Measuring and Managing CO2 Emissions

of European Chemical Transport

Professor Alan McKinnonDr Maja Piecyk

Logistics Research CentreHeriot-Watt UniversityEDINBURGH, UK

Report prepared for

For electronic version of this report, see www.cefic.org

Contents

Foreword 2

ExecutiveSummary 3

1.Introduction 4

2.MeasurementofCO2Emissions 5 2.1Settingobjectivesforcarbonmeasurement 5 2.2Selectingmethodsofcalculation 5 2.3Definingboundaries 6 2.4Factorsaffectingthechoiceofemissionfactors 9 2.5ReviewofEuropeandatasourcesonfreightemissionfactors 13 2.6Characteristicsofchemicaltransportoperations 14 2.7Averageemissionfactorsforthemovementofchemicalsbythedifferenttransportmodes 16 2.8Recommendedaverageemissionfactorsforchemicaltransportoperations 20

3.MeasurementofTransport-relatedCO2EmissionsinotherSectors 21

4.OpportunitiesforDecarbonisingChemicalTransportOperations 25 4.1Modalsplit 26 4.2Supplychainstructure 27 4.3Vehicleutilisation 27 4.4Fuelefficiency 29 4.5Carbonintensityoffuel 30

5.CostEffectivenessofDecarbonisationMeasures 31

6.Conclusion 34

Biographies 36

1

Con

tent

s

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

2

Foreword

Climatechangeisoneofthebiggestchallengesfac-ingindustries,governmentsandsociety.

Policymakersandindustrysectorsacrosstheworldareworkingtounderstandtheirownroleandrequiredactions.Individualchemicalcompaniesarealreadydoingalotofworkintheareaofenergyefficiencyandinnovation,recognisingenvironmentalperformance–alongsidehealth,safetyandsecurity–asessentialforbusinesssuccess.

Thechemicalindustryisuniquelyplacedtoenableenergysavingsandreducegreenhousegasemissionsthroughtheapplicationofourproducts,forexamplebuildinginsulationandlow-temperaturedetergents.TheEuropeanchemicalindustryhasanexcellenttrackrecordovermanydecadesofimprovingenergyefficiencyatitsmanufacturingsites.

Toidentifyhowwecanimprovetheperformanceofthelogisticsoperationsofthechemicalindustry,wemustfirstunderstanditscurrentcarbonfootprint.Bydevelopingacommonunderstandingofhowtocal-culatethis,alongwithrelatedissuesandchallenges,individualcompanieswillbeabletoassessthemselvesinawaythatiscomparableacrosstheindustry.

InthisReport,ProfessorAlanMcKinnonandDrMajaPiecykassessarangeofexistingtoolsandtheoriesoncarbonfootprinting.Theirreviewofavailableliteratureillustratesthenumerousapproachesandassumptionsinthisarea.McKinnonandPiecykalsolookatthelessonsthatcanbelearntfromwhatotherindustriesaredoing.

Althoughthereisnodefinitivemethodologyoncalculatingcarbonemissionsatpresent,thereportprovidesclearguidanceinkeyareas.

Bytakingacloserlookattheoperationsofsomeofthelargerchemicalcompanies,McKinnonandPiecykareabletostarttobuildapictureofcurrentCO2emissionsofthevarioustransportmodes.Finally,theyconsidersomeofthepotentialdecarbonisationmeasuresavailabletothechemicalindustryandthepossiblechallengesthatneedtobeovercometoachievethese.

ThisReportrepresentsthefirststeptounderstand-inghowwecanassessandimproveouroperations.Incommissioningthiswork,thechemicalindustryistakingaproactiveroleinimprovingthemeasurementandmanagementoftransport-relatedcarbonemis-sionsaspartofitscontinuingcommitmenttosafe,efficientandsustainablelogistics.

Jack EggelsChairman

Cefic Strategy Implementation Group Logistics

Cefic - European Chemical Industry Council

Executive Summary

Thisreportexaminestheoptionsformeasuringandreducingcarbondioxide(CO2)emissionsfromtransportingchemicalsproducedinEurope.Itisbasedonareviewofliterature,theresultsofapreliminarysurveyoflargechemicalcompaniesundertakenbyCefic,interviewswithseniorlogisticsmanagersinthechemicalindustryandahigh-levelworkshoponthesubjectconvenedbyCefic.Thestudyalsoinvestigatedthemeasurementofcarbonemissionsfromtransportinotherindustrialsectorstoseewhatlessons,ifany,canbelearnedbychemicalcompanies.

Thereportbeginsbyconsideringthereasonswhycompaniesneedtocarbonfootprinttheirtransportoperations.Itthendiscussesaseriesofkeyissuesthatmustberesolvedwhendesigningacarbonmeasure-mentsystemforfreighttransport.Theseincludethechoiceofapproach(eitherenergy-basedoractivity-based),thedefinitionofcorporate,functional,systemandgeographicalboundariesaroundthelogisticssystemtobeaudited,thetypesofgreenhousegas(GHG)andtransportmodestobeincludedinthecalculation,thedegreeofanalyticaldisaggregationandassumptionstomadeabouttheallocationofemissionsfromtheemptyrepositioningofvehiclesandcontainers.

Wethenreviewthepublisheddata,atbothEuropeanandnationallevels,oncarbonemissionfactorsforthevarioustransportmodesusedbychemicalcompa-nies.Arangeofvaluesexistforeachmodereflectingdifferencesinprimarydatasourcesandassumptionsaboutvehicleloadfactors,fuelefficiencyandtypeofenergy(forelectrifiedrailfreightservices).Tableshavebeencompiledtoshowtherangeofvaluesreportedinpublishedreportsanddata-sets.Aseriesofaver-ageemissionfactorsarethenrecommendedforthemovementofchemicalsbyeachofthetransportmodes,takingaccountoftheparticularcharacter-isticsofchemicallogistics.Inthecaseoftrucking,thedominantmodeofchemicaltransport,matricesarepresentedtoshowhowtheaverageemissionfactorsvarywiththeweight-basedloadingfactorandpercentageofemptyrunning.Giventhediversityofwaterbornefreightservices,separateaverageemis-sionfactorsareprovidedfordifferenttypesofshort-seaanddeep-seaoperations.Mode-specificemissionfactorshavebeencombinedtoderivecompositeemissionfactorsforinter-modalfreightservices.

AstheEuropeanchemicalindustryisnotaloneintryingtocarbonfootprintitstransportoperations,acomparisonhasbeenmadeofsimilarinitiativesinnineothersectors:cement,fertiliser,steel,metalcans,bitumen,wineandspirits,food,paperandboard/packagingandpostalservices.Severalofthesesectors,suchasfertiliser,packagingandwinesandspirits,havegonethroughasimilarprocesstotheEuropeanchemicalindustryinadoptinganactivity-basedapproachtothecarbonfootprintingoftransport.

Overall,however,thechemicalindustryappearstobeoneofthemostprogressivesectorsinitsmeasure-mentoftransport-relatedemissions.

Havingmeasuredtheseemissions,thenextstageisforcompaniestodevelopstrategiesforreducingthem.Theremainderofthereportexaminesarangeofdecarbonisationmeasuresforchemicaltransportoperationswithina‘greenlogistics’framework.Thisframeworkfocusesattentiononfivekeyparameters:freightmodalsplit,supplychainstructure(i.e.num-berandlengthoflinksinthesupplychain),vehicleutilisation,energyefficiencyandthecarbonintensityoftheenergysource.Opportunitiesforalteringeachoftheseparametersisassessed.Considerationisalsogiventothegeneralcost-effectivenessofthesede-carbonisationmeasures.Availabledatasuggeststhatmostofthemeasureswhichcutcarbonemissionsalsoreducecostsandproveself-financingintheshorttomediumterm.

Theconcludingsectionshowshow,astheavailabilityofdataonenergyuse,loadfactorsandconsignmentroutingincreases,themeasurementofcarbonemis-sionsfromchemicaltransportcanevolvefromthecurrentactivity-basedapproachtoamoreaccurateandflexibleenergy-basedapproach.

3

Exec

utiv

e Su

mm

ary

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

4

Tomeettheambitiouscarbonreductiontargetsthatgovernmentsarenowsettingfor2020andbeyond,individualcompaniesandindustrysectorswillhavetoimplementdecarbonisationstrategiesoverthenextfewyears.Thelongerthatittakesthemtogetontoanappropriatecarbonreductiontrajectory,theharderitwillbetoreachthetargets.Manyindustrysectorsandcompaniesarestillatanearlystageinthispro-cess,analysingtheirgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsandexploringoptionsforreducingthem.Astheoldbusinessmantrastates,‘ifyoucan’tmeasureityoucan’tmanageit’andsothelogicalplacetostartiswithdetailedmeasurementofGHGemissions.

Effortshavebeenmadeinternationallytostandardisethemeasurementandreportingoftheseemissionsinordertoensurecomparability.Atpresentthereisnosingleagreedstandard,thoughthetwomainstan-dardsdevelopedbytheWorldBusinessCouncilonSustainableDevelopment/WorldResourcesInstitute(2004)(theGreenhouseGasProtocol)andInterna-tionalStandardsOrganisation(ISO14064)arebroadlysimilar.Bothsetoutguidelinesforthecarbonaudit-ingofindividualbusinessesandprovideadviceonthescopingofthecalculation,datacollectionmethodsandtheallocationofemissions.Neither,however,providedetailedguidanceonhowcarbonemissionsfromspecificactivities,suchastransport,shouldbemeasured.AseparateinitiativebyCEN,theEuropeanstandardsorganisation,iscurrentlydevelopingandagreeingstandardsforthemeasurementofGHGemissionsfromtransport,butthisprocessisunlikelytobecompleteduntilthemiddleof2012.

Inthemeantime,companiesandindustrybodiescanobtainadviceonthecarbonauditingoftransportoperationsfromgovernmentdepartments/agen-cies,suchasDEFRAintheUKandADEMEinFrance,andnationalstandardsbodies,suchastheBritishStandardsInstitutionandtheFrenchAFNOR.Intheabsenceofagreedmeasurementstandards,however,thereisadangerthatindividualsectorswilladoptstandardsandproceduresthatproduceinconsistentresults.OnepurposeofthisreportistoexaminethewaysinwhichcarbonemissionsfromfreighttransportarebeingmeasuredinEuropeand,onthatbasis,recommendacarbonfootprintingprocedureforchemicaltransportoperations.

Cefichasrecentlyconductedasurveywhichcollecteddataontonnagesanddistancesmovedbydifferenttransportmodesandpermittedthecalculationofag-gregatefiguresforCO2emissions.Thisinitialexercisehashighlightedtheproblemsofchoosingsuitableemissionfactorsforthevarioustransportmodes.Thepresentstudyaimstoachievethreemajorobjectives:

• ProvideadviceonmeasuringthecarbonfootprintofEuropeanchemicaltransport,inparticularonthechoiceofappropriateaveragecarbonemissionfactorsforthedifferentmodesoftransport

• Reviewsimilarinitiativesinotherindustrialsectorstoseeiftherearelessonstolearned

• IdentifymajoropportunitiesforreducingthecarbonfootprintofEuropeanchemicaltransportoperations

1. Introduction

Inundertakingthisstudywehavereviewedrelevantpublishedliterature,datasetsandwebsites.AllthemainestimatesofcarbonemissionfactorsforEuro-peanfreighttransporthavebeencompared.Insomecaseshypotheticalvalueshavebeeninsertedintoon-linecarboncalculators,simulatingfreightmovementsthatwouldbetypicalofthechemicalindustry.Togainadeeperinsightintochemicaltransportoperationsandthepracticalproblemsofcollectingemissions-relateddataandopportunitiesfordecarbonisation,wehaveconductedtelephoneinterviewswithseniorlogisticsmanagersinlargechemicalcompanies.AworkshopwasalsoheldatCefic’sofficesinBrus-selstodiscussanearlierdraftofthisreport,whichwasattendedbylogisticsmanagersfromchemicalcompanies.Inthisreportprimarydatacollectedfromtheinterviewsandthisworkshophasbeenintegratedwithsecondary,publisheddataobtainedfromothersources.

Inassessingtherangeofmeasuresthatcanbeap-pliedtocutCO2emissionsfromchemicaltransport,wehaveadoptedananalyticalframeworkdevelopedinthecourseofaUKuniversityresearchprojectcalledGreenLogistics1.

Sections2and3ofthereportdealwithcarbonmeasurementissues,whilesection4concentratesonpossiblecarbonreductionoptionsforEuropeanchemicaltransport.

1 Moredetailsofthisresearchprojectcanbefoundatwww.greenlogistics.org.

2 CarbonTrust(2007)‘CarbonFootprintsintheSupplyChain:theNextStepsforBusiness’London.

3 Piecyk,M.‘CarbonAuditingofCompanies,SupplyChainsandProducts’inMcKinnon,A.C.etal(eds)(2010)‘GreenLogistics’,KoganPage,London.

2. Measurement of CO2 Emissions

TheUKCarbonTrust2hasrecommendedafivestepprocedureforthemeasurementandreportingofcarbonemissionsfrombusinesses(Figure 1).Inthissectionwewilldiscusseachofthesestepsastheyrelatetochemicaltransportoperations.

FIGURE1

CarbonMeasurementProcess(adaptedfromtheCarbonTrust,2007)

2.1Settingobjectivesforcarbonmeasurement

Itisimportantforacompanyorindustrytoestablishattheoutsetwhytheyaremeasuringcarbonemis-sionsbecausetheanswertothisquestionlargelydeterminestherequireddegreesofcoverage,ac-curacyanddisaggregation.Thereareseveralpossiblereasons,someexternaltothebusinessandothersyieldinginternalbenefits:

Externalfactors

1.Legalobligation:insectorscoveredbytheEuropeanEmissionsTradingScheme(ETS)ornationalcarbontaxation/levyschemes,carbonmeasurementiscompulsory.Whiletheproduc-tionactivitiesofchemicalcompaniesarecurrentlycoveredbytheseschemes,transportandlogisticsoperationsarestillexcluded.(AirtransportwillbeincludedintheETSin2012,thoughchemicalcom-paniessendonlyatinyproportionoftheirfreightbythismode.)

