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F ACULTY OF

ENGINEERING

TECHNICAL ENGLISH LEVEL T WO

Textbook

Guatemala, Julio de 2008

This booklet is meant to be used by the students of the Engineering Faculty of the

Unviersidad de San Carlos de Guatemala. It contains several topics related to the different

fields involved in the Engineering science.



ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

TECHNICALENGLISH IIBOOKLET COMPILED BY: DESIGNED AND EDITED BY:TATY VALLEJO TATIANA VALLEJOCLAY HERRERA PERLA ESPINOZAPERLA ESPINOZA

REVIEWED BY:SORAYA MARTÌNEZ



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V OCABUL ARY .................................................................................................................................................................43 THERMODYNAMICS .........................................................................................................................................................45EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................................................................................47

MANUFACTURING ...................................................................................................................................48

V OCABUL ARY .................................................................................................................................................................48M ANUFACTURING ............................................................................................................................................................50EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................................................................................52

METROLOGY..............................................................................................................................................53

V OCABUL ARY .................................................................................................................................................................53METROLOGY ......................................................................................................................................................................55S YSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT ........................................................................................................................................56EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................................................................................59

Chapter No. 3ELECTRONICS...........................................................................................................................................61

V OCABUL ARY .................................................................................................................................................................61ELECTRONICS....................................................................................................................................................................63 T YPES OF CIRCUITS.........................................................................................................................................................64HEAT DISSIPATION AND THERMAL M ANAGEMENT .............................................................................................65EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................................................................................66

PROGRAMMING ........................................................................................................................................67

V OCABUL ARY .................................................................................................................................................................67

HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING ........................................................................................................................................70EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................................................................................72

CONTROL SYSTEMS.................................................................................................................................73

V OCABUL ARY .................................................................................................................................................................73CONTROL S YSTEMS THEORY ........................................................................................................................................75EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................................................................................78

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.................................................................................................................79

V OCABUL ARY .................................................................................................................................................................79 A RTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ..........................................................................................................................................81EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................................................................................84

AppendixREFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................85



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GUATEMALA F ACTS

Vocabulary

1. Acknowledged: Recognized or admitted; Generally accepted.

2. At the expense: A loss for the sake of something gained; a sacrifice.

3. Ban: A public proclamation or edict; a public order or notice,mandatory or prohibitory; a summons by publicproclamation.

4. Coup: A sudden, violent, and illegal seizure of power from a

government.5. Deposed: To remove from office or power.

6. Highest court: Supreme court.

7. Landowners: A holder or proprietor of land.

8. Led a coup: To direct the performance or activities of a coup.

9. Leftist: One who holds a left-wing viewpoint; someone who seeksradical social and economic change in the direction ofgreater equality.

10. Overthrow: To bring about the downfall or destruction of, especially byforce or concerted action: a plot to overthrow thegovernment.

11. Pledge: A solemn binding promise to do, give, or refrain from doingsomething.

12. Plunge: To cast suddenly, violently, or deeply into a given state orsituation.

13. Prompt: To give rise to; inspire.

14. Run the country: To control or direct the functioning of the country.

15. Run-off: To decide (a contest or competition) by a runoff.16. Seized power: Assume (power or control) by force.

17. Squad: A small group of people organized in a common endeavoror activity. A small unit of police officers.

18. Strongman: A powerful, influential political figure who exercisesleadership and control by force.

19. Took office: Assume an official position or employment.

20. Trade: The business of buying and selling commodities;commerce.



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Gen. Jorge Ubico

Dr. Juan José ArevaloBermejo

Lic. Manuel EstradaCabrera

Gen. Justo Rufino

Barrios

HISTORY

The first proof of human settlers in Guatemala goes back to10,000 BC, although there is some evidence that put this date at18,000 BC, such as obsidian arrow heads found in various partsof the country (History of Guatemala, 1999). There isarchaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were huntersand gatherers, but pollen samples from Petén and the Pacificcoast indicate that maize cultivation was developed by 3500 BC.

Archaic sites have been documented in Quiché in the Highlandsand Sipacate, Escuintla on the central Pacific coast (6500 BC).

The impressive ancient Mayancivilization, Guatemala was conqueredby Spanish conquistador Pedro de

Alvarado in 1524 and in this way Guatemala was a Spainprovince. Guatemala gained independence from Spain onSeptember 15, 1821; it briefly became part of the Mexican Empireand then for a period belonged to a federation called The UnitedProvinces of Central America.

Guatemala was become into a republic in 1839 after the UnitedProvinces of Central America collapsed. Guatemala's "LiberalRevolution" came in 1871 under theleadership of Justo Rufino Barrios, whoworked to modernize the country,

improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing.During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala.Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took thecountry to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain this, losing his

life on the battlefield in 1885 againstforces in El Salvador.

From 1898 to 1920, Dictator ManuelEstrada Cabrera ran the country, and

from 1931 to 1944, Gen. Jorge UbicoCastañeda served as strongman. After Ubico's overthrow in1944, liberal-democratic coalitions led by Juan José Arévalo(1945–1951) and Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán (1951–1954)instituted social and political reforms that strengthened thepeasantry and urban workers at the expense of the military andbig landowners like the U.S.-owned United Fruit Company. Withcovert U.S. backing, Col. Carlos Castillo Armas led a coup in1954, and Arbenz took refuge in Mexico.



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Lic. Ramiro de LeónCarpio

Lic. Álvaro Arzú

Peace Agreement Signature

A series of repressive regimes followed, and the country was plunged into a 36-year civilwar between military governments and leftist rebels. Death squads murdered an estimated

50,000 leftists and political opponents during the 1970s. The U.S. ended military aid in1978.

After several other military governments, civilian Marco VinicioCerezo Arévalo took office in 1986. He was followed by JorgeSerrano Elías in 1991. In 1993, Serrano moved to dissolve Congressand the Supreme Court and suspend constitutional rights, but the

military deposed Serrano and allowed theinauguration of Ramiro de Leon Carpio, theformer attorney general for human rights. Apeace agreement was signed in Dec. 1996,

ending the longest civil war in Latin Americanhistory, which had left some 200,000 dead. InJune 1997, the new president Álvaro ArzúIrigoyen and the guerrilla movement leaderRicardo Ramirez received the UNESCOHouphouet-Boigny Peace Prize.

In 1999, a Guatemalan truth commission blamed the army for93% of the atrocities and the rebels (the Guatemalan NationalRevolutionary Unit) for 3%. The former guerrillas apologized fortheir crimes, and President Clinton apologized for U.S. support ofthe right-wing military governments. The army has notacknowledged its guilt. Alfonso Portillo Cabrera became presidentin Jan. 2000. In Aug. 2000, Portillo apologized for the formergovernment's human rights abuses and pledged to prosecutethose responsible and compensate victims.

To stimulate the economy, Guatemala, along with El Salvadorand Honduras, signed a free trade agreement with Mexico inJune 2000. In Aug. 2001, plans for tax increases promptedwidespread, and often violent, protests.

In July 2003, the country's highest court ruled that former coup leader and military dictatorEfrain Rios Montt, responsible for a massacre of tens of thousands of civilians during thecivil war, was eligible to run for president in November. The ruling conflicts with theconstitution, which bans anyone who seized power in a coup from running for thepresidency. But in November, Rios Montt was soundly defeated by two candidates,conservative Oscar Berger and center-leftist Alvaro Colom. In the run-off election inDecember 2004, Berger was elected president.

In the last election Gen. Otto Perez Molina and Alvaro Colom Caballeros disputed thePresidency but Alvaro Colom Caballeros won the election with an advantage of 5.36%.



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EXERCISES

Match each word wi th i ts def in i t ion.

1. Coup ____ Holders of land.

2. Leftist ____ An influential political figure who exercisesleadership.

3. Strongman ____ Assume an official position or employment.

4. Took office ____ A violent and illegal seizure of power from aGovernment.

5. Landowners ____ A person who seeks radical social and economicchange in the direction of greater equality.

Fi l l in the blanks wi th the most appropriated word.

