Part 2 - OPTION E Leisure, Sport and Tourism

7/30/2019 Part 2 - OPTION E Leisure, Sport and Tourism

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Option E: Leisure, Sport and Tourism

1. Leisure1.1 DefinitionsLeisure

Any freely chosen activity or experience that takes place in non-work timeRecreation

A leisure-time activity undertaken voluntarily and for enjoyment. It includes individualpursuits, organized outings and events and non-professional sports

SportA physical activity involving events and competitions at the national and international scalewith professional participants

TourismTravel away from home for at least one night for the purpose of leisure. This definitionexcludes day-trippers.

EcotourismTourism focusing on the natural environment and local communities

Heritage tourism

Tourism based on an historic legacy (landscape feature, historic building or event) as itsmajor attraction

Sustainable tourismTourism that conserves primary tourist resources and supports livelihoods and culture oflocal people

Mass tourismAn organised form of large-scale tourism in which travel, accommodation and meals arebooked and paid for in advance

LeakageRefers to the money that escapes from a tourist destination and makes its way to othercountries via airline companies, hotel companies, MNCs, food importers etc.

Difficulties in defining:Definitions of sport, leisure and recreation overlapParticipation may be simultaneous

Changes in accessibilitySocial and economic emancipation of the urban middle class = increased demand fortourismIncrease in mass transport = cheaper pricesEfficient and affordable systems of transport = increased tourismProvision of infrastructure (accommodation, transport, entertainment and retailing)Economic and political stability since the 1950s, especially in western Europe has fosteredthe growth of tourism - conflict in eastern Europe during the 1990s resulted in tourism beingless important to the region

Increased education levels and better training of travel personnelIncreased acquisition of foreign languagesStandardised forms of accommodation/services reduce the sense of dislocation

Changes in technologyInternet = more competition, easier to book flights, hotels and services, easy provision ofinformationImproved telecommunications = easier to keep in touch with homeEFTPOS and credit cards = easier overseas and online paymentAdvent of jet airliners, in particular wide-bodied jets e.g Boeing 787, Airbus A380 = traveltime and price of international travel halved. Improved safety, range and comfort.

Changes in affluence

Increasing affluence = increasing desire to travelEmergence of the paid holiday = ability to afford travelGlobalisation and affordability of credit cards/bank credit


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2. Leisure at the international scale: tourism2.1 Changes in demandTraditionally dominated by Western Europe as both a receiving and generating region. Due to:

Established tradition in domestic tourism that converts easily into international tourismA mature and developed pattern of infrastructure such as transport, hotels and travelcompaniesA large variety of natural and man-made attractionsA large population that is affluent and mobileA range of climatic zones, facilitating summer and winter tourism

Changing Global Patterns:Reduction in tourists to Europe and the AmericasRelatively static levels in areas of chronic underdevelopment in developing countries inparts of Africa and South Asia (including India)Huge expansion into tourism in East Asia and the Pacific, centred on Thailand, Singapore,Indonesia, Hong Kong, Japan and AustraliaFor an area to grow, there must be primary and secondary tourist resources

2.2 Changes in supplyFactors affecting tourism

Factors ExamplesNatural Landscape Mountains Nepal; biodiversity Monteverde Cloud Forest,

Costa Rica; coasts Mediterranean; rainforests Amazon;deserts Tunisia; polar areas Iceland; rivers Grand Canyon

Climate Hot, dry areas very popular with tourist, seasonality of climateleads to seasonality of tourism

Cultural Language, customs, clothing, food, architecture and themeparks. E.g: recreation Paris; religion Mecca; education Oxford

Social Increasing affluence, leisure time, longer holidays, paidholidays, improved mobility, better transport, more working

women, paid holidays, age of tourists, stage in life cycleEconomic Exchange rates, foreign exchange, employment, multiplier

effects, infrastructure, leakagesPolitical E.g: 2001 US terrorist attacks resulted in fewer tourists to and

from USSporting Events such as World Cup (Korea-Japan 2002), Olympic

Games (Beijing 2008) lead to a boom in tourism


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Butlers Model of tourism evolution (growth of remote destinations)