2.Customerrequest:industrialcustomerscanaskforestimatesoftheamountofcarbon‘embedded’intheproductstheybuy.Thisisbeginningtohappenintheretailgrocerysector,thoughisstilluncom-moninthechemicalindustry.

3.Corporatesocialresponsibility:carbonauditingandreportingisbecomingakeyaspectofCSR.

4.Participationinindustry-widesurveysandbench-markingexercises:industrysectorsarekeentodemonstrateandimprovetheir‘carboncredentials’.

Internalmotives

5.Identifyingopportunitiesforcuttingcarbonandimprovingefficiency

6.Assessingthecarbonimpactoflogisticsdecisionsandinvestments

7.Measuringchangesincarbonemissionsthroughtime

2.2Selectingmethodsofcalculation

TherearebasicallytwoapproachestotheestimationofCO2emissionsfromfreighttransportoperations:onebasedonenergyconsumptionandtheotherontheleveloftransportactivity3.

Energy-basedapproach:sincealmostallCO2emis-sionsfromfreighttransportareenergy-related,thesimplestandmostaccuratewayofcalculatingtheseemissionsistorecordenergyuseandemploystan-dardemissionfactorstoconvertenergyvaluesintoCO2.Theunitofenergywilltypicallybelitresoffuelfortrucks,diesel-hauledtrains,bargesandships,andkilowatthoursforelectrifiedrailandpipeline.Forcarriersandcompanieswithinhousetransport

STEP5Verification and reporting

STEP4Calculation

STEP3Data collection and choice

of emission factors

STEP 2

Selecting calculation approach and defining boundaries

STEP1Setting objectives

5

Cha

pter

2 M

easu

rem

ent o

f CO

2 Em

issi

ons

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

4 Thistoolcanbefoundatthewww.greencargo.comwebsite.

operations,whichhavedirectaccesstotheenergydata,theenergy-basedapproachisclearlyprefer-able.AsmosttransportoperationsintheEuropeanchemicalindustryareoutsourced,however,shipperslackdirectaccesstothisenergydata.Somechemicalcompanieshaveaskedforthisdataandreceivedes-timatesofaveragefuelefficiencyfromtheircarriers.Noevidencehasbeenfoundofcarriersprovidingfuelconsumptiondataonajourney-by-journeybasisforchemicalflows.Theissueofobtainingfueldatafromcarriersismorefullydiscussedinasection4.4.

Activity-basedapproach:Intheabsenceofenergydata,itispossibletomakearoughestimateofthecarbonfootprintofatransportoperationbyapplyingasimpleformula:

CO2=tonnestransportedxaveragedistancetrav-elledxCO2emissionsfactorpertonne-km

Companyrecords,ERPsystemsanddeliverymanifestscanprovidethenecessarydataontonnagesmoved.Forroadmovements,estimatesofaveragelengthofhaulcanalsobebasedondatafromthesesources.Ifnecessary,softwarepackagessuchasMapPointandAutoroutecanbeappliedtolistsofcustomerloca-tionstoestimateroaddistances.Obtainingdistancedataforrailandwater-bornetransportcanbemoreproblematic,thoughtheEcoTransitonlineenviron-mentalassessmenttoolcanbeusedforthispurpose.Inthecaseofintermodaltransport,shippersoftendonotknowtheroutefollowedorthedistancesplitbetweendifferenttransportmodes.Theyusuallyrely

oncarrierstoprovidethisinformation,thoughtheEcoTransittool4providesapproximateroutinganddis-tancedataforintermodalflowsspecifiedbytheuser.

Oneofthemostdifficultissuestoresolveinapplyingtheactivity-basedapproachisthechoiceofcarbonemissionfactorsforeachmode.ThesearegenerallyexpressedasgrammesofCO2pertonne-km.Thisweight-basedmeasurementofemissionfactorsiswellsuitedtothechemicalindustryasitsproductshavearelativelyhighdensityandcausevehiclesto‘weighout’beforethey‘cubeout’.Asaconse-quence,vehicleloadfactorsinthechemicalindustryaregenerallymeasuredinweightterms.

Oneofthechemicalcompaniesconsultedhadobtainedfuelconsumptiondatafromsomeofitscar-riersandmanagedtoderiveitsownsetofemissionfactors.Nogeneralemissionfactors,however,havesofarbeencalculatedforchemicaltransportasawhole.Itisnecessarytorely,therefore,onthenumer-ousstudiesthathavebeenundertakeninEuropeoverthepastdecadetoestimateemissionfactorsforthegeneralmovementoffreightbydifferentmodes.Theyarereviewedinsection2.5.

2.3Definingboundaries

Fourtypesofboundarymustbedrawnaroundthetransportsystemtodelimittheextentofthecalcula-tion:corporate,functional,systemandgeographicalboundaries.

2.3.1Corporateboundary

Thisdeterminesthedivisionofresponsibilityforcar-bonemissionsbetweenthecompanyanditssuppli-ers,customersandcarriers.Thelineshouldbedrawninawaythatminimisesdouble-countingandallo-catesresponsibilitytotheentitythathasthegreatestcontrolovertheemissions.Thisusuallyreflectstheallocationoffinancialresponsibility.WhoeverpaysfortheactivityshouldbeassignedtherelatedCO2emis-sions.Forcompaniestakingownershipofthegoods,thedeliverytermsprovideasolidcommercialandle-galbasisforallocatingthetransportemissions.Wherethefinishedproductissoldonadeliveredpricebasis,theshipperwillberesponsiblefortheseemissionsasfarasthecustomer’spremises.If,ontheotherhand,ashappenswitharound20-30%ofchemicalsales,thecustomerarrangescollectionfromtheplant,hemustassumeresponsibilityforthetransportCO2.

Thesituationwithcarriersismorecomplicatedandrequiresjudgementandnegotiation.Wheretrans-portisoutsourced,theemissionsfallintowhattheGreenhouseGasProtocolcallsScope3,i.e.emissionsfromactivitiesperformedbyothercompaniesonyourbehalf.ItisnowconsideredgoodpracticeforbusinessestocounttheseScope3emissionsaspart

6

oftheircarbonfootprint.Thereremainssomedebate,however,overtheallocationofacarrier’semissionsbetweenitsclients.Whereachemicalcompanydes-patchesafullloadofproduct,itwouldbeallocatedalltheemissionsfromthisoutboundjourneyleg.Asalargeproportionofoutbounddeliveriesinthechemicalindustryfallintothiscategory,thismakestheallocationrelativelystraightforward.Moreconten-tiousistherepositioningofemptyvehiclestocollectconsignmentsofchemicals.Broadlyspeakingonecantaketwoviewsonthisissue:

1.Itistheresponsibilityofthecarriertofindreturnloadsforitsvehicles.Thisgivesitacommercialincentivetofindabackload.Manycarriersarereluctanttodivulgeinformationaboutemptyrun-ningandreturnloading,onthegroundsthatthiswouldweakentheircommercialpositioninnego-tiations.Ifitisassumedthatitisthecarrier’sjobtomaximisebackloadingandthathewillnotdisclosethelevelofemptyrunning,itseemslogicalthatheshouldtakeresponsibilityforrelatedemissions.Thecarrier,afterall,hasmuchmorecontrolovertheuseofbackhaulcapacitythantheshipper.

2.Therepositioningofemptyvehiclesisanintegralpartofthetransportserviceprovidedbyacarrier.Theshipperindirectlypaysfortheemptylegsaspartoftheratethecarrierchargesand,hence,itshouldacceptatleastsomeoftheresponsibilityfortherelatedcarbonemissions.Mostofthepub-lishedemissionfactorsforroadfreightalsomakeanallowanceforemptyrunning.

Discussionswithlogisticsmanagersinthechemicalandotherindustriesindicatethatthefirstpropositioncommandsagooddealofsupport.However,asasignificantamountofemptyrunningisinevitableandattributabletotheoutbounddeliveryofchemicals,itseemsreasonablethatchemicalcompaniesshouldassumesomeresponsibilityforcarbonemissionsfromemptyjourneylegs.Intheestimationofemissionfac-torsforroadtransportinSection2.4,therefore,theeffectsofdifferinglevelsofemptyrunningonroademissionfactorsweremodelled.

2.3.2Functionalboundary

Boundariesmustalsobedrawninternallytodefinethescopeofthetransportcalculation.Inthecaseofchemicallogisticstherearetwoareaswherethisisparticularlysignificant:

Internalsupplychain:thereisunanimousagree-mentthatoutbounddeliverytocustomersandinter-planttransfersshouldbeincludedinthecalculationandthatthemovementofmaterialsontheproduc-tionsitebeexcluded.On-sitetransportisconsideredpartoftheproductionprocess.Opinionsdifferonwhetherinboundflowsofmaterialsshouldliewithinthescopeofthecalculation.Theeasiestwayofdeal-ingwiththisissueistoapplytherulediscussedaboveunderthecorporateboundaryheading(section2.3.1)i.e.ifthecompanytakesresponsibilityforcollectinginboundsupplies(i.e.buysthemonanexworksbasisandpaysforthetransport)thentheyshouldalsoas-sumeresponsibilityfortherelatedcarbonemissions.

Relatedlogisticsactivities:shouldthecalcula-tionincludeemissionsfromwarehousing,materialshandlingoperations,tankcleaningetctopermitmorecomprehensivecarbonfootprintingoflogisticsasawhole?Forexample,usingdataprovidedbyamajortankcleaningcompany,weestimatethattheCO2emissionsassociatedwiththisprocessrepresentaround5-7%oftheaverageCO2emissionsfromaroadshipmentofchemicals.Onemajorbenefitofadoptingabroaderapproachisthatitexposescarbontrade-offsinthemanagementoftheseinter-relatedlogisticalactivities.Decarbonisationeffortscouldthenbemoreeffectivelyco-ordinatedacrosstheentirelogisticsfunction.Whilethiswouldbeaworthwhilegoalinthemediumterm,thepriorityatpresentliesinrefiningcarbonmeasurementofthetransportfunction.

7

Cha

pter

2 M

easu

rem

ent o

f CO

2 Em

issi

ons

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

2.3.3Systemboundary

TheSwedishenvironmentalorganisation,NTM,hasdifferentiatedfivelevelsofsystemboundarythatcanbedrawnaroundatransportoperationandlabelledthemSB1-SB5(Figure 2).Theselevelsarecumulative:

SB1:confinesthecalculationtoemissionsfromtheactualtransportoperation,mostofwhichemanatefromthevehicleexhaust,thoughinthecaseofelec-trifiedrailfreightoperationsincludeemissionsfromtheelectricalpowersource.

SB2:alsotakesaccountoftheextraction,production,refining,generationanddistributionofenergy,takingaso-called‘well-to-tank’perspective.

SB3:alsoincludestheservicingandmaintenanceofvehiclesandtransportinfrastructure

SB4:broadensthescopeevenfurthertoincludeemissionsfromthemanufactureofthevehicles,constructionoftransportinfrastructureandtheirsubsequentscrappageanddismantling.

SB5:alsoincludesemissionsassociatedwiththeman-agementoftransportoperations,essentiallyofficefunctionsandtheactivitiesofstaff.

ItmaybealongtermaspirationtoadopttheSB5levelofauditing,butatpresentmostmeasure-mentofcarbonemissionsfromfreighttransportisconductedattheSB1level.Someorganisationshavecompiledemissionfactorsthatembracelevels

FIGURE2

SystemBoundariesaroundTransportOperationsforCarbonMeasurement(source:NTM)

8

SB5Administrative functions, personnel, etc

SB2Energy supply (well-to-tank / power plant)

SB1Traffic operations - propulsion (engines / power plant) - evaporation and battery losses - cargo climate control

SB4Vehicle / train / vessel / aircraft - constructionandscrappingTrafficinfrastructureandtransportinfrastructure - construction and dismantlingServiceandmaintenanceinfrastructure-constructionanddismantling

SB3Vehicle / train / vessel / aircraft - service and maintenanceTraffic infrastructure - operation and maintenance Transport infrastructure (terminals) - operation (incl. energy supply and maintenance)

SB2andSB3forsometransportmodes.Itmightbepossible,therefore,tomakeroughestimatesofthecarbonfootprintofchemicaltransportatlevelsSB1,SB2andSB3,thoughthefocusofthisreportwillbeonemissionswithinSB1.

Itisimportanttoapplythesystemboundarylevelconsistentlyacrosstransportmodes.Forexample,itisessentialtoincludeemissionsfromthegenerationofelectricityforelectrifiedrailfreightoperations.AttheSB1level,onlydirectemissionsfromtheelectricalgeneratingplantareincludedandcanbecomparedwithfuelburnedbynon-electricvehicles.

2.3.4Geographicalboundary

TheEuropeanchemicalindustryservesaglobalmarketandmuchofitsexportvolumeissoldonadeliveredpriceor‘costinsurancefreight’(cif)basis,makingthecompaniesresponsiblefortransportatleastasfarastheforeignportofentry.WhilethemainfocusofthecarbonmeasurementexerciseisontransportoperationswithinEurope,allowanceisalsomadeforemissionsfromtheexportofchemicalsbydeep-seavesselsand,toamuchlesserextent,airfreight.

2.4Factorsaffectingthechoiceofemissionfactors

Severalissueshavetoberesolvedinchoosingappropri-ateemissionfactorsforchemicaltransportoperations:

a)Greenhousegasestobeincludedb)Transportmodestobecoveredc) Degreeofdisaggregationbytypeofvehicle

andpowersourced)Energysupplychaine)Assumptionsaboutvehicleloadfactors

andemptyrunningf) Natureoftheproductg)Logisticaloperationsatdifferinglevels

inthechemicalsupplychainh)Geographicalvariability

2.4.1Greenhousegases

CO2isestimatedtoaccountforaround93-95%oftotalGHGpotentialofemissionsfromfreighttransport.Nitrousoxideandrefrigerantgasesmakeupmostoftheremainder.Asfewifanychemicalconsignmentsrequiretemperature-control,theCO2shareoftotalGHGemissionfromchemicaltransportislikelytobeevencloserto100%.Furthermore,mostofthepublishedemissionfactorsforfreightareexpressedsolelyintermsofCO2

5.ItisrecommendedthereforethatthecarbonfootprintingofchemicaltransportalsobeconfinedtoCO2.