1. Guatemala was ______________________ by Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado in 1524.

Conquered Conquering Conquer

2. Serrano try to dissolve Congress and the Supreme Court and

_____________________ constitutional rights.Suspend Suspended Suspension

3. After the United Provinces of Central America collapsed, Guatemala wasbecome into a __________________ in 1839.

Spain State State Republic

4. A Guatemalan truth commission blamed _________________ for 93% of the

atrocities.USA The Army The Rebels

5. In November, Rios Montt was ________________ defeated by two candidates

Deeply Very Soundly



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Council

Lowland

Hi hland

SOME MORE F ACTS…

Vocabulary

1. Compulsory: Obligatory; required

2. Council: A legislative or advisory body.

3. Former: Previous, ex.

4. Highlands Relatively high ground, amountainous region.

5. Lowland: An area of land that is low inrelation to the surroundingcountry

6. Syncretistic: Reconciliation or fusion ofdiffering systems of belief, as inphilosophy or religion,especially when success ispartial or the result isheterogeneous.



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SOME MORE IMPORTANT F ACTS…

Official Name: Republic of Guatemala.

Origin of the Name of Guatemala: The name Guatemala means land of the trees in theMaya-Toltec language.

GOVERNMENT

Form of Government: republic with one legislative house.

Head of State: President Álvaro Colom Caballeros (since 14 January 2008): VicePresident Rafael Espada

Independence: 15 September 1821 (from Spain)

National holiday: Independence Day, 15 September (1821)

Constitution: May 31, 1985; effective January 14 ,1986; note - suspended 25 May 1993by former President SERRANO; reinstated 5 June 1993 following ouster of president;amended November 1993

Legal system: civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not acceptedcompulsory ICJ jurisdiction

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal (active duty members of the armed forces may notvote)

Executive branch: Chief of state: President Álvaro Colom Caballeros (since 14 January2008); VicePresident Rafael Espada (since 14 January 2008). The president is both thechief of state and head of government.

Cabinet: Council of Ministers named by the president

Judicial branch: • Constitutional Court or Corte de Constitucionalidad is Guatemala's highest court. It

is composed by five judges elected for concurrent five-year terms by Congress,each serving one year as president of the Constitutional Court;

o One is elected by Congress,

o One elected by the Supreme Court of Justice,

o One appointed by the President,



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o One elected by Superior Counsel of Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala,and,

o One by Colegio de Abogados;• Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia. It is composed by thirteen

members who serve five-year terms and elect a president of the Court each yearfrom among their number. The President of the Supreme Court of Justice alsosupervises trial judges around the country, who are named to five-year terms.

PEOPLE

Population: 13,400,000 (Mid-2007 est.) Source 2007 World Population Data Sheet

Age structure:0-14 years: 42.6% (male 3,118,396; female 2,970,729)15-64 years: 54% (male 3,898,939; female 3,817,435)65 years and over: 3.3% (male 221,154; female 253,943) (2004 est.)

Life Expectancy: 65 (females, 68; males 63)

Urban to Rural Population: 38.7% urban; 61.3% rural (1995).

Density (population/sq. mile): 301 Source: ibidPopulation 2025 (projected): 19,816,000 Source: ibid

People: • Ladinos

• Xincas

• Garífunas

Officially Recognized Languages: • Achi'

• Akateko

• Awakateko

• Chalchiteko

• Ch'orti'

• Chuj

• Itzá

• Ixil

• Popti'

• Kaqchikel

• K'iche'

• Mam

• Mopan

• Poqoman

• Poqomchi

• Q'anjob'al

• Q'eqchi'

• Sakapulteko

• Sipakapense

• Spanish

• Tekiteko

• Tz'utujil

• Uspanteko

• Garifuna, and

• Xinka.



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One Quetzal

Palacio Nacional de laCultura

Capital: Guatemala City

Currency: Quetzal (Q); 1Q=100 cents.Religion: predominantly catholic, 1/3 of which areCatholic/traditional syncretistic; other Christian; traditional Maya.

Time Zone: GMT -6 hours; -5 in summer.

Weights and Measures: metric system.

Electricity: 110 and 220 V.

Public Holidays for 2005:• January 1 (New Years Day),

• January 6 (Epiphany),

• 21-24 April (Easter),

• May 1 (Labor Day),

• June 30 (Anniversary of theRevolution),

• August 15 (Assumption,Guatemala City only),

• September15 (Independence Day),

• October 12 (Columbus Day),

• October 20 (Revolution Day),

• November 1 (All Saints Day),

• December 24-25 (Christmas),

• December 31 (New Years Eve).

GEOGRAPHY

Area: 108,889 square km (42,042 square miles).

Location: Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Honduras and Belizeand bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between El Salvador and Mexico

Highest Point: Tajumulco Volcano, 4,220 meters/ 13,845 ft. above sea level.

Borders: Bordered on the east by Belize and the Gulf of Honduras, on the west and north

by Mexico, on the southeast by Honduras and El Salvador, and on the south by the PacificOcean.

Climate: Guatemala has a tropical climate. Temperatures vary greatly from area to areabecause of differences in altitude. The plains and lowlands have an average yearlytemperature of about 80 °F (27 °C), with little seasonal change. Mountain valleys 4,000 to6,000 feet (1,200 to 1,800 meters) high are usually comfortably mild. They have a yearlyaverage temperature of 60 °F to 70 °F (16 °C to 21 °C). The higher valleys sometimeshave frost, and average 40 °F (4 °C).



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Atitlan Lake

The Pacific Lowland and Western Highlands receive from 30 to 60 inches (76 to 150centimeters) of rain a year, and the eastern Highlands get 20 to 30 inches (51 to 76

centimeters). The rainy season in Guatemala generally lasts from May to November, anddaily showers fall during most of this period. Most of the Northern Plain receives from 80 to150 inches (200 to 381 centimeters) of rain annually. There, rain falls throughout most ofthe year. The edge of a hurricane sometimes hits Guatemala, causing some damage to thecountry's banana and coffee crops.

Volcanoes: 19 Mountain Ranges: Cuchumatanes range stretches east from Chixoy orNegro River, where it divides into two groups, the Cuchmatanes and Verapaz mountains;Sierra Madre mountains stretch from east to west and divide the Pacific slope from themidlands. Minor ranges include the Chamá, Santa Cruz, Chuacús, Las Minas, Montañasdel Mico.

Principal Rivers: • Motagua,• Usumcinta,• Dulce,• Polochic,• Sarstún.

Principal Lakes: • Izabal (800 square km/38 square miles),• Petén Itzá (98 square km/ 38 square miles),

• Atitlán (126 square km/ 49 miles),• Amatitlán (16 square km/6 square miles).

Coastline: 400 km

Maritime claims: continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusiveeconomic zone: 200 NM territorial sea: 12 NM



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EXERCISES

Write an example related wi th each of the fol lowing words.

1. Former: ________________________________________________

2. Lowland: ________________________________________________

3. Council: ________________________________________________

4. Highland: ________________________________________________

5. Compulsory: ________________________________________________

Wri te an F i f the statement is fa lse or V i f the statement is t rue .

1. Atitlán is the biggest lake in Guatemala. ____________

2. Guatemala has a tropical climate because all the country hasthe same altitude. ____________

3. Ministers are named by the President. ____________

4. Mam is the most spoken Mayan language. ____________

5. The rainy season in Guatemala usually last from May toNovember. ____________

Imagine that your are invi t ing an European f r iend to come to Guatemala.Select one tour ist p lace an descr ibe i t .

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

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WHY INVEST IN GUATEMALA …

Vocabulary

1. Apparel: Clothing in general, provide with clothes or put clothes on.

2. Geared: A complete assembly that performs a specific function in alarger machine.

3. Issuance: The act of providing an item for general use or for officialpurposes (usually in quantity)

4. Settling Putting firmly into a desired position or place; establishing.

5. Soil: The top layer of the earth's surface, consisting of rock andmineral particles mixed with organic matter. material in thetop layer of the surface of the earth in which plants cangrow (especially with reference to its quality or use).

