e x i s t a n t s en A f r i q u e ou a i l l e u r s . C e t t e o r i g i n a l i t 6 ne dev ra pas l e couper de ces organismes mais au c o n t r a i r e l u i p e r m e t t r e d ' 6 t r e un p o l e de convergence p a r sa v o l o n t e de synthese.

La demarche du Cen t re r e s t e r a guidee p a r un souc i d ' e f f i c a c i t e e t l a d e f i n i t i o n d ' o b j e c t i f s c o n c r e t s . Chaque s u j e t d ' e t u d e , chaque theme de recherche se ra done aborde en f o n c t i o n de ses s p e c i f i c i t e s .

Ce pragmatisme n ' e s t pas e x c l u s i f d ' u n e l i g n e genera le d ' a c t i o n que T o n p e u t a i n s i d e f i n i r :

accumu la t ion de donnees e t analyses des exper iences conc re tes de developpement en A f n q u e de l ' o u e s t ,

c o n f r o n t a t i o n des r e s u l t a t s e t des o b j e c t i f s , recherche des lacunes dans 1es modeles u t i l i s e s ,

. synthese des elements p o s i t i f s obtenus s u r des o p e r a t i o n s d i v e r s e s e t epar - ses en vue de degager des idees n o u v e l l e s condu isan t 2 une a u t r e s t r a t e g i c du developpement c e n t r e e s u r 1a l i b e r a t i o n e t l a c o r e s p o n s a b i l i t e des p e r - sonnes e t des communautes,

. f o r m u l a t i o n de nouveaux concepts p r e c i s a n t l a n o t i o n de developpement, l e s moyens d ' y p a r v e n i r , l e s c o n t r a i n t e s 2 r e s p e c t e r , 1a p a r t i c i p a t i o n des d i - ve rs a c t e u r s du developpement.

Dans son a c t i o n l e Cen t re devra a s s o c i e r e t r o i t e m e n t t o u s l e s groupes concernes.

Les a c t i v i t e s du Cen t re s e r o n t o rgan isees p a r programme. E l l e s compor te ron t t r o i s aspec ts :

a ) Etudes. Analyse e t synthGse de t o u t aspec t du d@veloppement en c o l l a b o r a - t i o n avec t o u t e personne ou i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t e r e s s e e s p a r un m6me theme. Ces

6tudes pourront Gtre entreprises ?I la demande, et sur financement, d'organismes exterieurs.

h) Exp6rimentation et soutien des experiences. Le Centre doit lier la th60- rie ii la pratique; pour ce faire i l experimentera et/ou fera exp6rimenter les modeles qu'il 6tudie.

Le Centre recherchera tous moyens pour soutenir et participer aux experiences de d@veloppement particuli@rement significatives en raison de leur caractere collectif, communautaire, endogene ou autogere.

c) Diffusion de la recherche. L'impact du Centre est directement lie i3 sa capacite de diffuser ses ohjectifs et ses r6sultats.

Pour rassembler les acteurs du developpement et les int6resser aux travaux d u Centre, des publications (p6riodiques, ouvrages de fond, documentations.. . ) sont necessaires.

Pour sensibiliser les responsables, le Centre devra organiser des Conferences, des seminaires, des stages de formation ... auxquels i l associera les person- nalites et Instituts de recherche travaillant dans les m h e s domaines.

IV - Quelques themes

On peut donner une liste - ii titre indicatif - des themes que le Centre devra aborder :

les blocages structurels internes et externes dans les soci6tes africaines,

les probl@mes de l'espace et de son integration : demographic, march6 et marches, flux d'argent et d'expertise, la ville : moteur ou cancer?

le poids et les virtualit6s de l'histoire,

les technologies traditionnelles et actuelles face i3 la strategie des gadgets,

116ducation reproductrice en pire du statu quo ou matrice d'une soci6t6 nouvelle,

6tat et nation : le tribalisme,

la culture comme source et ressource de d6veloppement endogene.

Le CEDA est dirig6 par le Professeur Joseph Ki-Zerbo, membre du Conseil de la FIPAD.

MATERIALS RECEIVED FOR PUBLICATION

The papers l i s t e d beZou h u * ~ e been submitted t o t h e I F D A 3 c s s i e r for possibze publ icuz iov . Menticn C.*- a paper does not mecm t h a t i t will n o t be p ~ b l i s k e d cz CI Later s t a g e , b ~ z it u u s thought t h a t i n t h e meavtime some readers ray s i s h t o o b t a i n a x p y direezLy from t h e c z t h o r .