2.4.2Transportmodes

EmissionfactorswillberequiredforthemainmodesoffreighttransportusedtomovechemicalsinEurope:

• Road• Rail• Inlandwaterway/barge• Short-seashipping:bulk,tanker,

ro-roferry,container• Deep-seashipping• Pipeline• Air

Althoughonlyatinyproportionofchemicalconsign-mentsmovebyair,theytravellongdistancesbythismodeandairfreightserviceshaveacarbonintensityaroundtentimesthatofroadhaulage.

Itispossibletocalculatecompositeemissionfactorsforintermodaltransportbyweightingmode-specificfactorswithestimatesofthedistancestravelledbyeachmode.Whilethiscanbedoneforindividualflowsonparticularroutesusingonlinetools(suchasEcoTransit),nopublisheddataareavailableonthedistancesplitbetweenmodesthatwouldberequiredtocalculateaverageemissionfactorsfordifferentintermodalcombinationsataEuropeanlevel.Averagevaluesforthisdistancesplithavehadtobeestimated.

5 ADEMEquotetheiremissionfactorsingCO2equivalent.

9

Cha

pter

2 M

easu

rem

ent o

f CO

2 Em

issi

ons

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

10

2.4.3Degreeofdisaggregationbyvehicletypeandpowersource

Onecaneitheruseaveragevaluesforeachofthemainmodesordisaggregatethembyvehicletypeandpowersource.Theavailabledatasetsvaryintheextenttowhichtheydisaggregateemissionfactorsandintheclassificationstheyuse.Themodeofferingthegreatestdegreeofdisaggregationbyvehicletypeisroad.Thisisfortunateaschemicalsarepredomi-nantlymovedbyroad.Itispossibletodifferentiatethecarbonintensityofheavyarticulatedtrucks,whichaccountforalargeproportionofthetotalmovementofchemicalsinEurope.

Muchlessdisaggregationispossibleforrailfreightoperations.Themaindistinctionisbetweenelectri-fiedanddiesel-hauledfreighttrains,withtheformerfurthersub-dividedtotakeaccountofwidediffer-encesinthecarbonintensityofthevariousformsofelectricitygeneration.Whileitispossibletoobtainarangeofemissionfactorsforthesedifferentrailfreightenergycategories,itisverydifficulttoapplytheminpracticeasrailcompaniesandintermodaloperatorsdonotprovideshipperswithabreakdownofthedistancetravelledortonne-kmsmovedusingdiffer-entpowersources.Untilthisinformationisroutinelyprovided,chemicalcompanieshavelittlechoicebuttouseemissionfactorsforrailfreightthatreflecttheaveragediesel/electrictractionsplitforfreighttrainsandaveragemixofelectricalpowersources.

Thereisalsolimiteddifferentiationofvesselsmovingfreightontheinlandwaterwaynetworkorbysea.Inthecaseofmaritimeoperations,thegrossweightofthevesselisakeydeterminantoftheemissionfactor.Somedatabasescontainindicativeemissionfactorsforvesselsofdifferinggrossweights.

2.4.4Energysupplychain

Asdiscussedabove,oneofthemaindecisionsthatmustbemadeinanycarbonmeasuringexerciseiswhetherornottoincludeemissionsfromtheextraction,productionanddistributionofenergy,inotherwordswhetherthecalculationsshouldbedoneona‘well-to-wheel’basisoronlytakeaccountofemissionsatthepointofenergyconsumptiononthevehicle(‘tank-to-wheel’).Theemissionfactorsquotedinthisreportrelatesolelytofuelconsumptiononboardthevehicle,exceptinthecaseofelectrifiedrailfreightoperationswhereemissionsfromthegen-erationofelectricityinpowerplantsisincluded.

2.4.5Assumptionsaboutvehicleloadingandemptyrunning

Averagecarbonemissionfactorsareverysensitivetotheseassumptions.ThisisillustratedbyFigure 3whichshowshowtheemissionfactorsforthemove-mentoffreightina44tonnetruck(witha380brakehorsepowertractorunit)haveanegativeexponentialrelationshipwithpayloadweight.ThecalculationisbasedondatacollectedbyCoyle6invehicletrialsfor

theUKgovernmenttomonitortheeffectsofpayloadonthefuelefficiencyoftrucks.Overthepayloadrange1-10tonnesthereisadramaticreductioninthecarbonemissionfactor.ThereaftertherateofreductionisrelativelygentleasthecurvebecomesasymptotictotheX-axis.Figure 4magnifiesthelowersectionofthecurveandshowshow,evenacrossthisflattersection,modestchangesinpayloadcanhaveasignificantimpactontheemissionfactor.Increasingtheloadfrom20to26tonne,forexample,reducesthegCO2pertonne-kmfrom48to41.5.Noallowanceismadeinthiscalculationfortheemptyrunningofthetruck.Table 1addsanextradimen-siontothecalculationandshowshowvaryinglevelsofemptyrunningaffecttheemissionfactor.Foragivenpayloadontheladensectionofthejourney,thelevelofemptyrunningcanhaveamarkedeffectontheemissionfactor.Forexample,foranaveragepay-loadof26tonnesontheladensection,theemissionfactorcanvaryfrom41.5gCO2pertonne-kmwithnoemptyrunningto68.6gCO2pertonne-kmwhen40%ofthekilometresarerunempty.

Itismucheasiertoassesstheeffectsofvehicleload-ingonemissionfactorsintheroadfreightsectorthanitisforothertransportmodes.Thisispartlybecausemuchlessresearchhasbeendoneontherelationshipbetweenloading,energyuseandemissionsinthecaseofthesemodes,butalsobecauseshippersoftenhavelittleknowledgeoftheutilisationoffreighttrains,bargesandships.Itispossibleforthemtomonitortheloadingoftrucksaswellasdedicatedtrainsandbargesleavingtheirsites.Wherechemicalcompanies’consignmentsaregroupedwiththoseof

6 M.Coyle(2007)‘EffectsofPayloadontheFuelConsumptionofTrucks’DepartmentforTransport,London.

FIGURE3

RelationshipbetweenCarbonEmissionFactorandTruckLoadintonnes(fullrange)TABLE1

CarbonEmissionFactors(gCO2/tonne-km)for40-44tonneTruckwithVaryingPayloadsandLevelsofEmptyRunning

FIGURE4

RelationshipbetweenCarbonEmissionFactorandTruckLoad(10-29tonnes)(basedondatafromCoyle2007)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

2928272625242322212019181716151413121110987654321

gC

O2/

ton

ne-

km

Payload-tonnes

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

2928272625242322212019181716151413121110

gC

O2/

ton

ne-

km

Payload-tonnes

loadtonnes

%oftruck-kmsrunempty

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%

10 81.0 84.7 88.8 93.4 98.5 104.4 111.1 118.8 127.8 138.4 151.1

11 74.8 78.2 81.9 86.1 90.8 96.1 102.1 109.1 117.3 127.0 138.6

12 69.7 72.8 76.2 80.0 84.3 89.2 94.7 101.1 108.6 117.5 128.1

13 65.4 68.2 71.4 74.9 78.9 83.4 88.5 94.4 101.3 109.5 119.3

14 61.7 64.4 67.3 70.6 74.2 78.4 83.2 88.7 95.1 102.7 111.8

15 58.6 61.0 63.8 66.8 70.3 74.2 78.6 83.7 89.7 96.8 105.3

16 55.9 58.2 60.7 63.6 66.8 70.5 74.6 79.5 85.1 91.7 99.7

17 53.5 55.7 58.1 60.8 63.8 67.2 71.2 75.7 81.0 87.2 94.7

18 51.4 53.5 55.8 58.3 61.2 64.4 68.1 72.4 77.4 83.3 90.4

19 49.6 51.5 53.7 56.1 58.8 61.9 65.4 69.5 74.2 79.8 86.5

20 48.0 49.8 51.9 54.2 56.8 59.7 63.0 66.9 71.4 76.7 83.0

21 46.6 48.3 50.3 52.5 54.9 57.7 60.9 64.5 68.8 73.9 80.0

22 45.3 47.0 48.8 50.9 53.3 55.9 59.0 62.5 66.5 71.4 77.2

23 44.2 45.8 47.6 49.6 51.8 54.3 57.2 60.6 64.5 69.1 74.7

24 43.2 44.7 46.4 48.3 50.5 52.9 55.7 58.9 62.7 67.1 72.4

25 42.3 43.8 45.4 47.3 49.3 51.7 54.3 57.4 61.0 65.2 70.3

26 41.5 42.9 44.5 46.3 48.3 50.5 53.1 56.0 59.5 63.6 68.5

27 40.8 42.2 43.7 45.4 47.3 49.5 52.0 54.8 58.1 62.1 66.8

28 40.2 41.5 43.0 44.6 46.5 48.6 51.0 53.7 56.9 60.7 65.3

29 39.7 41.0 42.4 44.0 45.7 47.8 50.1 52.7 55.8 59.5 63.9

11

Cha

pter

2 M

easu

rem

ent o

f CO

2 Em

issi

ons

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

othercompaniesintrainsandvessels,however,theoveralldegreeofloadingisnotknown.Onemustthenrelyonestimatesbasedonaverageloadingofthesemodes.Therehasbeenevidenceinthepastofmodalbiasesintheassumptionsmadeaboutvehicleloading,withemissionfactorsforsomemodesbasedonfullloadingandforothersonlyonaverageloadfactors.Itisimportantthattheorganisationscompil-ingemissionfactordatasetsmakeassumptionsaboutvehicleutilisationexplicit.Wheretheyarenotde-clared,cautionmustbeexercisedinusingthequotedemissionfactors.

Afurthercomplicationexistsinthecaseofro-rofer-riesandcontainervessels.Estimatingacarbonemis-sionfactorforthemovementofchemicalsbythesemodesrequiresatwo-tierassessmentofloading.Thefirstistheloadingfactorofthevehicleorcontainerandthesecondtheloadingoftheavailablespaceonboardthevessel.Theaverageemissionvaluescurrentlyavailableforro-roferriesneithermakethisdistinctionnordeclaretheassumptionsonloading.

2.4.6Natureoftheproduct

TheCeficsurveyofchemicaltransportoperationsaskedcompaniestodistinguishbulkfrompackagedproduct.Thenatureoftheproductanditspackagingwillinfluenceitsdensityandhencetheweight-basedloadandemissionfactors.Itisourunderstanding,however,thatinthechemicalindustrymostpackagedproductisalsodenseandresultsinahighproportion

ofloadsreachingthemaximumvehicleweightlimit.Theremay,therefore,belittleneedtoapplydifferentemissionfactorsforbulkandpackagedproduct.Ifitwerenecessarytodothis,newempiricalresearchwouldberequiredasnoneofthepublishedsetsofemissionfactorscurrentlydifferentiatefreightbyphysicalcharacteristics,otherthanweight.

2.4.7Logisticaloperationsatdifferentlevelsofthechemicalsupplychain

Thenatureofthefreighttransportoperationvariesacrossthechemicalsupplychain.Attheupperendofthechain,primaryproducersofbasechemicalsdis-tributetheirproductsmainlyinbulkinvolumesthatcanfillroadvehicles,barges,ships,wagonsandevenwholetrains.Theyalsomakerelativelyheavyuseofthelowercarbontransportmodes(rail,water-borneservicesandpipeline).Theaveragecarbonintensityoftheseoperationswill,therefore,besignificantlylowerthanthoseofmorespecialistproducersfurtherdownthechainwhoseoutputisdespatchedinsmallerorderstoamorediversemixofcustomers,some-timesonroad-basedmultiple-dropdeliveryrounds.Ideally,separateemissionfactorsshouldbeappliedtocompaniesatdifferentlevelsofthechaintoreflectthesedifferencesincarbonintensity.Simplyextrapo-latingthecarbonfootprintoftransportoperationsattheprimaryendofthechaintotheindustryasawhole,inproportiontotonnagesorsales,islikelytounder-estimatetotalcarbonemissionsfromEuropeanchemicaltransport.

2.4.8Geographicalvariability

TheaverageemissionfactorsforparticularmodesvaryfromcountrytocountryinEuropeasaresultofseveralfactors:

Road:natureoftheroadinfrastructure,leveloftraf-ficcongestion,maximumvehicleweight,leveloffueltaxes,climate,topography,drivingstylesetc.

Rail:%ofrailfreightserviceselectrified,%ofrail-freightelectricityfromlowcarbonsources,railwayloadinggauge,densityofaccesspointsonthenetworketc.

Inlandwaterways:maximumdraught,size,weightandageofvessels,densityofaccesspointsonthenetworketc.

Somedatabases(e.g.Tremove,INFRASandIFEU)containseparateaverageemissionfactorsfordiffer-entcountries.Somecountriesalsomaintainnationalemissioninventories,basedoncountry-specificemis-sionfactors.Therangeofcarbonemissionfactorscurrentlyavailableatcountrylevelforthevarioustransportmodesistoolimitedtoconducttheanalysisanacountrybasis.Thiswouldalsorequirethechemi-calcompaniestoprovideabreakdownbycountryofthequantitiesoffreightmovedandaveragedistancetravelled.Itmayeventuallybepossibletoobtainallthenecessarycountrydatafora‘bottomup’analysisofEuropeanchemicaltransportemissions.Fortheforeseeablefuture,however,itwillbenecessarytorelyonaveragemodalemissionsfactorsforEurope

12

7 McKinnon,A.andPiecyk,M.(2009)‘MeasurementofCO2EmissionsfromRoadFreightTransport:AReviewofUKExperience.’EnergyPolicy,Vol.37,no.10.

8 INFRAS/IWW/IFEA(2004)‘ExternalCostsofTransport:UpdateStudy’Zurich/Karlsruhe.

9 Knorr,W.andReuter,C.(2005)‘EcoTransIT:EcologicalTransportInformationTool-EnvironmentalMethodologyandData’IFEU,Hiedelberg.

asawholeandhopethatthesefaithfullyreflectthenationalpatternoftransportemissionsacrossthecontinent.