6. Streamline: A line that is parallel to the direction of flow of a fluid at agiven instant.

7. Surpassing: Exceptional; exceeding.

8. Sustained: Maintained at length without interruption or weakening.Continuous.

9. Trade: The commercial exchange (buying and selling on domesticor international markets) of goods and services.

10. Trends: A general direction in which something tends to move



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Volcano Landscape

Maya World

WHY PEOPLE SHOULD INVEST IN OUR COUNTRY

As Guatemala continues to increase the export of manufactured products, more industriesare settling in the country to take advantage of the competitive edge that Guatemala has tooffer. This edge includes:

Location And MarketNext door neighbor to the huge market that will be created under the North American FreeTrade Agreement: Mexico, United States, Canada (with 360 million consumers), andmember of the Central American market (with 30 millionconsumers). This geographic proximity substantially lowerstime and costs of communications and transportation and

makes a "quick response " framework possible.

Eternal SpringGreat variety of micro climates (over 300) and volcanic soil,allowing for year-round cultivation of a wide range of products,making agricultural production especially competitive in thewinter markets of Europe and the United States.

Incentive Programs For Investment And ExportWith no limitations on foreign investment, foreign ownership by individuals or corporations,

or restrictions on repatriation of capital.

Diversified TourismJust 1 1/2 hours from Miami and Mexico City,Guatemala is a paradise for diversified tourism.Points of interest include: the Mundo Maya(Maya World), ecological tourism, colonialmonuments, and Caribbean and Pacific Coastbeaches.

Modern And InternationalExtensive air and sea routes, satellite and cellular telephone networks, a sophisticatedfinancial sector with foreign representations, a strong and organized private sector, andactive promotion abroad of commercial activity.

Economic GrowthIn 1992, sustained growth in the Gross Domestic Product of 4.8%, surpassing the rate ofpopulation growth for the sixth consecutive year. The country's vitality is evident in thegreat surge in the industries of construction, drawback, export of non-traditional products



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and tourism. In Guatemala the economy is dominated by the private sector, thegovernment accounts for only 10% of the GNP.

Investment Promotion And GuaranteesFree market economic policies that promote and guarantee foreign investment throughfiscal incentives, international agreements and bilateral treaties.

Streamlined ServicesEstablishment of the "One-Stop Windows" for investment and exports, which greatlyreduce the paperwork and speed up processing time for the establishment of companiesand the issuance of export licenses.

Competitive Labor ForceLarge and skilled labor pool, with great artisan ability.. Executive personnel trained in localand foreign universities. An abundant, young and stable labor force with wage rates thatcompete very favorably with Mexico and other countries of the region.

Investment PotentialVariety of opportunities for investment in de-monopolization and privatization of stateenterprises, in industry, and in diversified tourism.

Access To Ports On both Caribbean and Pacific Coasts through trans-country highway and rail systems.

Free Market PoliciesThe government is committed to lower tariffs and to eliminate the non-tariff trade barriers.

Business Environment A stable and sophisticated business environment with low inflation, low taxes, a stablecurrency, and a low incidence of litigation.

Sound And Strict Fiscal ManagementKeeps the exchange rate stable, inflation low, and government credit lines open frominternational financial institutions.

Gateway To The New Worldʹs Economic FrontierWith the approval of the North American Free Trade Agreement, Guatemala is now rightnext door to the world's largest economic block. The Government of Guatemala,anticipating passage of the agreement, initiated a series of reforms aimed at eliminatingprotectionism barriers, signed an agreement establishing the Central American Economic



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Block. This agreement aligns the region's macroeconomic policies, reduces tariffs,promotes exports and helps to attract foreign investment.

The Government of Guatemala has also taken steps to streamline procedures toencourage foreign investment by creating the "one stop investment window" to simplify theprocess of setting up a business in the country. Both the government and private sector arestrong advocates of free market principles, and committed to attracting foreign investmentand facilitating trade.

Guatemalaʹs Foremost Asset: Its People

With a population of nearly 10 million and a labor force exceeding 2.8 million--the largest inthe Central American region--Guatemala has the best-trained and most diverse work forcein the area. Agriculture continues to dominate the Guatemalan economy employing overhalf of the available labor force. The agricultural sector accounts for one quarter of thecountry's output and two thirds of all exports. Present trends point to an acceleratedincrease in the production of new or non-traditional agricultural export products, such astropical fruits and vegetables.

InvestmentPrivate investment drives the Guatemalan economy. Investment prospects are especiallypromising in the textile and apparel sectors, non-traditional agricultural products, shrimpfarming, and tourism.

Gross Domestic ProductWith the largest and fastest-growing GDP in Central America, at over 4% in 1993,Guatemala is firmly on the road to broadening its international markets and providingopportunities to worldwide investment.

Trade and CommerceThe United States remains Guatemala's major trading partner, providing 45% ofGuatemalan imports. Guatemalan imports from the United States reached US$1,172million in 1993. Although manufacturing continues to feature light industry geared towardsdomestic and Central American markets, exports to industrial countries of apparel, textilesand other items are growing by almost 30% a year.

SeaportsLocated 62 miles south of Guatemala City on the Pacific Coast, Puerto Quetzal is the firstmulti-purpose port in Guatemala. Santo Tomas de Castilla handles the majority ofGuatemala's freight movement. Puerto Barrios, operated by the private sector, handles thecountry's banana exports.



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EXERCISES

Underl ine the word that corresponds to the def in i t ion

1. Clothing in general.

Issuance Apparel Trade

2. A line that is parallel to the direction of flow of a fluid at a given instant.

River Geared Streamline

3. Material in the top layer of the surface of the earth in which plants can grow

Soil Dust Trade

4. Buying and selling goods and services

Gearing Trading Settling

5. Establish or put firmly in a position

Settle Surpassed Geared

Convince a potent ia l investor of invest ing in Guatemala.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

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Carnation

Child with clay

Gray Marble

Pumice

Rubber Boots

INVESTMENT A REAS

Vocabulary

1. Ancillary Auxiliary; helping.

2. Arable Land fit to be cultivated.

3. Basin An artificially enclosed area of a river or harbordesigned so that the water level remainsunaffected by tidal changes.

4. Bentonite An absorbent aluminum silicate clay formed

from volcanic ash5. Carnation Eurasian plant with pink to purple-red spice-

scented usually double flowers; widelycultivated in many varieties and many colors

6. Clay A sedimentary material with grains smaller than0.002 millimeters in diameter. a very fine-grained soil that is plastic when moist but hardwhen fired.

7. Diatomite A light soil consisting of siliceous diatom remainsand often used as a filtering material.

8. Drawback The object of a drawback is to let commodities which aresubject to taxation be exported and sold in aforeign country on the same terms as goods fromcountries where they are untaxed.

9. Exchange To give and receive reciprocally; interchange.

10. Limestone Rock consisting mainly of calcium carbonate:used as a building stone and in making cement.

11. Marble A hard crystalline metamorphic rock that takes ahigh polish; used for sculpture and as building

material12. Pumice Stone A light, porous, glassy lava, used in solid form as

an abrasive and in powdered form as a polish andan abrasive

13. Rate The speed of progress or change.

14. Rubber An elastic material obtained from the latex of certain plants,such as the rubber tree

15. Well: A deep hole or shaft sunk into the earth to obtain water, oil, gas,or brine.



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Coffee Beans

Sugar Cane

Red Snapper

Shrimp

A helandra

PRINCIPAL INVESTMENT A REAS IN GUATEMALA

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS An agricultural country, Guatemala's coffee, sugar and banana exports are an important

source of foreign exchange. the country's climate is especially suited tothe cultivation of vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants, theproduction of which has grown at a spectacular rate in the past fewyears.