3. Leisure at the international scale: sport3.1 International participation and success

Factor Example

Physical

- Reliable Snowfall- Mountainous regions with access roads- Ski resort infrastructure- Cold winters with high amounts of precipitation- Weather Factors affecting sport (rain, fog, heavy

snow etc)

Alpine SkiRacing

Cultural

- Winter/wintersport culture (in Europe, not in theSouthern hemisphere)

-Holidays/Festivals

- Introduced from young age in Europe, USA,Canada

- Media coverage magazines, TV coverage ofworld cup, Olympics

Social

- Support of winter sport- Olympic/World Cup pathway- Family involvement- High societal sport- Male & Female involvement & competition

Economic

- High GNI-

Well-developed resorts- Well-developed racing/training programs- Not very financially accessible


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Costs Benefits

ShortTerm

Disruption during eventNet cost to NSW = AU$1.64bNet cost to Aus. Govn = $1.7bOverall cost $6.6billion

Traffic CongestionInfrastructure stressCBD congestionLoss of businessVery high overall cost!Govn spent AU$1.7 billionSchools closed/holidays changed

Massive increase in tourism to NSWand AustraliaImprovement of infrastructureIncreased transport

Enormous amount of employmentgenerated both before and during(est. 150,000)Employees = mostly volunteersProfit = AU$6 millionUrban renewal of Homebush area

LongTerm

Low usefulness of event centres infutureMoney taken from other infrastructurebudgetsToxic waste leaked into ParramattariverSOCOG budget blowout of AU$2.6bEconomic growth stimulated less thannet benefitShaved (est) $2.1b from infrastructurebudget

Construction of Olympic park andsurrounding facilities stimulatedeconomic growthIntroduction of new events white-water canoeing, womens water polo,trampolining = media interestPreservation of wetlandsSydney was green Olympics,environmentally friendlyNational prideIncreased awareness/participation insportEmpowered low-income residents

Increased commercial/residentialbuilding

4. Leisure at the national/regional scale: tourism4.1 Case study of a national tourist industry: Spain

Post-1945 growth, 34 million tourists annuallyIllustrates classic resort problems as they reach capacityTourists attracted to the Spanish Coast for attractive climate, long coastline, accessibilityand proximity to Europe, competitive pricing (especially accomodation and dining) and theSpanish culture.Over 50% of visitors are from France, Germany and the UKMost tourists head for the south coast - over 70% concentrated in 6 regions

Economic impactsOvercommercialisation = excessive competition for accomodation, tours and dining =lower prices for localsDomestic tourists avoid the areaIncreased employment in construction and tourist services but decline in fishing andfarming industriesLarge amount of leakage to mass tourist companiesEconomic dependence on tourism (up to 70% employment in some areas)Facilitated development of the area, international workers increased working standardsand rates of payUnemployment increases when tourism decreases (20% in the 1990s)

Social impactsTorremolinos was a small fishing village and destination for a select few tourists before1960. After the town became popular for package tours, rapid, uncontrolled development


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led to the area being characterised by monotonous buildings, a lack of open space, limitedcar parking, inaccessible sea frontage, over commercialisation, crowding and pollution.Increased crime (drugs, vandalism, mugging)Increased road accidents, new highways: E340 the highway of deathTraffic congestionIncreased and improved infrastructure and leisure facilities for locals; but have to sharethem with touristsNew airport and bypassSome older hotels deteriorating, looking dirty and run-downIncreased employment for locals in construction and tourist services, but decline oftraditional fishing industry due to water pollution

Environmental impactsPollution of beaches and seasWildlife scared away or killed on roadsNew public parks and gardens openedNew golf courses open - drain on water resources, landscaping of natural environmentMountains and beachfront hidden behind hotelsNew roads built - destruction of natural environment