2.5ReviewofEuropeandatasourcesonfreightemissionfactors

Numerousstudieshavebeenundertakenoverthepast20yearswithinEuropetodevelopemissionfactorsfordifferentformsoftransport.MuchofthisworkhasbeensponsoredbytheEuropeanCommis-sionandnationalgovernments.Thesestudiescanbedividedintotwogeneralcategories;thosewhichhavecompiledprimarydatafromlaboratoryexperi-ments,runningvehiclesunderartificialconditionsonrollerbedsandthosebasedonthecollectionoffuelconsumptiondatafromvehiclesinthecourseofnormal,real-worldoperation.RecentresearchintheUK7hassuggestedthat,wheretheobjectiveistomeasurecarbonemissionsfromtrucksatanationallevel,thelattermethodyieldsmoreaccurateandrealisticresults.Undercontrolledconditionsinlabo-ratories,however,itispossibletomodelrelationshipsbetweenvehiclespeed,loading,energyconsumptionandemissionsinmuchgreaterdetail.Whilethisisre-quiredforenvironmentalmodellingoftrafficflowsbypublicagencies,itgoeswellbeyondtheneedsofthecurrentCeficinitiativetocarbonfootprintchemicaltransportoperations.Someofthisprimarydataonvehicleemissions,frommajorprojectssuchasMEET,PHEM,ARTEMISandCOPERT,hasneverthelessbeenusedtocalibratemoregeneralisedemissionfactor

datasets,suchasTremove.Itisthemoregeneraliseddatasets,derivedeitherfromlaboratorytest-bedanalysisorindustrysurveys,whicharemostrelevanttothepresentstudy.SomeofthesedatasetsrelatetotransportataEuropeanlevel,otherstonationaltransportsystems.

2.5.1EU-widestudies

INFRAS/IWW/IFEU:TheseorganisationsdevelopedemissionfactorsforarangeoffreightandpassengertransportmodesinthecourseofaprojectfundedbyCER,themainorganisationofEuropeanRailways,tocalculatethe‘externalcosts’oftransport.EmissionfactorsareprovidedforEuropeasawholeandforindividualEuropeancountries.Thelastsetoffigureswaspublishedin20048.

IFEU:OnaseparatecontractfromEuropeanrailwaycompanies,thisorganisationhasdevelopedtheEcoTransittoolwhichallowsuserstocomparetheenvironmentalimpactofmovinggoodsbydiffer-enttransportmodesonspecific,user-definedroutesacrossEurope.Inaseparatemanual,IFEUoutlinesthemethodologyandchoiceofemissionfactors9.Unfor-tunately,inthismanual,theemissionfactorsforthevarioustransportmodesareexpressedusingdifferentmetrics(e.g.gCO2pertonne-km,gCO2perkgoffuel),makingitdifficulttocomparethemonaconsis-tentbasis.Byapplyingthetooltoasampleoffreightmovements,however,itispossibletodeterminetheunderlyingemissionfactorsusingthestandardgCO2pertonne-kmratio.

TREMOVE:ThisdatasetiscompiledbyTransportMobilityLeuven(TML)oncontracttotheEuropeanCommission.TheTremove2.7bspreadsheet(February2009)providespast,presentandfutureestimatesoftotaltonne-kms,energyconsumptionandemissionsfortrucks,vans,railfreightservicesand‘inlandship’forseventeenEUcountries.Manyoftheemissionfac-torshavebeenderivedfromCOPERTandotherearlierstudies.BydividingestimatesofCO2emissionsforthevariousmodesbythecorrespondingtonne-kms,itispossibletocalculatetheaverageemissionfactors.

TREND:ThisisanotherEU-fundedprojectwhichhasreviewedpasttrendsinemissionsbyalltransportmodesandprojectedtheirfuturecourse.Again,byanalysingtherelevantspreadsheetsitispossibletoestablishtheembeddedemissionfactorsforthemajorfreightmodes.

2.5.2Nationalstudies

SwedenTheSwedishtransportandenvironmentorganisa-tionNTMhasgainedareputationasanauthoritativesourceoftransportemissionvalues.ItsonlineNTMCalctoolemploysaseriesofemissionfactorsforfreightmovementsbyroad,rail,inlandwaterway,seaandair,ineachcasesplitbyvehicletypeand,whereappropriate,powersource.Inmostcasesthesevalueshavebeenobtainedfromtransportoperators.TheNTMcalculatoralsogivesuserstheoptionofmeasu-ringemissionsonawell-to-tankbasis(SB2)andwithinfrastructure-relatedCO2emissionsincluded(SB3).

13

Cha

pter

2 M

easu

rem

ent o

f CO

2 Em

issi

ons

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

10 DEFRA(2009)‘Guidanceonhowtomeasureandreportyourgreenhousegasemissions’London.

11 ADEME(2007)‘EmissionFactorsGuide:EmissionFactorsCalculationandBibliographicalSourcesUsed’Version5.0.

NTMwillbereleasinganupdatedandmorerefinedversionoftheircalculator(NTMCALC3.0)in2010.Muchmoredatahasbeenobtainedfromoperatorstopermitgreaterdifferentiationbyvehicletypeandpowersource.

UKTheDepartmentoftheEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(DEFRA)publishesguidelines10forcompaniesonthereportingofCO2emissionswhichcontainindicativeemissionfactorvaluesforseveralfreighttransportmodes.Inthecaseofroadfreightmove-ments,differentloadfactorsarespecified,thoughtheupdatedversionofthisguidancein2007actuallyre-ducedthefourlevelsofloading(empty,25%,50%,75%and100%fullbyweight)toonlythree(empty,50%and100%full).

TheNationalAtmosphericEmissionsInventoryalsocontainsemissionfactorsforheavygoodsvehiclesandrailfreightoperations,thoughinthelattercaseonlyasingleaverageisquoted.Theroadfreightemissionfactorsfordifferentclassesoftruckwereoriginallybasedsolelyonlaboratorytestbedstudies,thoughnowmakegreateruseofsurveysofroadfreightoperators.

FranceThemainfreightemissionfactorsusedinFrancewerecompiledbythestateenvironmentalagencyADEME.ItpublishesanEmissionsFactorManual,whichisnowinitsfifthversion11.Thisonlycontainsemissionfactorsforroadandrailfreightoperations.Thepub-lishedemissionfactorsforroadarebasedonaverage

levelsofvehicleloadingandemptyrunninginFranceandsomaynotbetransferabletoothercountries.

Noneofthesedatasetsontheirownprovideacomprehensivesetofemissionfactorsforusebythechemicalindustry.Theyvaryintheircoverageoffreighttransportmodes,theextenttowhichtheydifferentiatebyvehicletypeandpowersourceandintheassumptionstheymakeaboutvehicleloading(wherethisismadeexplicit).Itisnecessarythereforeto‘cherry-pick’incompilinganappropriatesetofemissionfactorsforchemicaltransportoperations.Othersectors,suchastheWineandSpiritTradeAs-sociation,andcompanies,suchasJ.F.Hillebrandtheworld’slargestdistributorofwinesandspirits,haveadoptedasimilarapproach.

2.6Characteristicsofchemicaltransportoperations

Indevelopingasystemofcarbonfootprintingforchemicaltransportoperations,itisimportanttorecognisethattheseoperationshaveseveraldistin-guishingfeatures:

1.Almostallchemicaltransport,withtheexcep-tionofmovementsbypipeline,isoutsourced.Aschemicalcompaniesdonotcontrolthetransport,theycannotcollectenergyandemissionsdatadirectlyandmustrelyontheircarrierstoprovidethenecessaryinformation.

2.Chemicalcompaniesemploythefullrangeoffreighttransportmodes.Unlikeinsomeothersectors,inwhichallbutasmallproportionoffreightmovesbyasinglemode,abroadrangeofmodalemissionfactorsarerequiredforthecarbonfootprintingex-ercise.Thechemicalindustryisalsooneofthefewtomakeextensiveuseofpipelinesasatransportmode.

3.Thechemicalindustrygeneratesahighproportionoffullloads,particularlyattheupperendofthesupplychainwherelargevolumesareproducedanddistributed.ThisreducestheneedtoallocateCO2emissionsbetweendifferenttypesoffreighttrafficsharingthesamevehicle.

4.Astransportcostsrepresentarelativelyhighproportionofproductsellingprice,chemicalcompaniesareunderstrongpressuretomaximiseloadsizeandweightandthusmaximisetheiruseoftransportcapacity.Itcanbeassumed,therefore,thatvehiclescarryingchemicalsachievehighloadfactors.

5.Therelativelyhighdensityofchemicalproducts,particularlyattheupperendofthesupplychain,resultsinroadvehiclesreachingtheirmaximumweightlimitbeforetheirvolumelimit.Thisheavyweight-basedloadingofvehiclesiswellalignedwithweight-basedemissionfactorsnowwidelyusedforfreighttransport(gCO2/tonne-km).

14

6.Thenatureofthetransportoperationchangesasproductsmovedownthechemicalsupplychain:theproportionofpackagedgoodsincreases,averageordersizedeclines,theaveragenumberofdropsperdeliveryandrelativeuseofnon-roadmodesdecreases.Asthesechangesaffectthecar-bonintensityofthetransportoperationpertonne-km,itisimportantthatanycarbonmeasurementsystemadequatelyrepresentsthedifferenttiersinthesupplychain.

7.WhilethemajorityofchemicalsalesinEuropearemadeonadelivered-pricebasis,asubstantialminority(estimatedtobearound20-30%)involvethecustomercollectingtheproduct.Thishasim-plicationsforthedivisionoftransport-relatedCO2emissionswithinthechemicalsupplychain.

8.Nootherindustryinterfaceswithsomanysectorsasthechemicalindustry,aschemicalsareincorpo-ratedintoabroadarrayofproducts.Atthespecial-istendofthechemicalindustrytheseinterfacescanblur,makingitdifficult,intermsofproductclassification,todeterminewheretheouterperim-eterofthechemicalindustryshouldbedrawn.

15

Cha

pter

2 M

easu

rem

ent o

f CO

2 Em

issi

ons

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

organisation gCO2/tonne-km assumptionsaboutvehicleloading

NTM 59 60%utilisation

IFEU 66 average

Tremove 77.2

DEFRA 82 >32tGVW/27%emptyrunning/59%loadfactor

INFRAS 91

ADEME 109 maxload25t/21%emptyrunning/57%loadfactor

TABLE2

PublishedEmissionFactorsforHeavyArticulatedTruck

TABLE3

PublishedEmissionFactorsforRailFreightMovement(gCO2/tonne-km)

organisation allrailfreight diesel-hauled electric-hauled

ADEME 7.3 55 1.8

NTM 15 21 14

AEATechnology 20

DEFRA 21

INFRAS 22.7 38 19

TRENDS 23

Tremove 26.3

IFEU 35 18

McKinnon/EWS 18.8

2.7Averageemissionfactorsforthemovementofchemicalsbythedifferenttransportmodes

Thissectiondiscussesthechoiceofaverageemissionfactorsfortherangeofmodesusedtotransportchemicals.Theycanbeusedtoestimatethetotalcarbonfootprintofchemicaltransportoperationsorbyindividualcompaniesasdefaultvalues.Itisclearlypreferable,ifpossible,forcompaniestoderiveemis-sionfactorsfortheirspecifictransportoperations,reflectingthecharacteristicsoftheirsupplychains,productsandcustomerbase.

2.7.1Road

Itisassumedthatthestandardvehicleusedforchem-icaldeliveriesisa40tonnearticulatedtruckcarryingamaximumpayloadof26tonnes12.Table 2showsthepublishedemissionfactorsforsuchavehicleandindicatestheassumptionsmadeaboutvehicleload-ing,wherethesearedisclosed.Theseemissionfactorsvarywidelyfrom59to109gCO2/tonne-km.Some,butnotall,ofthisvariationcanbeexplainedbydif-ferencesinthedefinitionofthevehicleweightclassandassumptionsaboutaveragevehicleloadfactorsonladentripsandthelevelofemptyrunning.

16

12 Estimatesoftheemissionfactorsforthe44tonnetruckspermittedintheUKandIrelandareshownonFigure4andTable1.Thesevehiclescancarryamaximumloadofaround29tonnes.

Anindependentanalysis,referredtoinSection2.4.5above,wascarriedoutforthisstudyusingUKdatacollectedinon-the-roadtrialsofmaximumweightarticulatedvehiclesrunningwithvaryingpayloads.ThevaluesinthebottomhalfofTable 1tendtoconfirmemissionfactorsatthelowerrangeofvaluesshowninTable 2.If,forexample,weightbasedloadfactorsacrossthechemicalsupplychainaveraged77%andthelevelofemptyrunningaround20%,anaverageemissionfactorof59.8gCO2/tonne-kmwouldapply,similartotheNTMvalue.A77%loadfactorwouldbesubstantiallyhigherthantheaverageformaximumweightarticulatedvehicles,thoughinothersectorsahigherproportionofloads‘cubeout’beforethey‘weighout’.Ontheotherhand,theneedtocleantanksandcontainerspriortobackloadingmayresultintheaveragelevelofbackloadinginthechemicalindustrybeinglowerthantheaverageforheavytrucks.Ifoneweretocombineanaverageloadfactorof80%witha25%emptyrunningfigure,theresultwouldbeanaverageindustryemissionfactorofroughly62gCO2/tonne-km,slightlyabovetheNTMfigure,butwellbelowtheaveragefiguresforroadhaulageasawholeadoptedbyTremove,INFRASandtheBritishandFrenchgovernments.Individualcompaniesmayhoweverusedifferentemissionfac-torsthatbetterreflecttheparticularcircumstancesoftheirtransportoperations(see Table 1).Anaverageemissionfactorof62 gCO2 / tonne-kmisrecommendedforroadtransport.