Areas of potential interest for co-investment are foundin ancillary services for this industry, such as:refrigeration and freezing, vacuum packing, and

processing (marmalades, juices, cereals, canning, etc.)

Guatemalan export of these products to the United States receivespreferential tariffs and other benefits under the General System ofPreferences (GSP) and the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI).

HYDROBIOLOGIC PRODUCTS Guatemala's territorial waters are an abundant

source of fish, including sardines and redsnapper. The private sector in Guatemala is

very interested in attracting foreign investmentfor the development of this industry andancillary areas.

The natural and artificial lagoons, existing throughout the SouthCoast area, have led to rapid development of shrimp farming, whichhas become a principal export to the U.S. and Europe and is carriedout under strict sanitary controls.

With the construction of a new port at Champerico, the seafood industry is expected togrow, along with investment in related industries.

ORNAMENTAL PLANTS Thanks to the diversity of micro climates and extensive arable land,Guatemala is able to produce all types of ornamental plantsthroughout the year. The mountainous, volcanic area is suited to:Tillandsias, Aphelandra, Hedera, Cissus, Maranta, Peperomia. Thearea of the South Coast, near the Pacific Ocean, provides idealconditions for: Aglaonema, Brassia, Codiaeum, Dracaena, Ficus,Polyscias, Scindapsus, Syngonium and Philodendron.



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House covered byHedera

Man working in a rubberplantation

The tropical forests of the northeast andsoutheast produce palm varieties such

as Phoenix and Arecas, as well asBeaucarnea, Yucca, Cordyline andSansevieria. The coldest area of thecountry, northeast of the capital and inthe western highlands, is ideal for thecultivation of flowers such as roses andcarnations, as well as decorative greens.

RUBBER AND ITS DERIVATIVESIn the 1960's, Guatemala encouraged the cultivation of rubber in areas favorable to thecultivation of Hevea brasilensis: over 1500 mm of annual rainfalland temperatures over 25ºC.

Production has continued to grow since 1971, today reaching20,000 tons a year, thanks to 383 plantations which plant 30,800hectares (barely half of their available area). The majority of theseplantations are located in the Department of Suchitepequez, 140kilometers from the capital.

Over the past few years, Mexico has become a primary buyer ofGuatemala rubber exports, the majority of which is in the form oflatex and the varieties SGR 10 and 20.

FURNITURE INDUSTRY Guatemala has 4.4 million hectares of forest, large areas of which contain precious woods,supplying the wood working and furniture industry.

Furniture manufacturers in Guatemala are well-known in the export market for the highquality, fine woods, and competitive price of their products.

This industry has a wide variety of production styles. Investment potential can be found indrawback manufacture of components and finishes, as well as in the marketing and

distribution of wood products.

Reforestation is also seen as a possible area of investment. Economic data on the annualgrowth of pines are available for various regions of Guatemala.

MINING Throughout the country, Guatemala's mineral resources remain almost completelyunexploited. Many types of mineral deposits, both metal and non-metal, are distributed infour areas.



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The first is in the Peten, in the northernmost part of the country. Here the sedimentary rockcontains deposits of clay, sand and limestone.

The second region, in central Guatemala, is made up of igneous and metamorphic rockforming the mountain range called the Central Range, which runs from the Mexican borderto the Caribbean Sea. Several metal and non-metal deposits may exist in this area,including: gold, silver, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, marble, and jade.

The third region is in the mountain range made up of tertiary volcanic rock. Many mineraldeposits such as bentonite come from post-volcanic activity. This area also contains largedeposits of pumice stone and diatomite.

The fourth region is the Pacific coastal plain, which is about sixty kilometers wide. Clay is

the principal resource produced by the large gravel deposits here. Mineral deposits such asmagnetite can be found along the Pacific beaches.

PETROLEUM Guatemala has four sedimentary basins located in the north, south and eastern sections ofthe country, all with potential hydrocarbon reserves: southern Peten, northern Peten,

Amatique and the Pacific. Exploration to date indicates the existence of both large andsmall fields, with recoverable reserves of between 20 and 30 million barrels of petroleum ofvarying API gravity, from heavy crude to medium and light grade.

Approximately 65% of Guatemala is covered by sedimentary rock, indicating the probability

of finding oil in almost anywhere in the country.

Geological events have produced conditions favorable to the exploitation of hydrocarbonsin the Peten, Amatique (Izabal), and Pacific basins. Complete geological data, as well asdata on exploration and extraction, have been compiled for each

Studies are available from the General Office of Hydrocarbons, under the Ministry ofEnergy and Mining, containing all information necessary to determine investment potential.Final reports exist for over seventy wells. These studies include analyses on geochemicaland paleontological features, as well as on sediment and geological structure. Logisticalconsiderations involved in extraction are addressed with maps indicating roads, geographic

and topographic accidents, and exact location of wells.

METALLURGY The Guatemala Chamber of Industry, with the help of ONUDI (United Nations Organizationfor the Industrial Development), set up and coordinates an industrial subcontractingexchange. The exchange provides a mechanism for matching demand (contractors) withsupply (subcontract) for the manufacture of parts, pieces and components, as well as theawarding of services.

The parts and pieces can range from screws to pulleys to more complicated machinery.



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It is important to note that, in the area of metallurgy, as in other potential investment areas,

Guatemala has a large, low-cost work force.

DRAWBACK The drawback business, begun in Guatemala at the beginning of the 1980's, has becomeincreasingly important to the country's economy, registering Sustained growth for the pastsix years. Under the drawback system, businesses working within an internationalframework are able to take advantage of lower labor costs without being subject to tariffand other trade harriers.

Drawback is not limited to the assembly of clothing. In the past two years, more complexprocesses, requiring high technology and specialized labor, have turned to drawback.

Examples of drawback businesses operating in Guatemala are chemical synthesis,airplane assembly and the production of electrical goods.

The field is open to other types of operations such as data processing and services relatedto information systems that tie in with international courier services.

Among the many advantages Guatemala offers to the drawback industry is a qualifiedlabor force, with the ability to operate and teach advanced technology.



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EXERCISES

Write sentences (one for each word) in which you descr ibe how peoplecan use the fol lowing objects or mater ia ls.

1. Clay ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

2. Marble ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

3. Rubber ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

4. Carnation ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

5. Well ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Write a paragraph: As an Engineer, in which area would you focus yourinvestment in Guatemala? and why?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________



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GUATEMALA ’S NON-TRADITIONAL

INVESTMENT A REAS

Vocabulary

1. Achieved: Highly skilled or developed; accomplished.

2. Apparel: Clothing, especially outer garments; attire

3. Booming: Growing, developing, or progressing rapidly; flourishing

4. Decree: An authoritative order having the force of law.

5. Expenditure: The act of spending money for goods or services the actof consuming something

6. Harvest: The act or process of gathering a crop.

7. Heritage: Something that is passed down from precedinggenerations; a tradition.

8. Incoming: The act of coming in; arrival.

9. Raw Material: An unprocessed natural product used in manufacture

10. Spurring: Inciting or stimulating

11. Wholly: Completely; entirely



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THE NON-TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURAL SECTOR Guatemala, a predominantly agricultural country, has long relied on traditional productssuch as coffee, sugar and bananas as its main source of foreign income. A new trend hasbeen emerging in the last two decades with the cultivation of new or non-traditionalproducts such as vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants.

Guatemala's non-traditional agricultural export sector offers broad opportunities for foreigninvestors, both in wholly owned or joint-venture enterprises.

Guatemalan producers have achieved full market acceptance in the U.S. and Europe for

the high quality and competitive prices of their exports in many categories of fruits,vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants. Exports of these products have beenincreasing at a vigorous average of 23% yearly for the last seven years.

Nonetheless, foreign demand for such products continues to grow faster than the exportscapacity of Guatemala.