Car/tourist bus pollution and photochemical smog due to traffic congestion

4.2 Case study of ecotourism: Daintree Eco-LodgeStrategies used:

Accepting/integrating local culture (Aboriginal culture) - social responsibility to improveAboriginal well-beingBlends in w/ natural environmentSmall scale; less visitors (high prices) - minimises impactPolicy of reduce-reuse-recycleBuilt to internationally recognised eco-lodge/eco-tourism guidelinesArchitecturally designed buildings to minimise physical damage to rainforest (e.g. stilts,

decks built around trees, boardwalks)Low light and noise pollutionNatural materials used in construction, locally sourced to reduce transport pollutionWorlds Best Ecolodge 2007 and 2009Use local ingredients (minimise transport)Reduce GHG emissionsStrict energy and waste management guidlelinesSelf-sufficient water supplySpread over 30 acres of rainforest in order to dissipate damage to environmentBiodiversity protectionStrategic alliances with government & policy departments - Australian Greenhouse Officecarries out regular audits to ensure sustainability and eco status

4.3 Tourism as a development strategy: The MaldivesBegan in the Maldives in the late 1900sFirst resort launched 1972, now over 80 resortsPredominantly Sri-Lankan & Indian workers - high remittancesForeign owned resorts - large amount of leakageEconomically dependent on tourismNever-ending supply/demandOver 500,000 tourists per yearMost tourist resorts take up an entire island of the Maldives archipelago, population basedentirely on tourists and employees, no homes or local people on tourist resort islands77th tourist destination in the world

Tourist workers (25,000) have poor working conditions and low wages, but the strength oftourism has allowed them to form a union: Tourist Employees Association of the Maldives(TEAM), to liase with employers (Maldives Association of Tourism Industry, MATI) for betterconditions and wages.


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Government aims to conserve the islands natural beauty by enforcing policies on wastedisposal and wildlife protection, however shark populations have decreased dramatically(hunted for food and souvenirs)Tourism = 28% of GDP90% govn tax revenue from import duties, tourists taxes2nd largest industry = fishing2004 = tourist industry smashed, property damage $3m+, 12,000 displaced, GDPcontracted 4.6%Post-tsunami; rebound of tourism helped regenerate306,000 = Europe; 56,000 = Asia/Oceania; 7000 = Americas; 3000 = Africa (tourists p.a.)Intl tourist expenditure = $75m+ ($235p/c)

5. Leisure at the national/regional scale: sport5.1 Case study of a national sports league: English Football League

3 leagues: Premier League, Football League Championship, Football Leagues One andTwo, Conference NationalA club must be successful in its league to advance and those who are unsuccessful sink tothe bottom of the league table.

Premier league teams are clustered in working-class cities that had traditional mining/farming economies but are now centered on industry and manufacturing.There are many teams clustered around Manchester and the outskirts of London.Supporters are most densely concentrated in working class areas such as Manchester andLiverpoolOver 7000 teams altogether

6. Leisure at the local scale: tourism6.1 Tourism management in urban areas: VeniceDistribution of primary resources

Over 700 hectares

Centred around waterfront and Central PiazaVenetian Lagoon and canalsAround Centre of town - St. Marks Basilica

Distribution of secondary resourcesClustered around Venetian and Mainland coastAirportFerriesBusesSan Guiliao Bridge

Strategies to manage tourist demands and maximise capacitySeasonal variations: more tourists in summer and on weekendsMaximum capacity 25,000 ceiling set, yet 37,500 a day visit in August

Overpopulation stagnates economy through congestion and competitionDay trippers (who contribute little to the local economy) replace resident visitors as itbecomes less attractive to stay in the cityAuthorities deny access to the city by unauthorised tour coaches via the main coachterminalVenices bid for EXPO 2000 as it would cause irreparable damage to the cityProposed changes to charge for entrance into the city

Strategies to minimise conflictBuildings protected by government legislationConflict between those employed in tourist industry and those who arentThe city continues to market itself as a destination, further alienating the local population

Locals increasinglyAvoiding environmental damageSinking into the lagoonFloods several times a year


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6.2 Tourism management in rural areas: Brecon Beacons, WalesCarrying capacity

The maximum number of visitors or participants that a site or event can satisfy at one time;Environmental: The maximum number before the local environment becomes damaged;Perpetual: The maximum number before a specific group of visitors considers the levelsof impact to be excessiveNot necessarily proportional to size of attractionRural areas usually = lower carrying capacity