2.7.2Railfreight

Averageemissionfactorsforrailfreightrangefrom7.3to23gCO2/tonne-km,thoughmostestimatesliewithintherange15-23(Table 3).Asexplainedearlier,theseaveragesareinfluencedmainlybyfourfactors:thesplitbetweendieselandelectrichaulage,thecarbonintensityoftheelectricalpowersource,theenergyefficiencyofthelocomotiveandassump-tionsabouttrainloadfactors.Allfourcanvarywidelybetweencountries,makingitdifficulttoestablisharepresentativeemissionfigureforthewholeofEu-rope.Itisworthnotingthewidevariationsinthecar-bonintensityofdifferenttypesofelectrifiedrailfreightservicefrom0.003gCO2/tonne-kmforelectricitygeneratedbyrenewables(NTM)to1.8forpredomi-nantlynuclearpoweredservicesinFranceto19fortheelectricalenergymixacrosstheEU,comprising55%fossilfuel,30%nuclearand15%renewables.Thefigureof7.3recommendedbyADEMEforFranceisclearlyanoutlier,reflectingthehighproportionofelectrifiedrailfreightservicesandheavydependenceonnuclearpower.AstudyundertakenbyMcKinnon(2007)13intheUKfoundthatthecountry’selectricalenergymixresultedinelectrifiedrailfreightserviceshavingaverysimilarcarbonintensitytodiesel-hauledservices.Forthepurposeofthisstudyanaverageindustryemissionfactorof22 gCO2 / tonne-kmisrecommended.

2.7.3Inlandwaterway

Therearefewerpublishedestimatesofaverageemis-sionfactorsforbargemovementsoninlandwater-waysandamuchnarrowerrangeofvalues(Table 4).Indeedtheclosesimilaritybetweensomeofthesevaluessuggestthatthefiguresmayhavebeenderivedfromthesamesource.Reflectingtheappar-entconsensusbetweenthestudiesonthecarbonintensityofthismode,itisrecommendedthatavalueof31 gCO2 / tonne-kmbeused.

TABLE4

PublishedEmissionFactorsforInlandWaterway/BargeMovements

organisation gCO2/tonne-km

INFRAS 31

TRENDS 31

Tremove 32.5

IFEU 28-35

13 McKinnon,A.C.(2007)‘CO2EmissionsfromFreightTransportintheUK’CommissionforIntegratedTransport,London.

17

Cha

pter

2 M

easu

rem

ent o

f CO

2 Em

issi

ons

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

18

gCO2/tonne-km Source

Bulkship

Smalltanker(844tonnes) 20 DEFRA

Largetanker(18371tonnes) 5 DEFRA

Small(solid)bulkvessel(1720tonnes) 11 DEFRA

Large(solid)bulkvessel(14201tonnes) 7 DEFRA

Containervessels

Smallcontainervessel(2500tonnes) 13.5 DEFRA

Largercontainervessel(20000tonnes) 11.5 DEFRA

Averagedeep-seacontainervessel 8.4 BSR/CleanCargo

(assuming mean 11 tonne load per TEU)

Deep-seatanker(120,000tonnes) 5 NTM

AllMaritime 14 TRENDS

TABLE5

PublishedEmissionFactorsforMaritimeTransport

2.7.4Shipping

Shortseashippingoperationscanbedividedintothreetypes:ro-roferryoperations(carryingtrucksand/orrailwagons),bulkshipsandcontainervessels.Foreachofthesemaritimemodestwosetsofpublishedemis-sionfactorvalueswerefound,thoughtheyarenotdirectlycomparablegivendifferingassumptionsmadeaboutthevesselweightclass(Table 5).Thereisthere-forelittlechoiceintheselectionofemissionvaluesforshipping.Anoverallemissionfactorforshort-seashippingof16 gCO2 / tonne-km isproposed.

Acrossasampleofninedeep-seacontainership-pinglines,CleanCargo/BSRfoundtheweightedaverageemissionsofCO2perTEU-kmtobearound93g.AssumingthattheaverageTEUcarriesaloadof11tonnes,thisyieldsacarbonintensityvaluefordeep-seacontainershippingof 8.4 gCO2 / tonne-km.(Thisemissionfactormakesnoallowanceforthere-positioningofemptycontainers.)Anestimateofthecarbonintensityofdeep-seatankeroperationshasbeenobtainedfromNTM,5 gCO2 / tonne-km.

2.7.5Intermodaltransport

Onceasetofemissionfactorshasbeenagreedforindividualtransportmodes,thesevaluescanbeusedtoderivecompositeemissionfactorsforintermo-daloperations.Thesecompositevaluesneedtobeweightedbytherelativedistancestravelledoneachofthemodesinthecourseoftheintermodaljourney.Chemicalcompaniesoftendonotknowtherouteingofintermodalconsignmentsandhencethedistancesplitbetweenthemodes.Onecompanycontribut-ingtotheCeficsurvey,assumedthattheaverageroad-railintermodalhaulwas1000kmlongandthatroadfeedermovementsatbothendsoftherailline-haulwouldbearound100kmslong.ItisnotknownifthesefigureswouldberepresentativeoftheEuropeanchemicalindustryasawholeandofotherintermodalcombinations.Onewayofobtain-ingarepresentativevaluewouldbetosurveylargeintermodaloperatorsspecialisinginthemovementofchemicalsandaskthemtoprovideaveragevaluesofthedistancesplitsfordifferentintermodalcombina-tions.Inthemeantime,wehaveconstructedatableshowingarangeofemissionfactorsfordifferenttypesofintermodalservicewiththeroadshareofthetotaldistancetravelledvaryingfrom5%to20%(Table 6).Untilmoredataisprovidedbyintermo-daloperators,weproposethata10%roadfeederdistancebeadoptedandthatemissionfactorsinthesecondcolumnofTable6beusedforintermodalservices(bolded).

TABLE6

CompositeEmissionFactorsforIntermodalCombinations

intermodalcombination Roaddistanceas%oftotal

5% 10% 15% 20%

road-rail averagerailfreight 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0

electrifiedrail(EUaverage) 21.2 23.3 25.5 27.6

electrifiedrail(France) 10.0 12.8 15.5 18.2

dieselrail 25.9 27.8 29.7 31.6

road-inlandwaterway 32.6 34.1 35.7 37.2

roadshort-sea ro-roferry-truck 49.7 50.3 51.0 51.6

ro-roferry-rail 38.3 39.5 40.8 42.0

smalltanker(844tonnes) 22.1 24.2 26.3 28.4

largetanker(18371tonnes) 7.9 10.7 13.6 16.4

smallbulkvessel(1720tonnes) 13.6 16.1 18.7 21.2

largebulkvessel(14201tonnes 9.8 12.5 15.3 18.0

smallcontainervessel(2500tonnes) 15.9 18.4 20.8 23.2

largercontainervessel(20000tonnes) 14.0 16.6 19.1 21.6

allshortsea 18.3 20.6 22.9 25.2

shorthaul mediumhaul longhaul source

1580 800 570 WRI/WBCSD(2003)

1925 867 633 NTM(2005)

673 INFRAS/TRENDS(2004)

TABLE7

EmissionFactorsforAirFreightTransport

2.7.6Airfreight

Relativelysmallamountsofchemicalsmovebyair.TheCeficsurveyindicatedthatonly0.01%oftonnesand0.07%oftonne-kmsmovebyair.Thesearemainlyspecialistpolymers,samplesandemergencyconsignments.Publishedcarbonemissionfactorsforairfreightvarywidely,reflectingdifferencesinthelengthofhaulandnatureoftheoperation (Table 7).Twosources,WRI/WorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDistributionandNTM,haveprovideddifferentemissionfactorsforeachdistancerange.AsthemeanlengthofhaulforairfreightmovementsintheCeficsurveywas7000kms,anaverageofthetwolonghaulemissionfactorsisproposedi.e.602 gCO2 / tonne-km.

2.7.7Pipeline

TheonlypublishedfigurethatwehavebeenabletofindforpipelineappearedinareportpublishedbytheUKRoyalCommissiononEnvironmentalPol-lutionin199414.Thisstudyassignedavalueof10gCO2/tonne-kmtopipelines.Sincethenthecarboncontentofelectricityhasreducedasaresultoftheswitchtogas-firedstationsandrenewables.Itisalsolikelythattheenergyefficiencyofpipelinepumpingequipmentwillhaveimproved.Ithasbeendecidedthereforetousealowervalueof 5 gCO2 / tonne-kmatpresent,pendingfurtherenquiries.

14 RoyalCommissiononEnvironmentalPollution(1994)‘TransportandtheEnvironment’HMSO,London.

19

Cha

pter

2 M

easu

rem

ent o

f CO

2 Em

issi

ons

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

20

Transportmode gCO2/tonne-km

Roadtransport 62

Railtransport 22

Bargetransport 31

Shortsea 16

Intermodalroad/rail 26

Intermodalroad/barge 34

Intermodalroad/shortsea 21

Pipelines 5

Deep-seacontainer 8

Deep-seatanker 5

Airfreight 602

TABLE8

RecommendedAverageEmissionFactors

2.8Recommendedaverageemissionfactorsforchemicaltransportoperations

Theproposedsetofcarbonemissionfactorsaresum-marizedin Table 8.

Theserecommendedemissionfactorsareaveragevaluesforthewiderangeoftransportactivitiesofthechemicalindustry.Theycanbeusedtoestimatethetotalcarbonfootprintofchemicaltransportoperationsorbyindividualcompaniesasdefaultvalues.Itisclearlypreferable,ifpossible,forcompaniestoderiveemissionfactorsfortheirspecifictransportoperations,re-flectingthecharacteristicsoftheirsupplychains,productsandcustomerbase.

15 WBCSD(2009)‘CementIndustyEnergyandCO2Performance:GettingtheNumbersRight’Geneva.

16 InternationalFertiliserIndustryAssoc(2009)‘Fertilisers,ClimateChangeandEnhancingAgriculturalProductivitySustainably’Paris.

3. Measurement of Transport-related Emissions in other Sectors

TheEuropeanchemicalindustryisnotaloneintryingtocarbonfootprintitstransportoperations.Othersectorshavelaunchedsimilarinitiatives.Itispossiblethatthechemicalindustrymaybeabletolearnfromtheexperienceintheseothersectors.Aspartofthisstudy,therefore,areviewwasconductedofotherindustrialandcommercialsectorstoexaminetheireffortstomeasureCO2emissionsfromtheirtransportoperations.Thismainlyinvolvedanonlinesearchofthewebsitesofindustrytradebodiesandcompanies,combinedwithkeywordsearchesforreports,papersandpresentations.Informaldiscussionswerealsoheldwithlogisticsspecialistsinseveralindustrieswhohavecontributedtoourpreviousresearchprojects.

Thisreviewhasrevealedthatinmostsectorscarbonmeasurementisatafairlyearlystageandrelatesprincipally,andinsomecasessolely,toemissionsfromthecoreactivity,suchasprimaryprocessing,manufacturingorpackaging.Littlereferenceismadetothecarbonfootprintoftransportoperations,particularlyinthosesectors,suchascement,withahighlycarbon-intensiveproductionprocess.Whereindustryassociationsorcompanieshavepublisheddataontransport-relatedemissions,theyseldomdisclosethemethodsusedtoderivethesestatistics,theunderlyingassumptionsandtheirchoiceofemis-sionfactors.

Itispossibletodetectanevolutionarypathinthedevelopmentofcarbonmeasurementcapabilityatanindustrylevel.Initiallymacro-level,top-downestimatesofaggregateemissionsarecompiledwithlittleornodifferentiationbyactivity.Thesearetypi-

callybasedonsimplerelationshipsbetween,ontheonehand,totaloutput,salesandenergyconsump-tionand,ontheotherhand,carbonemissions.Atalaterstage,surveysofkeycompaniesintheindustrypermitmoreaccurate‘bottom-up’estimationofCO2emissionsandsomedifferentiationofemissionsbyactivity,includingtransport.Atfirst,thecarbonauditingoftransportreliesongeneral,cross-industryaverageemissionfactors,butcansubsequentlyberefinedwiththedevelopmentofsector-specificemis-sionfactors.Furtherevolutionseesthedisaggregationoftransport-relatedcarbonmeasurementbyindustrysub-sectorandcanleadtointer-companybenchmark-ingofcarbonintensity.Mostofthesectorsreviewedarecurrentlyintheearlystagesofthisevolutionarypath.Thechemicalindustryappearstobeoneofthemoreprogressiveinitseffortstoquantifycarbonemissionsfromitstransportoperationanddevelopcarbonreductionstrategiesfortransport.Itmay,nevertheless,benefitfromadoptingsomeoftheideasandpracticesofothersectors.Thecurrentsituationintheseothersectorscanbesummarisedasfollows:

Cement

The‘CementSustainabilityInitiative’,ledbytheWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment,haspublishedareport15on‘gettingthenumbersright’inmeasuring‘energyandCO2performance’.Noneofthenumbersinthisreportrelatetotrans-port,however.Carbonmeasurementisconfinedtotheproductionoperation,withonlyabriefreference

tothetransportofinboundclinkerbeingminimalascementplantsaregenerallylocatedbesidequarries.TheCementIndustryGHGProtocolcurrentlyexcludes‘off-site’transportbecause‘theseemissionsaresmallcomparedtoemissionsfromthekilnanddifficulttoquantifyinaconsistentmanner’.Ifcompanieschoosetoincludetransport-relatedemissionstheyareencouragedtousetheWRI/WBCSD‘MobileCombustionTool’forthispurpose.LaFarge,oneofthelargestEuropeancementproducers,estimatesthatitsoutbounddistributionbyroadrepresents5%ofits‘manufacturingemissions’,thoughgivesnoindicationofthemethodofcalculation.

Fertiliser

TheInternationalFertiliserIndustryAssociation16hasincludedtransportandlogisticsinitsanalysisofGHGemissions.Itconcedes,nevertheless,thatthis‘isdiffi-cultbecauseofcontinuouslyshiftingtradeandtrans-portpatternsandbecausetradeaccountsforonlyaminorityoffertilisermovements’.Itestimatesthatdistributionrepresents‘about3%oftotalemissionsassociatedwiththefertiliserlifecycle’(thisexcludestheupstreamtransportofrawmaterials).ThemethodadoptedbytheIFIAisverysimilartothatofCefic:‘multiplyingthenumberoftonnesbythenumberofkilometresandthecoefficientfortheappropriateformoftransport’.Itencouragescompaniestoobtain‘locallyadjustedcoefficients’,inrecognitionofthefactthat‘thereseemstobesomeregionalvariationwithregardtowhethertransportbyrailandinland

21

Cha

pter

3 M

easu

rem

ent o

f Tra

nspo

rt-r

elat

ed E

mis

sion

s in

oth

er S

ecto

rs

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

22

17 McKinnon(2007)op.cit.

18 WorldSteelAssociation(2008)‘CO2EmissionsDataCollection:UserGuideversion6’Belgium.

19 WSTALogisticsGroup‘TransportEmissionsCarbonCalculator’London.

20 Smith,A.etal(2005)‘ValidityofFoodMilesasanIndicatorofSustainableDevelopment’DEFRA,London.

waterwayhastheleastenvironmentalimpact’.ThemodalemissionfactorsquotedintheIFIAreportareobtainedfromMcKinnon(2007)17andNTM.