Guatemalan producers are aware of the large foreign demands for their products and aremoving to respond. However, the lack of adequate available financing from local financialinstitutions is a limiting factor to expansion. Exporters of non-traditional agriculturalproducts welcome co-investment, foreign partners with additional financing sources and

state-of-the-art technologies and new export markets.

Foreign investors in Guatemala receive the same treatment under local laws as doGuatemalans. The Guatemalan Government and all private sector organizations arestrongly committed to attracting foreign investors to the export sector.

Guatemalan exports of non-traditional agricultural products rose from US$25 million in1986 to a US$89 million level in 1992. Preliminary figures for 1993 indicate that the totalrevenue of exports exceeded US$108 million. Should the trend continue, exports of theseproducts should reach the one billion dollar level in the next decade if adequate financingand technologies are made available. To reach these goals, the growth rate would have to

increase to 30%. Foreign investment will be essential in reaching the target growth rates.

The flower and vegetable sectors are presently receiving the greatest investment, but thepotential for further expansion in the tropical fruit sector is in place, in-country, in the Pacificand Caribbean coastal lowlands. Given Guatemala's developed infrastructure and itsproximity to major markets, the potential in the agricultural sector is enormous.

Ample land for expansion in the vegetable and flower sector is readily available in thecentral highlands region where high yield, temperate-zone vegetable production areas are

just two hours away from Guatemala City.



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Foreign-owned enterprises operate in Guatemala with the same legal status as

Guatemalan firms and receive the same investment incentives. Foreign investors canobtain investment and insurance financing through the Overseas Private InvestmentCorporation (OPIC) under the Investment Guarantee Agreement, of which Guatemala is asignatory.

THE GUATEMALAN SHRIMP FARMING INDUSTRY The Guatemalan shrimp farming industry, located in the country's Pacific Coast region, hasshown substantial increases in production during the last decade. Foreign incomegenerated by the export of seafood during 1993 totaled US$27 million, an increase of morethan 300% over 1986. Yearly growth rates of 18% have been steady during this period.

Shrimp farming has gained importance in Guatemala, both as an alternative economicactivity and as a significant regional source of employment. Expanding from just 90hectares in 1982, eighteen farms currently operate in Guatemala totaling nearly 2,000hectares of ponds. Additionally, 4,000 hectares could be developed around the manyestuaries located throughout the region. Presently more than 3,000 jobs can be directlyrelated to shrimp farming activities.

Most farms engage in semi-intensive production operations (15 to 20 post larvae persquare meter) yielding medium to large sized shrimp; however, a growing percentage ofthe shrimp harvested is being produced at farms stocked at high densities (80 to 100 postlarvae per square meter).

On the average Guatemalan shrimp farms produce two and a half harvests annually,depending on the size of shrimp desired. The Pacific White (Penaeus vannamei) andPacific Blue (Penaeus stylirostris) varieties of shrimp are the two main species thatGuatemalan farms harvest. Although the majority of Guatemala's shrimp production isexported to the United States, there is an increasing trend to export to the Europeanmarkets spurring further market diversification. From meager beginnings, the country's totalannual production has reached the 8 million pound level.

Several factors contribute to the attractiveness of shrimp farming in Guatemala: a)

availability of wild fry (post larvae) from the country's estuaries; b) availability ofcompetitively-priced high quality feeds from local mills; c) a relatively pristine environmentbasically void of pollution; d) market recognition of good quality farmed product; e) minimalincidence of diseases and f) close proximity to world markets.

The immediate potential for expanding farming areas could generate production levels ofover 24 million pounds annually. This, in combination with the existence of modern portfacilities on both Pacific and Caribbean coasts, excellent transportation infrastructure anddaily servicing by international air carriers and maritime lines, ensure quick responsecapabilities for trade at the global level.



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Atitlan Lake, Panoramic View

Fountain of the Fish, La MercedMonastery. Antigua Guatemala

Shrimp targeted for export are currently processed at four plants with an annual productionlevel of over 7 million pounds. The largest is undergoing expansion which will enable it toprocess up to 150,000 pounds daily. Additionally, most Guatemalan plants are capable ofoffering added value processing in the form of peeling, beheading, deveining, butterflyingand partial steam cooking to satisfy customer needs.

A large potential for growth, availability of in-country processing, substantial experience inproduction along with good marketing and shipping connections make the Guatemalanshrimp industry a viable investment opportunity.

TOURISM: THE RISING ECONOMIC FORCE Tourism reached a milestone during 1993 by closing the gap with coffee as the largestproducer of foreign earnings in Guatemala. This trend isexpected to continue into future years. Revenue generatedby tourism during 1993 reached over US$265 million, a 9%increase over the previous year. It is estimated that duringthe next seven years, tourists visiting Guatemala will spendover US$2.6 billion. The number of visitors to Guatemaladuring 1993 exceeded 561,000 and the Guatemala TouristCommission estimates that during the next seven years atotal of over 4.7 million will visit the country.

A construction boom in Guatemala City during the lastthree years has brought the number of availabledeluxe hotel rooms in the capital to over 1,100.Significant increases in hotel rooms were also postedin the traditional tourist locations bringing the total inthe Central Highlands to nearly 300 and in thenorthern department of El Peten to over 200. In thecapital city, 630 new hotel rooms are presently underconstruction.

Tourism goals for the year 2000 include 816,600

annual incoming tourists, who, on average, stay 8days with daily expenditures reaching US$85.00 pervisitor. A total income of US$550 million is calculated

and at that date some 5,000 new hotel rooms coupled with occupancy rates of 84% areforecast.

Due to Guatemala's privileged geographic position it offers over 300 microclimates and 28life zones. The visitor to Guatemala can find exotic and varied land features that rangefrom black sand beaches to deserts, from jungle rain forests to mountain highlands. Allwithin hours from each other.



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A brief view of Mayan World

Visitors can take advantage of the many package tours that the country has to offer. These

include adventure tourism, ecotourism, archaeology, ethnology and many more that can beadapted to visitors needs.

To successfully reach the goal for the year 2000 and tap Guatemala's exceptional andvaried tourist alternatives several projects are currently in planning or construction stages.These include:

Mundo Maya: An ambitious project initiated in 1989 incorporating the fivecountries of the Meso-American region which share acultural, historical, and environmental heritage. One of the

goals of this project is to create a single tourist visa for theregion. The Mundo Maya region includes over threethousand ancient Maya ruins.

Entry Requirements For GuatemalaTraveling to Guatemala is easy, both in terms of airtransportation and entry requirements. Based on theprinciple of reciprocity, entry requirements differ for visitorsfrom different countries, as listed below. Tourist cardsmaybe obtained from an airline serving Guatemala, or at

any Guatemalan consulate; the cost is U.S. $5.00.

Citizens of the following countries require only a valid passport; they DO NOT require avisa or tourist card: Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Belize, Costa Rica, Denmark, El Salvador,Spain, Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Honduras, Israel, Italy, Japan,Nicaragua, Norway, Uruguay, the Vatican, Sweden, and Switzerland.

Citizens of the following countries require a visa or tourist card: Canada, Mexico, theUnited Kingdom, the United States of America.

Citizens of the rest of the world should contact the nearest Guatemalan consulate fordetails of entry requirements.



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EXERCISES

Answer the fol lowing quest ions.

1. Which products belong to the non-traditional agricultural sector?

2. How long has the apparel industry been in Guatemala for?

3. Which factors make shrimp farming in Guatemala attractive?

4. How can you invest in tourism?

5. Which of the non-traditional investments seems more promising?



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GUATEMALA ’S LEGISLATION

Vocabulary

1. Banking: The business engaged in by a bank.

2. Encouragement: The act of giving hope or support to someone.

3. Genesis: The coming into being of something; the origin.

4. Laundering: To disguise the source or nature of (illegal funds, forexample) by channelling through an intermediate agent.