Maximising capacity, minimising conflict and environmental damageImprove infrastructure: footpaths and roadsUse local produceAttempts to involve the local community - South Pembrokeshire Partnership for Action withRural Communities (SPARC)Tourists stay in locally-owned and managed accommodationService sector = locally ownedLocal manufacturers encouraged to tap tourist market: gifts, souvenirs, crafts and otherprojects

Day-trippers bring little to no benefit to the areaFarmers have trouble moving animals and machinery because they find their gatesblocked and disrupted by sightseers and pony-trekkersTourists gain little understanding of the culture, landscape, community or heritage

7. Leisure at the local scale: sport and recreation7.1 The leisure hierarchyTheory that as population increases, so do sport/recreation facilities

Community Size Example Facilities Activities Offered

Village (popn 500-1500) Community hall, communityopen space

Badminton, yoga, football,cricket

Small Country Town (popn2500-6000)

As above; plus: tenniscourts, sports hall,swimming pool

As above; plus: tennis,netball, gym, hockey

Capital City As above; plus: nationalsports centre(s) for selectedsports

As above; plus: bowling,golf, skateboarding, judo,karate, home grounds ofsports clubs, athleticgrounds, grounds/stadia forintntl fixtures

7.2 Intra-urban spatial patterns

Area Function Facilities

Rural-Urban FringeLeisure facilities serve thetown and surrounding rural

population

Garden centres, craftcentres, hotels with leisure

complexes, specialist sportsfields, nature reserves,

national parks, equestriancentres

SuburbsLeisure facilities mainly

serve the suburbanneighbourhood population

Golf courses, swimmingpools, combined leisurecentres, local libraries,

community centres,shopping arcades, parks,

clubs, pubs


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Transition ZoneServes city popn, town and

surrounding popn

Leisure centres, gyms,parks, hotels and guesthouses, indoor bowling

alleys, social clubs, ethnicrestaurants

Central Business District

Leisure facilities serve citypopn, town popn,surrounding popn,

especially on weekends

Museums, art galleries,cinemas, theatres, libraries,

historical buildings,restaurants, hotels,

specialist sport and clothingstores, travel agencies

Application to Sydney:Boundaries in Sydney are blurred between suburbs/rural-urban fringe, transition, CBDMany facilities in all areas; not limited

7.3 Urban regenerationSport as a regeneration strategy:

Sport and tourism has led to regeneration of run down urban areas

Sport is seen as potential in countries e.g. Olympics in Seoul, Mnich, Beijing andBarcelonaWhen urban renewal occurs through sport and leisure a multiplier effect occursIf not owned by a multinational company leakageConflicts occur homes being demolished, money spent on welfare and using quality thanon leisure that brings in outsiders;OR new facilities will improve house prices and local economy through job creation etc;OR locals can no longer afford rents and are forced out of areaSocially can change area, increase in professionals moving in

London 2012:Transformation of Lower Lea Valley, deprived area of UK, high unemployment

Key venues to be constructed there: stadium, aquatic centre, BMX track, velodrome andthree-arena sports complex, as well as Olympic Village for 17,800 athletes/officialsCreation of 12,000 permanent jobs in the area, 7,000 temporary jobs in the constructionindustryBoost tourist industry - 2 billion projected tourist income

8. Sustainable tourism8.1 Sustainable tourismDefinition:

Tourism that meets the immediate demands of the tourist industry without compromisingthe ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Principles:Sustainable use of resourcesReduced overconsumption and wasteMaintaining biodiversitySupporting local economiesInvolving local communitiesTraining staffMarketing tourism responsiblyUndertaking researchIntegrating tourism into planningBetter provision of information

Implementing sustainable tourism:

Spatial zoningSpatial concentration or dispersalRestrictive entry or pricing


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Honeypot sites which attract tourists by virtue of promotion, information, refreshments,parking and prevents further damage to the more fragile natural environmente.g. Grand Canyon: elsewhere restriction on tourists may be achieved through pricing. USnational parks charge an entry fee to enter, UK national parks do not.

Part 2 - OPTION E Leisure, Sport and Tourism

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