Steel

TheWorldSteelAssociation18providesadvicetomembercompaniesonthecalculationofCO2emis-sionsandhascalculatedtheindustry’stotalcarbonfootprint(1.7tonnesofCO2emittedpertonneofsteelproduced).Transportofrawmaterialsupstreamoftheplantare‘excludedfromthesystemboundary’.Presumablydownstreamdistributionoffinishedprod-uctsisincluded,thoughtheWSA’s‘CO2EmissionsDataCollection’reportoffersnoguidanceonhowtherelatedcarbonemissionsshouldbemeasured.Allthepublishedemissionfactorsapplytoproductionoperations.

Metalcans

CanMakers,thetradebodyrepresentingmanufac-turersformetalcans,commissionedconsultantstoconstructacarboncalculatorfortheirsupplychainoperations.Thistoolcanbecalibratedwithcompany-specificemissionfactorsorstandarddefaultvaluesderivedmainlyfromDEFRA.

Bitumen

Nynas,oneofthemainproducersofbitumen,hascarbonfootprintedtheproductionoperationandupstreamsupplychainforthisproduct.ThisincludestheinboundmovementofoiltotheirEuropeanproductionfacilities,butexcludesdistributionofthefinishedproduct.Nodetailsaregivenofthemethodofcalculation,thoughDEFRAappearstobethemainsourceofemissionfactorvalues.

Wineandspirits

TheWineandSpiritsTradeAssociation19,jointlywithJ.F.Hillebrand,havedevelopedacarboncalculatorformeasuringcarbonemissionsfromtransportinthissector.This‘representsanobjective,reasonableandconservativeassessmentofemissionsfromoneofthemostcomplexelementsofthebeveragesup-plychain’.Thecalculatorallowsuserstoestimate,onalanebylanebasis,CO2emissionsperlitreofwinetransportedbydifferenttransportmodes,forbulkandpackagedproductandforfull-loadsandgroupage.TheWSTAandHillebrandindicatethesourcesofallthemodalemissionfactorsbuiltintotheircalculator.TheseincludeDEFRA,McKinnon,theUKNationalAtmosphericEmissionsInventoryforroad;Tremove,NTMandINFRASforrailandNTM,McKinnonandMaerskforshipping.Typicalpayloadsarealsoprovidedforwines/spiritsmovedbyroadtrailerorcontainerindifferentcountries.Inaseparateinitiative,theScotchWhiskyAssociation,hasanalysed

(withtheassistanceoftheScotchWhiskyResearchIn-stitute),onalifecyclebasis,totalCO2emissionsfromtheproductionandworld-widedistributionofwhisky.Thishasestablishedthatoutbounddistributionofthefinishedproductconstitutesaround11%ofthetotal.Themacro-levelfootprintwascalculatedbymultiply-ingoutboundtonnagesbycarbonemissionfactorsforthedifferenttransportmodesused,assuminghighlevelmodalsplitestimates.Anemissionfactorof85gCO2/tonne-kmisusedforroadmovements,ob-tainedfromtheUKLowCarbonVehiclePartnership.Inthesecondphaseofthisproject,themainwhiskyproducersareprovidingmuchmoredetailedfiguresonthequantitiesofScotchmovedondifferentlanesbydifferentmodes.Carriershavealsobeenaskedtoprovidefuelconsumptionandemissionsdatatohelptorefinethecalculationandreducerelianceonstandardised,cross-industryemissionfactors.

Food

Numerousstudieshavecarbonfootprintedthesupplychainsoffoodproductsonalifecyclebasis.Manyhavebeenmotivatedbyconcernaboutthe‘foodmiles’issuei.e.thetrendtosourcefoodproductsfrommoredistantlocations.Thishasfocusedatten-tiononemissionsfromthetransportoperation.Giventhepublic/governmentinterestinthistopic,muchofthisworkhasbeenpublicly-fundedratherthancommissionedbytradeassociationsorcompanies.Studies,suchasSmithetal(2005)20,forexample,haveproducedmacro-levelestimatesoftransport-

relatedCO2emissionsfordifferentclassesoffoodbymultiplyingtonnage,distanceandmodalemissionfactorvalues.Overthepastthreeyears,however,muchmoreprogresshasbeenmadeatthemicro-level,measuringcarbonemissionsfromthesupplychainsofspecificproductstopermitcarbonlabelling.

NumerousstudieshavebeenconductedonproductcarbonfootprintingintheUK,France,Germany,KoreaandJapan.Inanefforttostandardisethisprocess,theBritishStandardsInstitute(BSI)publishedguidelinesonthecarbonfootprintingofconsumerproducts(PAS2050)21whichincludesasectionontransportoperations.Itprovidesadvice,forexample,ontheallocationofCO2emissionsbetweenconsign-mentssharingthesamevehicle.

Inthecaseofloadslimitedbymass(i.e.weight),theallocationisbymass;wheretheloadisvolume-constrained,CO2istobedividedbyvolume.Thisrecommendationiscrude,however,andofferslittleguidanceonhowtodealwithmanycommonly-encounteredtransportsituationssuchas:wheretheloadisneithermass-norvolume-constrained,wherealoadcomprisesamixtureofhighandlowdensityconsignmentsorwheregoodsaredelivered/collectedonmultiple-stoprounds.

Asitisunlikely,fortheforeseeablefuture,thatchemicalcompanieswillberequiredtodisaggregatetransportCO2estimatesbyproductorconsignment,thisrecentdevelopmentofcarbonauditinginthefoodsectorislikelytobeoflimitedinterestintheshorttomediumterm.

21 BritishStandardsInstitute(2008)‘PAS2050:Specificationforthemeasurementofembodiedgreenhousegasemissionsinproductsandservices’London.

Cha

pter

3 M

easu

rem

ent o

f Tra

nspo

rt-r

elat

ed E

mis

sion

s in

oth

er S

ecto

rs

23

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

Paperandboard/Packaging

The‘frameworkforthecarbonfootprintingofpaperandboardproducts’wascompletedin2007andapprovedbytheConfederationofEuropeanPaperIndustries(CEPI)22laterthatyear.Itdefined‘transport-relatedgreenhousegasemissions’asoneofthe‘tentoes’oftheindustry’scarbonfootprint.Thisincludes‘transportingrawmaterials,productsandwastesalongthevaluechain’.TheGHGcalculationproce-dureisasfollows,withdatacomingfrom‘companiesprovidingtransportservices,companytransportexpertsandlife-cycledatabases’:

Calculationsteps:1.Usesystemboundaries,cut-offcriteriaand

knowledgefromotherstudiestodecidewhichtypeoftransporttoincludeintheanalysis

2.Estimateemissionsassociatedwiththeselectedaspectsoftransport

3.Iftransportisusedformultipleproducts,useappropriateallocationmethodstoidentifytheemissionsassociatedwiththeproductofinterest

4.Ifneededtosatisfytheobjectivesofthefootprint,dividetheemissionsintocategoriesreflectingcontrol

5.Recordthegreenhousegasemissionsattribuabletothefunctionalunitoftheproductbeingstudiedintheappropriatereportingform

ForpaperproductsanEnvironmentalPaperAs-sessmentTool(EPAT)hasbeendevelopedinNorthAmericawhichincludesacalculationof‘transportemissionsassociatedwithcarryingproductfrom

themillstoadistributionpointorconverter’.This‘providesbuyersandsellersofpaperproductswithaconsistentlanguageandframeworktoevaluateandselectenvironmentallypreferablepaper’.TheFedera-tionofEuropeanCorrugatedBoardmanufacturers(FEFCO)whichisaffiliatedtoCEPI,haspublishedamoretechnicalmanualonthecarbonfootprintingofthisclassofproducts.Thismakesnoexplicitreferencetotransport,thoughindicatesthattheBritishPAS2050methodologyhasbeenemployedinitsGHGcalculations.

Concernabouttheenvironmentalimpactofthegrowthofpackagingand,insomecountriestheproposedintroductionoftaxesonpackaging,hasstimulatedresearchontheenvironmentalauditingofthepackagingsupplychain.AstudybyCEDelft23hasestimatedthetransport-relatedCO2emissionsfromthesupplychainsofarangeofpackagingproducts.ThishasusedaseriesofCO2-intensityvaluesfordif-ferenttransportmodes(78g/tonne-kmforroadand34g/tonne-kmforrailandinlandwaterway).IthasalsoestimatedtheaveragelengthofeachlinkinthepackagingsupplychainwithintheNetherlandsandquantitiesofproductmovingoneachoftheselinks.

Postalservices

Althoughthemovementofmailpresentsverydif-ferenttransportchallengestothedistributionofchemicals,arecentinitiativebytheInternationalPostCorporation24(IPC),whosemembershandle80%of

globalmailvolume,meritsattention.Ithasestab-lishedanEnvironmentalMeasurementandMonitor-ingSystem(EMMS)thatmemberorganisationsandtheircustomerscanusetocarbonfootprinttheirmailoperations,whichareessentiallylogistical.EMMSwasdevelopedto‘implementacommoncarbonmeasure-mentandreportingframeworkinlinewithcustomerrequirementsandstakeholderexpectations’.Itscorescompanies’‘carbonmanagementproficiency’onaconsistentbasisusingthe‘plan-do-check-act’approachadvocatedbytheInternationalStandardsOrganisation.TheIPChassetitsmembersatargetofreducingtheirtotalCO2emissionsby20%by2020.

Summary

Thereisnoindustryorsectorwhichcancurrentlyberegardedasbestpracticeintermsoftransport-relatedcarbonauditing.Some,suchasfertiliser,packagingandwines&spirits,havegonethroughasimilarpro-cesstoCeficinadoptinganactivity-basedapproachtocarbonmeasurementandsurveyinglargemembercompaniestocompilethenecessarybasedataformacro-levelestimationofCO2emissions.

Severalofthesectoralinitiativesoutlinedabove,mostnotablythoserelatingtofertiliser,foodandpaper&board,gobeyondcarbonmeasurementandprovideadvicetocompaniesonmethodsofdecarbonisingtheirtransportoperations.

24

22 CEPI(2009)‘FrameworksfortheDevelopmentofCarbonFootprintsforPaperandBoardProducts’Brussels.

23 CEDelft(2007)‘EnvironmentalIndicesfortheDutchPackagingTax’Delft.

24 InternationalPostCorporation(2009)‘PostalSectorSustainabilityReport2009’Brussels.

4. Opportunities for Decarbonising Chemical Transport Operations

TheseopportunitieswillbeexaminedwithinaframeworkdevelopedfortheGreenLogisticsresearchprojectintheUK(Figure 5).Thisframeworkmapsthecomplexrelationshipbetweentheweightofgoodspro-ducedinaneconomyorindustrialsectorandtheCO2emissionsfromitsfreighttransportoperations.Thisrelationshippivotsonasetofsevenkeyparameters:

Modalsplitindicatestheproportionoffreightcarriedbydifferenttransportmodes.Followingthissplit,subsequentparametersneedtobecalibratedforparticularmodes.TherestofFigure 5 hasbeendefinedwithrespecttoroadtransport.

Averagehandlingfactor:thisistheratiooftheweightofgoodsproducedbyanindustrialsectortofreighttonnagesloadedontovehiclesatthestartofajourney,allowingforthefactthat,astheypassthroughthesupplychain,productsareloadedontovehiclesseveraltimes.Thehandlingfactorservesasacrudemeasureoftheaveragenumberoflinksinasupplychain.

Averagelengthofhaul:thisisthemeanlengthofeachlinkinthesupplychainandessentiallyconvertsthetonnes-liftedstatisticintotonne-kms.

Averagehandlingfactorandlengthofhaulreflectthatoverallsupplychainstructure.

Averagepayloadonladentripsandthepropor-tionofkmsrunemptyarethetwokeyvehicleutilizationparameters.Averagepayloadisnormallymeasuredsolelyintermsofweight.Thisisveryap-

FIGURE5

DecarbonisationFrameworkforFreightTransport

CO2emissions

Distribution of vehicle - kms by vehicle size, wieght and type

Aggregate

Key parameter

Determinant

Efficiency of vehicle routing

Vehicle carrying capacity by weight / volume

Vehicle utilisation on laden trips

Level of backhaulage

Supply chain structure

Road tonne -kms

Total vehicle -kms

Traffic conditions

Timing of deliveries

Spatial pattern of deliveries

Weight of goods transported by road

Road tonnes -lifted

Weight of goods produced / consumed

Similaranalysesforothermodes

Fuel consumption

Fuel efficiency

Carbon intensity of fuel

Modal split

Average % empty running

Average length of haul

Average handling factor

Average load on laden trips

25

Cha

pter

4 O

ppor

tuni

ties

for

Dec

arbo

nisi

ng C

hem

ical

Tra

nspo

rt O

pera

tions

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

26

propriateinthechemicalindustryasalargepropor-tionofloadsareweightconstrained.

Energyefficiency:definedastheratioofdistancetravelledtoenergyconsumed.Itisafunctionmainlyofvehiclecharacteristics,drivingbehaviourandtrafficconditions.

Carbonintensityoftheenergysource:i.e.theamountofCO2emittedperunitofenergycon-sumedeitherdirectlybythevehicleorindirectlyattheprimaryenergysourceforelectrically-poweredfreightoperations.