5. Primacy: The state of being first in importance.

L AWS IN GUATEMALA

Guatemala counts with specific laws for the different sectors, but the principal Law is the“Constitución Política de la Republica” (Political Constitution of the Republic of Guatemala).Its Objective is “To Organize legally and politically the State; affirming the primacy of thehuman person as a subject and purpose of the social order, recognizing the family as theprimary and fundamental genesis of the spiritual and moral values of society and the State,being responsible for the promotion the common good, the consolidation of the regime oflegality, security, justice, equality, freedom and peace, inspired by the ideals of ourancestors and picking up our traditions and cultural heritage; determined to promote the fullenjoyment of human rights within a institutional stable, permanent and popular, which ruledand rulers proceed with absolute adherence to law”

In Addition there are the following sectors’ laws

• Litigation and court procedures• Electoral laws• Administrative / Public Laws

Administrative Laws include Municipal Code that has as a goal “to developConstitutional principles for the organization, government, administration, and Functioningof municipalities and other local entities identified in the Code and content of theresponsibilities conferred upon municipalities as for the materials that are regulating .”

Another important laws in this division are: Law of National Education and NationalLanguages, the Civil Service and the Protection of the Cultural and Natural Patrimony,among others.



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♦ Criminal Laws In this sector we can find the Penal Code, the CriminalProcedure Code, the Law against Drugs and related activities, the Law against

Money and other assets laundering.♦ Civil Laws The principal law of this division is the Civil Code, but we can find the

Civil and Trade Procedure Code, and the Code for Children and Youth. The CivilCode is about people’s Birth and death, identification, capacity for the exercise ofcivil rights, etc, Juridical Persons, associations, etc.

♦ Commercial Laws The principal law in this part is the Commerce Code, but Wecan find the Foreign Investment Law, Free zone Law, the Law Of Promotion AndDevelopment Of Export And Drawback Activities, the Law for the Encouragementand development of export and drawback activity , the Customer’s Protection Law,among them.

♦ Company laws

♦ Labor Laws In this division we can find the Labour Code.

♦ Health laws

♦ Mining Laws

♦ Insurance Laws

♦ Tax laws In this part we can find the Central America Customs Code, Tax Code(tax law), Municipal Tax Code, Law Tax Distribution of Crude Oil and Fuel OilDerivatives, Regulation of the Law on Income Tax, etc

♦ Banking laws The principal law of this sector is the Monetary Law.

♦ Communications and Media Laws

♦ Environmental Laws

♦ Intellectual Property Laws

♦ Energy laws

♦ Agriculture Laws



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EXERCISES

Answer the fol lowing quest ions.

1. Which laws should every citizen know?

2. Which laws concern you as an Engineer? (consider your field)

3. Are you familiarized with the constitution? What’s it about? Write a paragraph aboutit.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________



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Melting Ice

M ATERIALS SCIENCE

Vocabulary

1. Atom The smallest unit of any chemical element, consisting of apositive nucleus surrounded by negative electrons. Atomscan combine to form a molecule.

2. Bonding The process by which a close relationship is developed.

3. Bound Past simple and past participle of bind. To tie tightly or tofasten.

4. Boundary A real or imagined line that marks the edge or limit ofsomething.

5. Brittle Delicate and easily broken.

6. Copper metal (cobre)

7. Covalent Relating to or characterized by covalence; "covalent bond".The number of electron pairs an atom can share with otheratoms.

8. Crystallinity Adj. form of crystalline. Relating to, made of, containing, orresembling crystals.

9. Disruption Prevention on something, especially a system, process orevent, from continuing as usual or as expected.

10. Elongate Become or make something become longer, and oftenthinner:

11. Field Area of interest.

12. Grain A very small piece of a hard substance.

13. Interstitial Compound containing metals and nonmetals: relating to acompound, e.g. a carbide, in which ions or atoms of anonmetal occupy positions in a

metal lattice. Interstitialcompounds generally havemetallic characteristics.

14. Matter: (SUBSTANCE) Physicalsubstance in the universe.

15. Melt Become liquid.

16. Melting point Temperature at which a substancemelts.



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17. Nanoscience Study of materials measuring in nanometers: the study ofmaterials and their behavior at the level of particles

measured in nanometers.18. Nanotechnology: An area of science which deals with developing and

producing extremely small tools and machines bycontrolling the arrangement of individual atoms.

19. Nuclide A type of atom specified by its atomic number, atomicmass, and energy state, such as carbon 14.

20. Polymer A chemical substance consisting of large molecules madefrom many smaller and simpler molecules.

21. Precipitate (CHEMISTRY) A solid substance which is produced from aliquid during a chemical process. If a liquid precipitates,substances in it become solid and separate from the liquid.

22. Propelled Ing form of propel. To push or move somethingsomewhere, often with a lot of force.

23. Shear Break.

24. Steel metal (acero)

25. Stiff Firm or hard. Not easily bent or moved.

26. Strong Difficult to break, destroy or make ill, or able to support aheavy weight or force.

27. Strong Nuclear Force The fundamental force that mediates interactionsbetween particles The strong force maintains the binding ofprotons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei, and isresponsible for many particle decay processes. It alsocalled strong nuclear force.

28. Structure: (ARRANGEMENT) The way in which the parts of a systemor object are arranged or organized, or a system arrangedin this way.

29. Tin metal (estaño)

30. Tough Strong; not easily broken or weakened or defeated.

31. Tribology The branch of engineering that deals with the interaction ofsurfaces in relative motion (as in bearings or gears): theirdesign and friction and wear and lubrication.

32. Wear and Tear Damage which happens to an object in ordinary use duringa period.

33. Yield Bend or break under pressure.

34. Yielding Describes soft, flexible substances or qualities.



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M ATERIALS SCIENCE

Materials science or materials engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving theproperties of matter and its applications to various areas of science and engineering. Thisscience investigates the relationship between the structure of materials and theirproperties. It includes elements of applied physics and chemistry, as well as chemical,mechanical, civil and electrical engineering. With significant media attention to nanoscience and nanotechnology in the recent years, materials science has been propelled to theforefront at many universities.

The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is currently physically impossible. Insteadmaterials scientists manipulate the defects in crystalline materials such as precipitates,

grain boundaries (Hall-Petch relationship), interstitial atoms, vacancies or substitutionalatoms, to create materials with the desired properties.

Not all materials have a regular crystal structure. Polymers display varying degrees ofcrystallinity . Glasses, some ceramics, and many natural materials are amorphous, notpossessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. These materials are muchharder to engineer than crystalline materials. Polymers are a mixed case, and their studycommonly combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to givethermodynamic, rather than mechanical, descriptions of physical properties.

CLASSES OF MATERIALS (BY BOND TYPES)Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, each of which may constitutea separate field. Materials are sometimes classified by the type of bonding presentbetween the atoms:1. Ionic crystals2. Covalent crystals3. Metals4. Intermetallics

5. Semiconductors6. Polymers7. Composite materials8. Vitreous materials

SUB-FIELDS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE• Nanotechnology.• Crystallography.• Materials Characterization• Metallurgy.• Biomaterials.

• Electronic and magnetic materials.• Tribology .• Surface science/Catalysis.• Ceramography.• Glass Science



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WHAT’S A N A TOM?

Atoms are the extremely small particles of which we, and everything around us, are made.There are 92 naturally occurring elements and scientists have made another 17, bringingthe total to 109. Atoms are the smallest unit of an element that chemically behaves thesame way the element does.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE In the early 20th century, a New Zealand scientist working in England, Ernest Rutherford,and a Danish scientist, Niels Bohr, developed a way of thinking about the structure of anatom that described an atom as looking very much like our solar system. At the center ofevery atom was a nucleus, which is comparable to the sun in our solar system. Electronsmoved around the nucleus in "orbits" similar to the way planets move around thesun.(While scientists now know that atomic structure is more complex, the Rutherford-Bohrmodel is still a useful approximation to begin understanding about atomic structure.)

Nucleus Contains protons andneutrons; together these arecalled "nucleons"

Neutrons Have no electrical charge, andlike protons, are about 1800times as heavy as an electron.