L O C A L SPACE

. A n i t a Anand, R e t h i n k i n g women and development: t h e case f o r femin ism (Board o f Church and S o c i e t y , The U n i t e d M e t h o d i s t B u i l d i n g , 100 Mary land Avenue, N.E., Washington DC, 20002, USA), l 1 pp.

. A n i l K. Gupta, Small f a rmer : c r e d i t c o n s t r a i n t s - a paradigm, 10 pp.; P lann ing f o r r u r a l c r e d i t i n a r i d r e g i o n , l 2 pp.; I ssues i n l a b o u r m o b i l i t y i n a r i d r e g i o n s : a case i l l u s t r a t i o n , o r why poor c a n ' t o r g a n i s e : t h e dependency webb, 34 pp. ( I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , I n d r a p r a s t h a E s t a t e , - Ringroad, New D e l h i , I n d i a ) .

. I n s t i t u t e f o r N u t r i t i o n Research, " R e - t h i n k i n g food and n u t r i t i o n e d u c a t i o n under chanqinq soc io-economic c o n d i t i o n s " , Who i s i g n o r a n t ? ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Oslo, P.O. Box 1046, Os lo 3, Norway), l 1 pp.

. George Kent, Development and consciousness ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawai i a t Manoa, Department o f P o l i t i c a l Sc ience, Por teus 640, 2424 M a i l e Way, Hono lu lu , Hawai i 96822), 20 pp.

. Solange P a s s a r i s , Les en jeux de 1a v i e assoc . ia t i ve en France (CIRED, 54 Bou levard R a s p a i l , 75270 P a r i s Cedex 06, F rance) , 15 pp.

. Knut Samset, Technology and s t r u c t u r e s f o r a p p r o p r i a t e development ( ILO, P.O. Box 9212, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania) , 33 pp.

N A T I O N A L S P A C E

. Frank Long, Chinese techno logy i n Guyana, 17 pp.; Technology t r a n s f e r and i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p e n t , 14 pp. (14 Oleander Gardens, I n d u s t r y , ECD, Guyana3S,A.).

. Geraldo Semenzato, Guatemala: un g r i t 0 en e l d e s i e r g (Rua Marques de S. V i c e n t e 464, ap to . 204 Gsvea, 22451 R i o de J a n e i r o , B r a s i l ) , 37 pp.

G L O B A L SPACE

. F.A. Ryan, E q u a l i t y un ions : a new approach f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g techno logy ( P r e s i d e n t ' s O f f i c e , Department o f F inance, P.O. Box 313, L i b e r t y House, Repub l i c o f S e y c h e l l e s ) , l 1 pp.

. Jos6 R. Sabogal-Wiesse, A q u e l l o que e l p r i m e r mundo parece i g n o r a r : puntos pa ra una me jo r comprension e n t r e 10s Andes y Occ iden te ( F r a n c i a 761, M i r a f l o r e s , Lima 18, Peru) , l 0 pp.

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / N i lTAS

L O C A L SPACE

. I v a n I l l i c h , Le t r a v a i l f a n t h e ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s du S e u i l , 1981) . C inq nouveaux essa is p a r l ' a u t e u r dlUne s o c i e t 6 sans e c o l e e t de La Nemesis med ica le s u r ' l a c c l o n i s a t i o n du s e c t e u r i n f o r m e l ' , ' l a r 6 p r e s s i o n du domaine vernacu- l a i r e ' e t l a ' recherche c o n v i v i a l e ' .

. James Rober tson, % r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f work ( T u r n i n g P o i n t paper No. l, S p r i n g Cot tage, 9 New Road, I r o n b r i d g e , S h r o p s h i r e TF8 7AU, Eng land) . TWO

Turning P o i n t mee t ings were held d u r i n g 1980 t o d i s c u s s t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of work. About 40 people came t o a p r e p a r a t o r y meet ing i n May, and about 300 t o t h e main meet ing i n November. Fol lowing t h e s e mee t ings , t h i s paper p rov ides a s h o r t r e f e r e n c e gu ide t o t h e i s s u e s , t o o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i v e a c t i o n , and t o peop le , o r g a n i s a t i o n s and p u b l i c a t i o n s concerned w i t h new c o n t e x t s f o r work. 40 pp.

. P e t e r Dundelach e t N i l s Mortensen, 'Danemark, NorvGge, Su@det , dans n o u v e l l e s formes d ' o r g a n i s a t i o n du t r a v a i l (GenGve: B IT , 1979) .