4.1Modalsplit

Ithasbeenseenhowcarbonintensity(expressedasgrammeofCO2pertonne-km)varieswidelybetweentransportmodes.Shiftingfrommodeswithrelativelyhighcarbonintensitiestothosewithmuchlowercarbonemissionscanhelptodecarbonisefreighttransport.ToillustratethepotentialsavingsinCO2fromfreightmodalshiftwithinthechemicalsupplychaintwohypotheticalscenarioshavebeenconstructedonthebasisofthedatacollectedintheCeficsurvey (Figure 6).Thefirstreducesroad’sshareofchemicaltonne-kmsfrom37%to27%andspreadsthedisplacedtrafficevenlyaroundtheotherlowercarbonmodes.ThesecondappliestheaveragemodalsplitofthetwocompaniesintheCeficsurveywhichsendthelowestproportionsoftheirfreighttonnagebyroad.Inthefirstscenario,anetCO2sav-

ingof15%wouldbeachieved,whileintheseconditwouldbealmost27%.

Allthecompaniesconsultedindicatedthattherewasapotentialtoshiftmorefreighttorailandwater-borneservices,thoughsomecompanieshavealreadyincreasedtheirrelativeuseoflowercarbonmodesoverthepastdecade.Modalshiftwasbeingconstrainedbyseveralfactors:

1.Shortlengthsofhaul:itwasarguedthat,inchemicaldistribution,railtendsonlytobecomecompetitivewherethelengthofhaulisgreaterthan400-500kms.Thethresholddistancepartlydependsonwhethertheoriginand/ordestinationarerail-connectedand,ifnot,theextenttowhichflowshavetodeviatefromthedirectroadroutetopassthroughintermodalterminals.ManyEuropeanchemicalplantslackarailconnection.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Intermodal road-railPipelineShort SeaInland WaterwayRailRoad

FIGURE6

Impactof2ModalShiftScenariosonCO2EmissionsfromChemicalTransport

Current modal split

Greener modal split

Two greenest modal splits

%o

fto

nn

e-km

Greenermodalsplit: Marginalreallocationofroadfreighttolowercarbonmodes:15%lessCO2

Twogreenestmodalsplits: Applyingthetwo“greenest”modalsplitsinCeficsample:27%lessCO2

25 Chemicalcompaniesin‘swaparrangements’supplycustomerswithstandardproducts,oftenbrandedbyaparticularcompany,fromthenearestproductionplant.CompanyAmaythereforesupplyCompanyB’scustomerifitsplantiscloserandviceversa.Thisminimisestheaveragedistanceoverwhichproductsaredistributed.

26 McKinnon,A.(2004)‘SupplyChainExcellenceintheEuropeanChemicalIndustry’EPCA/Cefic,Brussels.Braithwaite,A.(2005)‘MaximisingPerformance:ThePowerofSupplyChainCollaboration’EPCA/Cefic,Brussels.

2.Lengthofthetransittime:water-borneservices,inparticular,areoftentooslowtomeetcustomerorderleadtimerequirements.

3.Inadequatereliability:whilefulltrainloaddeliv-eriestendtobequitereliable,therecanbequitewidevariationsinthetransittimesforwagonloadtrafficontheEuropeanrailnetwork.

4.Lackofcostadvantage:modalswitchtorailorwaterstillcannotbejustifiedpurelyonenviron-mental/decarbonisationgrounds.Theremustalsobeacommercialcaseforitandthisisoftenlacking.

5.Capacitylimits:therailand,toalesserextent,waterwaynetworkscanlacksufficientcapacityonkeylinksatbusytimestoaccommodateasubstan-tialmodeshiftfromroad.

4.2Supplychainstructure

Forsomechemicalcompaniestheaveragelengthofhauliscurrentlyincreasingastheirmarketareasexpand.Thegradualcentralisationofproductionandinventoryinthechemicalindustryisalsoincreasingitsfreighttransportintensity.Thereislittleprospectintheforeseeablefutureforthesewell-establishedgeographicaltrendsbeingreversed.Thereare,never-theless,othermeasuresthatcompaniescantaketooffsetthesetrendsandpossiblyreducetheindustry’stransport-relatedcarbonfootprint.

Expandingswaparrangements25:byessentiallyreducingthedemandfortransportandeliminatingtonne-kms,swappingisanidealdecarbonisationmeasure.Itisalreadywidelyappliedinthechemicalindustryforcommodityproductssuchasethylene,propyleneandbenzene,though,intheopinionofseveralofthemanagersconsulted,itcouldbeexpanded.NogeneraldataisavailableonthecurrentlevelofswapsortheresultingsavingintransportandCO2emissions.Itisnotpossible,therefore,tomodelthepotentialsavingsfromafurtherincreaseinswaps.Toachieveasignificantincreaseinthelevelofswap-ping,itwouldprobablybenecessarytotreatasstan-dardcommoditiessomeproductsthatarecurrentlybrandedanddifferentiatedformarketingpurposes.

Disintermediation:inotherwords,allowinglargerconsignmentstobypassdistributorsandexternalwarehousesandtraveldirectlyfromplanttocustom-ers.Thiseliminatesalinkinthesupplychain,reduc-ingthe‘handlingfactor’andcuttingtotaltonne-kms.Thisalreadyhappens,evenwherethesaleisstillhandledbythechemicaldistributor,butisrelativelyuncommon.CompanieswouldhavetoensurethatthisdidnotcontraveneEUcompetitionrulesandthathighvehicleloadfactorsweremaintainedonthesedirectdeliveries.

Improvedrouting:thecircuitousroutingofprod-ucts,bothatasupplychainlevelviaintermodaltermi-nals,warehousesandtankcleaningstations,andontheroadandrailnetworkscangenerateunnecessarytonne-kms.Thereisprobablyscopeforoptimisingchemicaltransportoperationsatboththeselevels,

usingmoreadvancedlogisticsplanningandvehicleroutingtools.Inthecaseofhazardouschemicals,morecarefulroutingoftheproductsalsoreducestheriskofaccidentsandthusyieldssafetybenefits.

4.3Vehicleutilisation

Theloadingofroadandrailvehicles,tanksandcontainersinthechemicalindustryisalreadyhigh,particularlyattheupperlevelsofthesupplychain.Astransportcostsrepresentarelativelylargepropor-tionofproductvalue,companiesareunderintensepressuretomaximisevehicleutilisation.Pricingstruc-turesalsogivecustomersastrongincentivetotakefulltruck,tankandcontainerloads.Furtherdownthesupplychain,however,acombinationofjust-in-timepressuresandproductdiversificationismakingitdif-ficultforchemicalcompaniestomaintainloadfactors,letaloneincreasethem.Figure 7(page28)liststherangeoffactorsthattypicallyconstrainvehicleloadingandgroupsthemintofivecategories.Allofthesefac-torsimpingeonchemicaltransportoperations.Thereare,nevertheless,somemeasuresthatwouldpermitasignificantincreaseinvehiclefill.SeveralofthemarediscussedintheEPCA/Ceficreportspublishedin2003and2004onsupplychainexcellenceintheEuropeanchemicalindustry26.Theyallhavethemeritofsavingmoneyaswellascuttingcarbon:

Increaseinthemaximumvehicleweight:manytruckscarryingchemicalproductsreachtheirmaxi-mumlegalweightbeforealltheavailabledeck/cubic

Cha

pter

4 O

ppor

tuni

ties

for

Dec

arbo

nisi

ng C

hem

ical

Tra

nspo

rt O

pera

tions

27

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

27 McKinnon,A.C.(2005)‘TheEconomicandEnvironmentalBenefitsofIncreasingMaximumTruckWeight:theBritishExperience’TransportationResearchpartD,vol.10,pp.77-95.

capacityisoccupied.Arelaxationofgovernmentweightrestrictionsfrom40to44tonnesacrossEuropewouldthereforepermitgreaterloadconsoli-dation.WithinthreeyearsoftheUKgovernmentincreasingthemaximumweightlimitto44tonnes,61%oftonne-kmsinthepetrolandpetroleumprod-uctscommodityclasswerebeingmovedintrucksregisteredatthishigherweightlimit27.Inestimatingthenetcarbonsavingsfromgreaterloadconsolida-tionin44tonnetrucks,allowancewouldhavetobemadeforanyerosionofchemicaltrafficfromrailandwater-bornemodes.If,however,theincreaseinmaxi-mumtruckweightwereaccompaniedbyanevengreaterincreaseintheweightlimitforintermodalunitsto50tonnes,ascurrentlyproposedbyCefic,anynegativeimpactonrailcouldbeneutralised.

Relaxmonthlyorder-invoicecycles:ThiswasidentifiedintheEPCA/Ceficsupplychainexcellenceinitiativeasanimportantefficiencyimprovementmeasure.Itwouldhelptoreducetheartificialpeak-ingoffreightflowsatthestartofthemonth.Theintervieweesinthepresentstudy,however,differedintheirassessmentofitspotentialbenefitinbothcostandcarbonterms.Onecompanyhadmovedtoasystemofrollingcreditmainlytoreducepeakingandrelievepressureonloadingbays.Thisisalsolikelytohavecutcarbonemissions,thoughthesesavingshadnotbeenquantified.

FIGURE7

FactorsConstrainingVehicleUtilisation

Market-related

Demand fluctuations

Lack of knowledge of loading opportunities

Health and safety regulations

Vehicle size and weight restrictions

Unreliable delivery schedules

Just-in-Time delivery

Goods handling requirements

Limited storage capacity at facilities

Incompatibility of vehicles and products

Poor coordination of purchasing, sales and logistics

Regulatory

Inter-functional

Equipment-related

28

Infrastructural

28 McKinnon,A.C.‘IncreasingFuelEfficiencyintheRoadFreightSector’inMcKinnon,A.C.etal(eds)(2010)‘GreenLogistics’,KoganPage,London.

Improveloadingpractices:morecarefulloadingofconsignments,forexampleputtingmorestackableproductslowerinthevehicle,canimprovevehiclefill.Thisoftenrequiresbetterstafftrainingandsupervi-sion.

Expandingstoragecapacityatdeliverypoints:vehicleloadingispartlyconstrainedbythestor-agecapacityofsilosandtanksatthecustomer’spremises.Investmentinadditionalstoragecapacitycouldincreasetheproportionoffullloaddeliveries,particularlywhenlinkedwithvendormanagementofthecustomer’sinventory.

Vendormanagedinventory:theEPCA/Ceficsup-plychainexcellencestudieshighlightedthepotentialeconomicandenvironmentalbenefitsofVMIinthechemicalindustry.Fiveyearson,anevenstrongercasecannowbemade,intermsofdecarbonisation,forthewideradoptionofVMIinthissector.

Logisticalcollaboration:inotherindusties,mostnotablythefastmovingconsumergoodssector,logis-ticalcollaborationinitiativesaregatheringmomentumandachievingsignificantreductionsinvehicle-kms,transportenergyuseandemissions,mainlybyex-ploitingbackloadingopportunities.AsrevealedbytheEPCA/Ceficstudy,largepotentialexistsfortransportcollaborationintheEuropeanchemicalindustry.

Moreeffectivemanagementofdrivers’hours:drivers’hoursrestrictionslimittheamountofproductthatcanbedeliveredbyavehicle,particularlyonmultiple-droprounds.Althoughitisunlikelythat

theselegalrestrictionsaregoingberelaxed,itmaybepossiblethatimprovedroutingandschedulingwouldallowcompaniesandtheircarrierstoimproveaverageloadingwithinexistingconstraints.

4.4Fuelefficiency

Asmostchemicaltransportisoutsourced,responsibil-ityformaximisingfuelefficiencyrestswiththecarrier.‘Open-book’contractswithcarriersgiveshippersvisibilityoffuelconsumption,buttendonlytoapplytodedicatedtransportoperationsandappeartobecomparativelyrareinthechemicalindustry.Manycarrierswouldbeunwillingtodivulgeinformationabouttheirfuelefficiencyasthiscouldinfluencecommercialnegotiations.Atleasttwoofthechemi-calcompaniesconsulted,however,hadmanagedtoobtainthisinformationwithouttoomuchdifficultyfromcarriers.Ifthisinformationwereroutinelyprovided,carrierscouldbebenchmarkedontheirfuelperformance,ashashappenedintheUKintheseriesofgovernment-sponsoredtransportKPIssurveys.MostoftheKPIsthatchemicalcompaniesrequestfromtheirtransportprovidersrelatetoservicequalityratherthanoperationalorenergyefficiency.Bytakingagreaterinterestinthefuelefficiencystandardsandprogrammesoftheircarriers,chemicalcompaniesmightbeabletoexertmorepressureonthemtocutfuelconsumption.Onecantaketheview,however,thatcarriersarealreadyunderstrongcostpressuretominimisefuelconsumption,asitaccountsfor25-30%oftotalcosts,andthattheincrementaleffect

ofshippers‘takinggreaterinterest’inthesubjectcouldberelativelysmall.BenchmarkingsurveysintheUK,Germany,Canadaandothercountries,however,revealquitewidevariationsintheaveragefuelefficiencyofroadcarriers,eventhoseengaginginsimilartypesofhaulagework.Itwouldprobablybebeneficial,therefore,inbothcarbonandfinancialterms,toworkwiththeEuropeanChemicalTransportAssociationtoestablishanddisseminatebestpracticeinfuelmanagementamongthechemicalindustry’scarriercommunity.

Bestpracticeinfuelmanagementinvolvesapplyingarangeoffueleconomymeasures28.Thesecanbedividedintothreecategoriesrelatingtothedesign,maintenanceandoperationofvehicles.

4.4.1Vehicledesign

Fivevehicleattributeshaveastronginfluenceonfuelconsumption:

• Fuelefficiencyofnewtrucks:Therearesignifi-cantvariationsinthefuelefficiencyofdifferentmakesandmodelsofnewtruckonthemarket.Tradepublicationsreportvariationsof5-10%infuelconsumptionoverastandardtrialrouteforaparticularclassofvehicle.

• Enginepower-rating:Itiscommonforcom-paniestopurchasetractorunitsthataremorepowerfulthantheyneedtobeforaparticulartypeofdistributionoperation.

Cha

pter

4 O

ppor

tuni

ties

for

Dec

arbo

nisi

ng C

hem

ical

Tra

nspo

rt O

pera

tions

29

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

• Vehicletare(i.e.empty)weight:Fuelefficiencycanalsobeenhancedbyreducingthistareweight.Useoflightermaterials,suchasaluminiumorcar-bonfibre,andtheremovalofunnecessaryfittingscansignificantlycutthetareweight.