Protons Are positively charged

particles. All atoms of anelement (radioactive and non-radioactive) have the samenumber of protons. Protonsand neutrons in the nucleus,and the forces among them,affect an atom's radioactiveproperties.

Electrons The particles that orbit thenucleus as a cloud are calledelectrons. They are negatively

charged and balance thepositive electrical charge ofthe protons in the nucleus.

Interactions with electrons in the outer orbits affect an atom's chemical properties

WHAT HOLDS THE PARTS OF AN ATOM TOGETHER? Opposite electrical charges of the protons and electrons do the work of holding theelectrons in orbit around the nucleus. The nucleus is held together by the attractive strongnuclear force between nucleons: proton-to-proton, neutron-neutron, and proton-neutron. It



TECHNICAL ENGLISH

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is extremely powerful, but extends only a very short distance, about the diameter of aproton or neutron.

The balance between the strong nuclear force pulling the nucleus together and the positivecharges of the protons pushing it apart is largely responsible for the properties of aparticular kind of atom or nuclide. The delicate balance of forces among nuclear particleskeeps the nucleus stable. Any change in the number, the arrangement, or energy of thenucleons can upset this balance and cause the nucleus to become unstable or radioactive.The amount of energy required to break up the nucleus into its parts is called the bindingenergy ; it is often referred to as "cosmic glue."

THE PROPERTIES OF M ATERIALS Understanding how materials behave in their natural state and under certain conditions willhelp them to understand why objects are made of specific materials. Some properties areeasily observable features, such as transparency, which they explore as younger children,others are less obvious and need to have tests carried out on them.

In carrying out comparative tests on different materials, people develop an understandingof suitability for different purposes. They then begin to develop the skills themselves tochoose the best materials for certain tasks. When testing materials for properties, precisevocabulary becomes important because people sometimes confuse scientific terms, which

they use in a general way in their everyday speech.

Hardness: Resistance to scratching and pressure. Hardwood does not markas easily as softwood.

Strength: Amount of force needed to break a material usually by pushing orpulling down.

Toughness: Resistance to breaking by cracking, opposite to ‘brittle’.

Stiffness: Amount of force needed to change the shape of a material,opposite to flexible.

Elasticity: Ability to return its original shape when a force is removed eg

rubber band. Plasticity: Ability to retain the new shape when a force is removed eg

plasticene.

Absorbency: Ability of a material to soak up a liquid.

Waterproof : Resistance to liquids, repels water.

A material can be described in a variety of ways for example it may be strong but brittle,and the combination of its properties may determine its use. The property of a material canchange according to how the material is treated; clay is very different once it has beenfired, rolled up newspaper is very different to a sheet of newspaper.



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Properties of common solid materials are divided into following categories:

Physical properties Density, melting and boiling temperature.

Mechanical Properties: Including basic mechanical properties, such aselastic modulus, shear modulus, Poisson's ratio, andmechanical strength properties, i.e., yielding stress,ultimate stress, elongation.

Thermal Properties: Coefficient of thermal expansion, thermalconductivity.

Electric Properties: Electric resistivity.

Acoustic Properties: Compression wave velocity, shear wave velocity,bar velocity.

Words or adjectives used to describe properties:♦ Hard♦ Soft♦ Strong♦ Weak♦ Tough ♦ Brittle♦ Stiff

♦ Rigid♦ Flexible♦ Absorbent♦ Waterproof♦ Magnetic♦ Non-magnetic♦ Wear and tear

♦ Smooth♦ Rough♦ Transparent♦ Opaque♦ Translucent

Names of a variety of materials:♦ Wood♦ Metals

o Coppero Tino Steelo Goldo Silvero Aluminiumo Chrome

♦ Plastico Polytheneo Polystyreneo PVC

♦ Fabricso Cotton

o Silko Polyestero Woolo Acrylic

♦ Foam♦ Glass♦ Rubber



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EXERCISES Answer the fol lowing quest ions.

1. What’s the definition of Material Science?

2. What’s elasticity?

3. What’s an atom?

4. What’s absorbency?

5. Do the polymers display varying degrees of crystallinity?

Wri te in the blanks a T i f the sentence is t rue, or F i f i t ’s fa lse. I f theanswer is fa lse, give the reason above i t .1. Due to the nanoscience and nanotechnology, the materials science

has been propelled in many universities. _________

2. All the materials have a regular crystal structure. _________

3. Electrons and neutrons are in the nucleus. _________

4. Waterproof is the resistance to liquids or repels water. _________

5. The compression wave velocity is a Velocity Property. _________

Describe the Rutherford-Bohr model :



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13. Intensive properties Are those that are independent of the size of a system,such as temperature, pressure, and density.

14. Mass of a system It’s equal to the product of its molar mass M and the molenumber N.

15. Mechanical equilibrium It’s related to pressure, and a system is in mechanicalequilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any pointof the system with time.

16. Process It’s any change that a system undergoes from oneequilibrium state to another.

17. Property It’s any characteristic of a system.

18. Quasi-static Or quasi-equilibrium, process is a process which proceeds

in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimallyclose to an equilibrium state at all times. A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slowprocess that allows the system to adjust itself internally sothat properties in one part of the system do not changeany faster than those at other parts.

19. Second law of thermodynamics (Increase of Entropy Principle) is expressed as the

entropy of an isolated system during a process alwaysincreases or, in the limiting case of a reversible process,remains constant. In other words, the entropy of an

isolated system never decreases.20. Simple compressible system

It’s a system in which there is the absence of electrical,magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tensioneffects.

21. Thermal equilibrium Means that the temperature is the same throughout theentire System

22. Thermodynamic system or simply a system, is defined as a quantity of matter or a

region in space chosen for study.

23. Thermodynamics It’s the science of energy

24. Third law of thermodynamics It states that the entropy of a pure crystalline substance

at absolute zero temperature is zero.

25. Vacuum pressure It’s the pressure below atmospheric pressure.

26. Zeroth law of thermodynamics It states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with

a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with eachother even if they are not in contact.



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Lord Kelvin

THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamics is the science that primarily deals with energy. Energy can be viewed asthe ability to cause changes. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek wordstherme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is most descriptive ofthe early efforts to convert heat into power. Today the same nameis broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energytransformations, including power generation, refrigeration, andrelationships among the properties of matter.

All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy

and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area that does not relateto thermodynamics in some manner. Therefore, developing a goodunderstanding of basic principles of thermodynamics has longbeen an essential part of engineering education.

One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy principle. Itsimply states that during an interaction, energy can change from one form to another butthe total amount of energy remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created ordestroyed. The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the conservation ofenergy principle, and it asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property.

The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal law of increasingentropy, stating that the entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tendto increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium, and it asserts thatenergy has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction ofdecreasing quality of energy.

The third law of thermodynamics is an axiom of nature regarding entropy and theimpossibility of reaching absolute zero of temperature. The most common enunciation ofthis law is: “As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy ofthe system approaches a minimum value.” It can be concluded as 'If T=0K, then S=0'where T is the temperature of a closed system and S is the entropy of the system. The

essence of the postulate is that the entropy of the given system near absolute zerodepends only on the temperature (i.e. tends to a constant independently of the otherparameters).

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if bothhave the same temperature reading even if they are not in contact. A system is said to bein thermodynamic equilibrium if it maintains thermal, mechanical, phase, and chemicalequilibrium.

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. Themass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginarysurface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. The



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boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the contactsurface shared by both the system and the surroundings.

A system of fixed mass is called a closed system, or control mass, and a system thatinvolves mass transfer across its boundaries is called an open system, or control volume.

A system is called a simple compressible system in the absence of electrical, magnetic,gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects. These effects are due to external forcefields and are negligible for most engineering problems. Any change from one state toanother is called a process. A process with identical end states is called a cycle. During aquasi-static or quasi-equilibrium process, the system remains practically in equilibrium at alltimes. The state of a simple, compressible system is completely specified by twoindependent, intensive properties.