. Andrew Pearse, Seeds o f p l e n t y , seeds o f want, S o c i a l and Economic impli&- t i o n s o f t h e green r e v o l u t i o n ( O x f o r d : Clarendon Press, 1980) . The r e s u l t s o f a m a j o r UNRISD p r o j e c t under taken d u r i n g t h e 70s, under t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f Andrew Pearse who d i e d r e c e n t l y . A c r u c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e unders tand ing o f t h e ' g reen r e v o l u t i o n ' , 262 pp.

. Johan Gal tung , A g r a r i a n r e f o r m and r u r a l development : a p e r s p e c t i v e and some theses (Geneva: UNITAR, 1980) . Ano ther paper i n t h e Goals , Processes and I n d i c a t o r s o f Development P r o j e c t c o o r d i n a t e d by Johan Ga l tung , mimeog, 43 pp.

. Une r i c h e moisson dtEN0A (E . P . 3370, Oakar, Senegal ) s u r 1 ' h a b i t a t (documents p r6pares pour une r 6 u n i o n tenue a Bogota en septembre 1980, 'Echange d 'expe- r i e n c e s en m a t i s r e de t e c h n o l o g i e combin6e e t de p a r t i c i p a t i o n de l a p o p u l a t i o n a 11am6nagement e t a l 1 a m 6 1 i o r a t i o n de l ' e m p l o i dans l e s b i d o n v i l l e s du T i e r s Monde'), e t notamment

- A l b e r t o A r e c c h i , Maputo - Opera t ion maxaquene: un exemple de m o b i l i s a t i o n p o p u l a i r e pour amenager une b a n l i e u e p o p u l a i r e en a u t o - c o n t r u c t i o n .

- Roger Katan, La c r e a t i o n de l a Ca isse p o p u l a i r e du q u a r t i e r C i s s i n a Ouagadougou.

- A l f r e d 0 Rodr iguez y F. Diaz, Notas sobre l a s i n t e r v e n c i o n e s en 10s b a r r i o s en C h i l i .

- T e o l i n d o E o l i v a r , Papel d e l ranch0 en l a soc iedad venezolana.

- Ann S c h y l t e r , The b a s i c need o f space: an example f rom a s q u a t t e r s e t t l e - ment i n Lusaka.

. F e l i c e R i z z i , Educazione n e i paes i d e l Terzo Mondo ( B r e s c i a : E d i t r i c e La Scuola, 1981) , 232 pp.

. Yvonne Le febv re e t a l , 'Les femmes e t l e d6ve1opppernent1, T i e r s Monde (Tome X X I , No. 84, Octobre/D6cembre 1980) , pp. 830-913.

. W i l l iam H . Matthews, 'Moving beyond t h e env i ronmenta l r h e t o r i c ' , M a z i n g i r a ( V o l . 4, N O . 2), pp. 6-14,

. F r a n c i s c o Guerra Garc ia , Les e s t r a t e g i a s de participation en America L a t i n a (L ima: Cedep, 1981)

. Vers un Nouvel o r d r e de l a Sante ( P a r i s : Les e d i t i o n s o u v r i e r e s , 1981) . Premier volume de l a c o l l e c t i o n Nord-Sud. Ce t r a v a i l de j o u r n a l i s t e s a n g l a i s e t i n d i e n s s y n t h g t i s e de nombreuses g t u d e s d e l 1 0 r g a n i s a t i o n Mondiale d e l a SantiS. Avec une m u l t i t u d e dTexemPles c o n c r e t s , i l s montrent comment l a mgdecine o c c i d e n t a l e , avec s e s Gquipments ongreux e t s a pharmacopGe ne p e u t c t r e t r a n s - posGe sans dormnage dans l e T i e r s Monde. C e n t r e r l a m6decine s u r l a p r g v e n t i o n e t l e s s o i n s de s a n t g p r i m a i r e , mieux u t i l i s e r l e pe rsonne l m6dical e n l e d i v e r s i f i a n t , s iSlect ionner l e s p r o d u i t s pharmaceutiques e s s e n t i e l s , t e l s s o n t l e s i m p g r a t i f s d 'une mgdecine q u i ne s e r a i t pas rgse rvge 5 une G l i t e u r b a i n e , mais qu i s e r a i t o r i e n t g e v e r s l e s beso ins d e s masses. Les pays i n d u s t r i a l i s g s eux-msmes a u r o n t 2 apprendre de c e s e f f o r t s e t d e c e s expgr iences 2 l ' h e u r e oii l e s budge t s d e S S c u r i t 6 S o c i a l e s o n t a u bord d e l a f a i l l i t e .