• Aerodynamicprofiling:Aseriesofgoodpracticeguidesandcasestudies(e.g.DeptforTransport,2007)29havereportedpotentialfuelsavingsintherange6-20%forimprovedaerodynamicstylingoftrucks.Inarticulatedvehicles,bothtractorandtrailerneedtobestreamlinedeitheratthetimeofmanufactureorbysubsequentlyretrofittingwith‘fairings’.

• Installationoffueleconomydevices:Thesecanincludeanti-idlingcontrols,fuelmetresandspeedgovernors.

4.4.2Vehiclemaintenance

Inunder-maintainedvehiclestherearenumeroustechnicaldefectswhichcanpreventalorryfromoperatingatoptimumfuelefficiency.Theyincludefuelleaks,under-inflatedtyres,mis-alignmentofaxlesandpoorenginetuning.Moreregularandthoroughmaintenancecutsfuellossesassociatedwiththesedefects.

4.4.3Vehicleoperation

Thekeymeasurestobeintroducedunderthishead-ingare:

• Improveddrivertraining:Itisgenerallyacceptedthatdrivingstyleisthesinglegreatestinfluenceonfuelefficiency.Drivertrainingprogrammeshavebeenshowntoimprovefuelefficiencybyasmuchas8-10%.

• Driverincentiveschemes:Toderivelongertermbenefitfromdrivertraining,companieshavetogivedriversanincentivetocontinuedrivingfuel-efficiently.

• Reducingspeedlimits:Imposingtighterlimitsonvehiclespeedshasbeenshowntoachievesignifi-cantfuelsavingsoftenwithminimalincreasesintheorderleadtime.

• Fleetmanagement:Thisincludesassigningthe‘rightvehiclestotherightjobs’.Fleetmanage-mentcanalsobereinforcedbytheappointmentofa‘fuelchampion’whosejobitistoanalysethepatternoffuelconsumption,promotefuelsavinginitiativesandgenerallyinstilafuel-savingcultureintheworkforce.

4.5Carbonintensityoffuel

Goodfuelmanagementalsoincludesanassessmentofthecostsandbenefitsofusingalternativefuels,someofwhich,onalife-cycleorwell/fieldtowheelbasis,canyieldnetreductionsincarbonemissions.Aswithfueleconomymeasures,however,themaindeci-siononwhethertoswitchtobiofuelsorcompressednaturalgaswillcontinuetorestwiththecarrier.Chemicalcompaniescouldsignificantlycutthecarbonfootprintsoftheirtransportoperationsbypri-oritisingtheuseofrailinthosecountriesgeneratingalargeproportionoftheirelectricityfromnuclearandrenewalsources,wherethecommercialconditionsarefavourable.Itislikely,however,thattheywillgainonlylimitedcarbonbenefitfromthehybridisationandfullelectrificationoftrucks.Itisoperatorsofsmallerrigidvehiclesthatwillderivemostofthebenefitofhybridandplug-intechnology.Theheavyarticulatedtrucks,whicharethe‘work-horses’oftheEuropeanchemicalindustry,arelikelytocontinuerunningonconventionaldieselfuelfortheforeseeablefuture.RecentresearchfortheLowCarbonVehiclePartner-shipintheUKsuggeststhat,inthemediumterm,poweringheavygoodsvehicleswithbiomethanewillproveamuchmorecost-effectivemeansofdecarbo-nisinglongdistanceroadhaulageoperationsthantheuseofbiodieselblends.

30

29 DeptforTransport(2007)‘AerodynamicsforEfficientRoadFreightOperations’FreightBestPracticeProgramme,London.

5. Cost Effectiveness of Decarbonisation Measures

A InvestinpipelinenetworkB Modalshifttorail/inland

waterwaysC ExpandswaparrangementsD UseofalternativefuelsE MoreefficientvehicleroutingF Enhancedvehicle

aerodynamicsG ImprovedvehicleutilisationH Drivertraininginfuel

efficientdriving

Thenumerousdecarbonisationmeasuresoutlinedintheprevioussectionvaryintheirrelativecostef-fectivenessasillustrated,inaratheridealisedfashion,inFigure 8.Thisfigureshowsatentativerankingofsomeofthemainmeasuresintermsoftheinitialset-upand/orcapitalcosts.Insufficientdataisavailableatpresenttocalibratethisgraph.Itshouldbenotedthatmanyofthesemeasureswouldhaveafairlyshortpaybackperiodand,onanongoingbasis,yieldbothcostandCO2savings.

FIGURE8

VariationsintheRelativeCost-effectivenessofDecarbonisationMeasures

0 50 100 150 200 250

H

G

F

E

D

C

B

A

EuropertonneofCO2saved

Cha

pter

5 C

ost E

ffec

tiven

ess

of D

ecar

boni

satio

n M

easu

res

31

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

MeasureAppraisalperiod

(years)£/tonneofcarbon

saved

Drivertraininginfuelefficientdriving(over5years) 5 65-75

Financialincentiveformodalshifttorail(over3years) 3 90

StreamliningofHGVs(over5years) 5 130

CompanyadviceonHGVfuelefficiency(over5years) 5 190

Companyadviceonvehicleroutingandtelematics 5 240

TABLE9

EstimatedCost-effectivenessofCarbonReductionMeasures.

FIGURE9

CostandCarbonSavingsAccruingfromImprovedFuelEfficiency(fullyladen40tgrossweightarticulatedvehicle)

0

0,02

0,04

0,06

0,08

0,010

0,012

0,014

0,016

0,018

0,020

32,92,82,72,62,52,42,32,20

10

20

30

40

50

60 Cost per tonne-km (€)

gCO2 per tonne-km

ThedirectlinearrelationshipbetweencostandCO2reductionscanbeeasilydemonstratedinthecaseofmeasureswhichimprovefuelefficiency(Figure 9).

AnattempthasbeenmadeintheUKtoassessthecost-effectiveness,overa3-5yeartimeframe,ofarangeofcarbonreductionmeasuresinthefreighttransportsector(Table 9).

ResearchersattheEindhovenUniversityofTechno-logy30havealsomodelledtherelativecostandcarbonimpactsoflogisticalmeasuressuchasfreightmodalshiftandimprovedbackloadingusingdatafromcasestudycompanies.Theiranalysissuggeststhat,inthecaseoftwocompanies,carbonemissionreductionsofupto15%mightbeachievedatanetsavingintransportcosts (Figure 10).

EffortshavealsobeenmadetoassesstherelativeeffectsofarangeoflowcarbonvehicletechnologiesandpracticesoncostsandCO2emissions.Ananalysisofthistype,undertakenfortheUKgovernment31,assessedtherelativedegreeofriskinthedevelop-mentandapplicationofthesemeasures(Figure 11).Itidentifiedmeasuressuchastraininginsafeandfuelefficientdriving(SAFED),lowrollingresistancetyresandtheretrofittingofaerodynamicdevices(‘aerofairings’)tovehiclesasofferinglargereductionsintail-pipeCO2emissionsatrelativelylowcost.

30 JanC.Fransoo,TarkanTan,A.G.(Ton)deKok,andHennyP.G.vanOoijen(2010)‘Measuringandregulatingcarbonemissionsintransportation’,WorkingPaper,SchoolofIndustrialEngineering,EindhovenUniversityofTechnology.

31 Ricardo(2009)‘ReviewofLowCarbonTechnologiesforHeavyGoodsVehicles’UKDeptforTransport,London.

32

Co

st(

Euro

per

to

nn

e-km

)

gC

O2

per

to

nn

e-km

Fuelefficiency(km/litre)

FIGURE10

EffectsofFreightModalShiftonTransportCostsandCO2Emissions

FIGURE11

RelativeCost-effectivenessofLowCarbonTruckTechnologiesandPractices(AdaptedfromRicardo/UKDepartmentforTransport)31

-2

0

2

4

6

8

252015105

eco-drivingtraining

low rollingresistance

tyres automatictyre

pressureadjustment

biogashydrogen

full hybrid

biofuel(FAME)

compressed natural gas

aerodynamic trailers

electric vehicles

fuel cells

stop/starthybrid

aero fairings

mechanical turbocompound

electric turbocompound

Co

stin

crea

se(

%)

CO2emissionreduction(%)

Company A

Company B

Incr

easi

ng

Tai

lpip

eC

O2

Savi

ng

s

IncreasingCost

Cha

pter

5 C

ost E

ffec

tiven

ess

of D

ecar

boni

satio

n M

easu

res

33

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e 6. Conclusion

Themeasurementofcarbonemissionsfromfreighttransportoperationsisstillatanearlystageinmostindustrialsectors.ThereviewofinitiativesinothersectorssuggeststhattheEuropeanchemicalindustryisrelativelyprogressiveinitseffortstocarbonfoot-printitsfreighttransportoperations,despitethatfactthattheyaccountforonlyasmallproportionoftotalCO2emissions.Atpresent,thisindustry,likeothers,haslittlechoicebuttoadoptthe‘activity-based’approachtomeasuringtransport-relatedemissions,applyingstandardisedcarbonemissionfactorstoestimatesoftonne-kmsmovedbydifferentmodes.

Itwillbedesirable,however,tomigratetoan‘ener-gy-based’methodofcalculationusingfuelconsump-tiondataprovidedbycarriers.ThiswillpermitmuchmoreaccurateestimationofCO2emissions.Asitmaytakeseveralyearstoachievethisgoal,itmaybepossible,asaninterimmeasure,todevelopa‘refinedactivity-based’approachinvolvingclosercollabo-rationbetweenshippersandcarriers.ThiswouldincorporateintotheCO2calculationsampledataondistancestravelled,consignmentrouting,backloadingandfuelefficiencyprovidedbycarrierstopermitthecalibrationofemissionfactorsspecifictothechemicalindustry(Figure 12).Thiscouldleadinthemediumtermtofulloperational,energyandcarbon‘transpa-rency’betweenshippersandcarriers.

Therefinementofthecarbonmeasurementprocesswillhelpthechemicalindustrytodevelopatrans-portdecarbonisationstrategyembracingthevariousmeasuresoutlinedinthisreport.Thesemeasurescanbetargetedonfivekeyfreighttransportparameters:modalsplit,supplychainstructure,vehicleutilisation,energyefficiencyandcarbonintensityoftheenergy.Thefirsttwoparametersareunderdirectcontrolofchemicalcompanies.Responsibilityforvehicleutili-sationissharedwithcarriers,whileenergyefficiencyandthecarboncontentoffuelismuchmorestronglyinfluencedbythelogisticsprovider.

Measuresthatchemicalcompanies,andtheircarriers,haveintroducedinrecentyearsprimarilytoimprovetheeconomicefficiencyoftransportwillalsohavecutcarbon.Moreresearchisrequired,however,toassesstherelativecosteffectivenessofabroaderrangeofdecarbonisationmeasures.

Fromdiscussionswithchemicallogisticsmanagers,itseemsthatthereisstillareasonableamountof‘lowhangingfruit’tobeharvested,whichwillbeself-fi-nancingintheshorttomediumterm,thoughrequiresomeinitialinvestment.Someoftheseself-financing,quickpaybackmeasurescanbeimplementedbyindi-vidualcompanies,whileotherswillrequireinter-com-panycollaborationasrecommendedinearlierreportsontheEuropeanchemicalsupplychain32.

32 McKinnon,(2004)op.cit.;Braithwaite(2005)op.cit.

34

FIGURE12

PossibleEvolutionofCarbonMeasurementProcess

Shipper-dependent

NOT SPECIFIC TO

Activity-based

Tonne-km-basedemissionfactor

sector

company

product

supply chain tier

EMISSION FACTORS

IMPROVINGCALIBRATION

Tonne-km-basedemissionfactor

sector-specific

company-specific

product-specific

Collaborativeinitiative

Refinedactivity-based

tonnes

distance

tonnes

distanceEnergy used

STANDARD VALUES

Energy-based

Energy-basedemissionfactor

Carrier-dependent

sampledistanceandenergydata

Cha

pter

6 C

oncl

usio

n

35

Biographies

ProfessorAlanMcKinnonisdirectoroftheLogisticsResearchCentreatHeriot-WattUniversity,Edinburgh,UK.AgraduateoftheuniversitiesofAberdeen,BritishColumbiaandLondon,hehasbeenresearchingandteachinginfreighttransport/logisticsforthirtyyearsandhaspublishedextensivelyinjournalsandbooks.AlanhasconductedstudiesfornumerouspublicandprivatesectororganisationsandbeenanadvisertoseveralUKgovernmentdepartmentsandparliamentarycommitteesandvariousinternationalagencies,includingtheInternationalTransportForumandInternationalEnergyAgency.In2003-4hefacilitatedthe‘SupplyChainExcellence’initiativeoftheEuropeanPetrochemicalAssociationandCefic.Inrecentyearsmuchofhisresearchhasfocusedonthedecarbonisationoflogistics.AlanisamemberofWorldEconomicForum’sGlobalAgendaCouncilontheFutureofTransportationandrecipientoftheSirRobertLawrenceAward,thehighestdistinctionoftheUKCharteredInstituteofLogisticsandTransport.

DrMajaPiecykisaLecturerintheLogisticsResearchCentre,basedatHeriot-WattUniversity,Edinburgh.Herresearchinterestsfocusontheenvironmentalperformanceofsupplychainsandsustainabilityoffreighttransportoperations.MuchofhercurrentworkcentresontheCO2auditingofbusinessesandforecastingoflong-termtrendsinenergydemandandtheenvironmentalimpactsoflogistics.

Mea

suri

ng a

nd M

anag

ing

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s fr

om th

e Tr

ansp

ort o

f Che

mic

als

in E

urop

e

36

Special thanks to all chemical and transport companies who kindly made pictures available to illustrate this report.

This report was prepared and published with the support of

des

ign

by

ww

w.w

itvr

ou

wen

.beCefic aisbl - European Chemical Industry Council

Avenue E. van Nieuwenhuyselaan 41160 Brussels - BelgiumT +32 2 676 72 11F +32 2 676 73 00www.cefic.org