NATIONAL SPACE

E l Cen t ro i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r i o d e e s t u d i o s sobre e l d e s a r r o l l o Uruguay (CIEDUR)L/ ha r e a l i z a d o en e l aEo pasado un seminar io sobre e s t e tema. Durante e l t r a n s - c u r s o de nueve semanas, 9 7 p a r t i c i p a n t e s d i s c u t a r o n 1 0 s p r i n c i p a l e s temas v i n c u l a d o s a l a p rob lemst ica s o c i a l d e l p a i s . Se p r e s e n t a r o n t r a b a j o s 21 muchos d e 10s c u a l e s c o n t i e n e n p l a n t e o s o r i g i n a l e s a c e r c a d e l a t e m i t i c a que abordan , r eve lando c la ramente e l i n t e n c o d e renovac icn que r e p r e s e n t a n desde e l punto d e v i s t a metodol6'gico, a n t e una r e a l i d a d s o c i a l como l a uruguaya, que ha e x p e r i - mentado cambios t a n i m p o r t a n t e s . Fue l a p r imera e x p e r i e n c i a d e e s t e t i p 0 que s e h i z o e n Uruguay en 10s Glt imos s i e t e a n o s .

La d i s c u s i o n e s r e a l i z a d a s sobre l a base d e 10s documentos p r e s e n t a d o s p e r m i t e a 1 CIEDUR d i s e c a r su l i n e a f u t u r a d e i n v e s t i g a c i 6 n , concediendo une p r i o r i d a d

11 Zabala 1322 Ap. 201, Montevideo, Uruguay. -

2 1 Incluyendo J o r g e Notaro, Es tado y econom<a en e l Uruguay: ~ i & t e s i s sobre .-

~ U S i n t e r r e l a c i o n e s a c t u a l e s (54 p p ) ; Cesar Aguia r , ~ E s t a d o a i s l a d o , e- dad inm6vi l? H i p 6 t e s i s y l c n e a s d e i n v e s t i g a c i & sobre e s t a d o y soc iedad en Uruguay ( 6 5 p p ) ; Dar io Sarachaga , Cons iderac iones s o b r e l a a p e r t u r a -- e x t e r n a (20 pp) ; y Dani lo A s t o r i , E l p a p e l d e l s e c t o r a g r o p e c u a r i o e n l a cconomia uruguaya: r a c c e s h i s t G r i c a s , s i tuacio 'n a c t u a l y p e r s p e c t i v a s d e

s i s t e m g t i c a a 1 0 s temas i d e n t i f i c a d o s coma c e n t r a l e s en e l c o n t e x t 0 d e l a s o c i e - dad uruguaya y pe rc ib iGndolos - espec ia lmente - desde l a p e r s p e c t i v a cor respon- d i e n t e a l a concepcioh y l a p r o p u e s t a d e un mode10 alternative por e l

c Chahrokh V a z i r i , I r a n : I s l a m e t l u t t e s d16manc ipa t ion n a t i o n a l e (Gen6ve: CETIM, 1980), 112 p p 7

. R. B las Tomic, E l Estado, l a c l a s e media y l a in tegrac i<n econ6mica, Una r e i n t e r p r e t a c i 6 n d m a a c i o n e s de c l a s e s en C h i l e ( Q u i t o : In-o mi no- americano de i n v e s t i g a c i o n e s s o c i a l e s , 1980).

. S e r g i o B i t a r , 'EE.UU y ArnGrica l a t i n a : Cambios de p o l < t i c a ? ' A n A l i s i s (Aro IV, February 1981), pp 20-22

. Fernando Henr ique Cardoso,'Regime p o l i t i c o e mudan~a s o c i a l , Alqumas r e - f l e x o e s a p r o p o s i t o do caso b r a s i ? e i r o t , R e v i s t a de c u l t u r a e PO- (No 3, January 1981), p p c 7-26.

. Osama El-Kholy, Toward a c l e a r e r d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f sc ience and technology i n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n (Tokyo: UNU, 1981 ) mimeog, 31 pp. - . M i l t o n Santos e t a l , ' Le Venezuela: p r o f u s i o n e t p e n u r i e ' T i e r s Monde (T XXI, No. 84, Octobre/Wcembre, 1980), pp. 709-796.

THIRD WORLD S P A C E

. Eqbal Ahmad, 'The contemporary c r i s i s o f t h e T h i r d Wor ld ' , Month ly Review p---

(V01 32, Noc 10, March, 1981), pp 8-21.

Mahdi Elmandjra, ' L i A f r i c a n i s a t i o n de 1 ' A f r i q u e 1 , F u t u r i b l e s , (No. 41, f e v r i e r , 1981), 'pp. 3 - l b c

G L O B A L S P A C E

, Johan Galtung, P e t e r OIBr ien and Roy Pre iswerk , =-re l iance, a s t r a t e g y f o r development (London: Bog le -L10uver tu re P u b l i c a t i o n s L td . , 1980). Wi th papers P-

by Johan Gal tung, Ignacy Sachs, Md A n i s u r Rahrnan, Md Taghi Farvar , R O ~ P re iswerk and many o t h e r s . 422 pp,

. Frank Long, R e s t r i c t i v e business p r a c t i c e s , t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s and development (The Hague: Mar t inus N i j h o f f P u b l i s h i n g , 1981)

. Frank Long (ed) , The p o l i t i c a l economy o f EEC, R e l a t i o n s w i t h A f r i z , Car ibbean and P a c i f i c S t a t e s (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981), 192 pp.

. David Weir and Mark Schapiro, C i r c l e o f Poison: P e s t i c i d e s and People* Hungary World (San Franc isco : I n s t i t u t e f o r Food and Development P o l i c y , 1981) C i r c l e of Poison documents a scanda l of g l o b a l p r o p o r t i o n s - t h e u n r e s t r i c t e d e x p o r t of banned p e s t i c i d e s from t h e i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s t o t h e Th i rd World.

David Weir and Mark Schapiro, the authors of Circle of Poison, won the National Magazine Award for Reporting Excellence for their 1979 Mother Jones article on pesticide dumping. In Circle of Poison, they break new ground. For the first time, these pesticides are traced through the entire circle - from American chemical plants where they disable workers, to the Third World where they are routinely sprayed on field workers or carelessly sold in Coke bottles, and back again to American consumers on imported foods.

a Steve Keen, e d > , z d z : t o whose advantage? A u s t r a l i a and As ia i n t o t h e E i g h t i e s (Canberra: Centre f o r c o n t i n u i n g educat ion, 1980). Papers o f a con- fe rence o rqan ised i n Canberra i n February 1980 bv t h e CCE and t h e A u s t r a l i a n Freedom f rom Hunger Campaign, 316 pp.

"

Margaret A. Biggs, The cha l lenge : a d j u s t o r p r o t e c t (Ottawa: The Nor th South I n s t i t u t e , 1980), 170 pp.

David K r i e g e r , Disarmament and development (Rotterdam: RIO Foundat ion, 1981), 180 pp,

R ichard Fa1 k and Yoshi kazu (eds) , ' D e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n I ' , A1 t e r n a t i v e s (Vo l . 1, No, 1, March, 1980). A s p e c i a l i s s u e e l a b o r a t i n g on a paper p u b l i s h e d i n B Doss ie r 11, September 1979.

R. Kr i shnamur t i , ' R e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e UN system' , I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n (34,4, Autumn 1980), pp, 629-639.

R " K r i s h n a m u r t i , 'UNCTAD as a n e g o t i a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n ' , Journa l o f Wor ld Law (Vo l . 15, No. 1, January/February, 1981), pp. 3-40, - . Udo E r n s t Sirnonis, ' D i e e n t w i c k l u n g s p o l i t i s c h e n Empfehlungen d e r Nord-Slid Kommission - e i n e k r i t i s c h e Analyse zum B r a n d t - B e r i c h t ' , Z e i t s c h r i f t f i r Ganzhei t forschung, Ph i losoph ie , G e s e l l s c h a f t , W i r t s c h a f t (Neue Folge, 24 Jahr- gang, Mien I I I / 1 9 8 0 ) , pp, 159-175. The author reviews the report of the Brandt Commission (A programme for survival, London: Pan Books 1980) from a general point of view focussing (a) on its global analysis and approach to the North- South probl6matique and (b) on criticism of the sectoral chapters including the poorest countries, hunger, population, disarmament, commodities, energy, trade and industry, transnational corporations and development finance.

PERIODICALS

. Disarmament campaigns, I n t e r n a t i o n a l n e w s l e t t e r on a c t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e arms race, a q u a r t e r l y pub1 i s h e d a t n o n - v i o l e n t a1 t e r n a t i v e s , K e r k s t r a a t 150, Antwerp, Belgium.

, Economic e t humanisme, No, 257, 1981 L ' i m m i g r a t i o n q u i f a i t l a France.

The Smal lho lder , an exchange o f i deas and i n f o r m a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t t o c o u n t r y people (Argenta, BC, VOG 1B0, Canada).

. Renewal, a b i -week ly r e p o r t p u b l i s h e d by Mark S a t i n (Box 3242, Winchester , VA 22601, USA).

. people? (Chakravarthi Raghavan) · A proposal for a disarmament strategy of women and other 67...

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Transcript of . people? (Chakravarthi Raghavan) · A proposal for a disarmament strategy of women and other 67...