It is well-known that a substance consists of a large number of particles called molecules.The properties of the substance naturally depend on the behavior of these particles. Forexample, the pressure of a gas in a container is the result of momentum transfer betweenthe molecules and the walls of the container. However, one does not need to know thebehavior of the gas particles to determine the pressure in the container. It would besufficient to attach a pressure gage to the container. This macroscopic approach to thestudy of thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the behavior of individualparticles is called classical thermodynamics. It provides a direct and easy way to thesolution of engineering problems. A more elaborate approach, based on the averagebehavior of large groups of individual particles, is called statistical thermodynamics.

Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are pressureP, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include less familiarones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansioncoefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and elevation. Properties are considered tobe either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are those that are independent of themass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density. Extensive properties arethose whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, totalvolume, and total momentum are some examples of extensive properties. Extensiveproperties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some examples of specificproperties are specific volume (v =V/m) and specific total energy (e =E/m).

The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area is called pressure, and its unit is thepascal, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. The pressure relative to absolute vacuum is called the absolutepressure, and the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmosphericpressure is called the gage pressure. Pressures below atmospheric pressure are calledvacuum pressures.



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EXERCISES

Complete the fol lowing paragraphs.

1. __________________________ of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are inthermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with eachother.

1st Law 2nd Law 3rd law

2. Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of ________________.

Thermal Equilibrium Energy Pressure

3. ______________________ equilibrium is a condition of a system in which all the

relevant types of equilibrium are satisfiedMechanical Thermal Statistical

4. ___________________ pressure is the difference between the absolute pressureand the local atmospheric pressure

Vacuum Absolute Gage

5. __________________ equilibrium means that the temperature is the samethroughout the entire System

Mechanical Thermal Statistical

6. ________________ law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a purecrystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero.


7. __________________ is any change that a system undergoes from one equilibriumstate to another.

Cycle Entropy Property

8. _____________ pressure is the actual pressure at a given position and it ismeasured relative to absolute vacuum.

Vacuum Absolute Gage9. __________________ of thermodynamics is expressed as the entropy of an

isolated system during a process always increases or, in the limiting case of areversible process, remains constant.


10. _________________________ principle expresses that net mass transfer to or froma control volume during a time interval is equal to the net change in the total masswithin the control volume during the time interval.

Conservation of Heat Conservation of Mass Conservation of energy



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Kiln

Drill Press

M ANUFACTURING

Vocabulary1. Apprenticeship: Is a system of training a new generation of skilled crafts

practitioners.

2. Commentator: A person who makes commentaries.

3. Drill press: It’s a fixed style of drill that may be mounted ona stand or bolted to the floor or workbench.

4. Entrepreneurs: A person who organizes, operates, andassumes the risk for a business venture.

5. Fair trade: It’s an organized social movement and market-based approach to alleviating global povertyand promoting sustainability.

6. Firm: A partnership or association for carrying on a business.

7. Guild: It’s an association of craftsmen in a particular trade. The earliestguilds were formed as confraternities of workers.

8. Handicraft: Also known as craftwork or simply craft, is a type of workwhere useful and decorative devices are made completely byhand or using only simple tools.

9. Industrial Revolution:Was a period in the late 18th and early 19thcenturies when major changes in agriculture,manufacturing, and transportation had aprofound effect on socioeconomic andcultural conditions in Britain.

10. Kilns: They are thermally insulated chambers, orovens, in which controlled temperatureregimes are produced.

11. Lathe: It’s a machine tool which spins a block of

material to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding,knurling, drilling, or deformation with tools that are applied to thework piece to create an object which has symmetry about anaxis of rotation.

12. Manufacturing: It’s the use of tools and labor to make things for use or sale.

13. Milling machine: It’s a machine tool used for the complex shaping of metal andother solid materials.

14. Molten: Liquefied by heat; in a state of fusion; melted.

15. Mould: A frame on which something is formed or made



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16. Plaster : Is a type of building material based on calcium sulphatehemihydrate, nominally CaSO4·0.5H2O.

17. Policy: A definite course of action adopted for the sake of expediency,facility, etc.

18. Profit: Returns, proceeds, or revenue, as from property orinvestments.

19. Punch press: It’s a type of machine press used for forming and cuttingmaterial.

20. Resins: Any of numerous clear to translucent yellow or brown, solid orsemisolid, viscous substances of plant origin, such as copal,rosin, and amber.

21. Semiconductor device fabrication:It’s the process used to create chips, the integrated circuits thatare present in everyday electrical and electronic devices.

22. Thermoplastic: Is a plastic that melts to a liquid when heated and freezes to abrittle, very glassy state when cooled sufficiently.

23. Toll manufacturing: It’s an arrangement whereby a first firm with specializedequipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for asecond firm.

24. Vast: Of very great size or proportions; huge; enormous.



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to make a fabricated part. Casting is used for making parts of complex shapethat would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods, such as

cutting from solid material.Casting may be used to form hot, liquid metals or melt able plastics (calledthermoplastic), or various materials that cold set after mixing componentssuch as certain plastic resins such as epoxy, water setting materials such asconcrete or plaster, and materials that become liquid or paste when moistsuch as clay, which when dry enough to be rigid is removed from the mold,further dried, and fired in a kiln or furnace.

Substitution is always a factor in deciding whether other techniques should beused instead of casting. Alternatives include parts that can be stamped out on

a punch press or deep-drawn, forged, items that can be manufactured byextrusion or by cold-bending, and parts that can be made from highly activemetals.

♦ Molding It’s the process of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material using a rigidframe or model called a mold.

A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid like plastic,glass, metal, or ceramic raw materials. The liquid hardens or sets inside themold, adopting its shape. The manufacturer who makes the molds is calledmold maker. A release agent is typically used to make removal of thehardened/set substance from the mold easier.

Forming is a generic title for a large set of basic industrial processes thatproduce parts to a specification by plastically deforming material using heat,mechanical force, and tooling designed to deform the material in a carefullyengineered sequence.

♦ Conventional machining,One of the most important material removal process, is a collection ofmaterial-working processes in which power-driven machine tools, such aslathes, milling machines, and drill presses are used with a sharp cutting toolto mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. Machiningis a part of the manufacture of almost all metal products. It is not uncommonfor other materials to be machined. A person who specializes in machining iscalled a machinist. Machining is also a hobby. A room, building, or companywhere machining is done is called a machine shop.



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EXERCISES

Write a “V” i f the statement is TRUE or an “F” i f the statement is FALSE. I fthe statement is FALSE, the correct the word that needs to be c hanged inother to make the statement t rue.

1. In a socialist economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward themass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. ________

2. In its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a singleskilled artisan with assistants. Training was by apprenticeship. ________

3. Examples of major restaurants in the United States include GeneralMotors Corporation, Ford Motor Company, Chrysler, Boeing, GatesRubber Company and Pfizer. Examples in Europe include France's

Airbus and Michelin Tire. ________

4. Manufacturing (from Latin manu factura, "making by hand") is the useof tools and labor to make things for use or sale. ________

5. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm withspecialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goodsfor a second firm. ________

6. Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material such asa suspension of minerals as used in ceramics or molten metal or plasticis introduced into a mould, allowed to solidify within the mould, and thenejected or broken out to make a fabricated part. ________

7. Forging may be used to form hot, liquid metals or melt able plastics(called thermoplastic), or various materials that cold set after mixingcomponents. ________

8. Molding is the process of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw materialusing a rigid frame or model called a mold. ________

9. A mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid like plastic, glass,metal, or ceramic raw materials. ________

10. Conventional matching, one of the most important material removalprocesses is a collection of material-working processes in whichpower-driven machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, and drillpresses are used with a sharp cutting tool to mechanically cut thematerial to achieve the desired geometry. ________



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METROLOGY

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METROLOGY

Vocabulary

1. Amusing Providing enjoyment; pleasantly entertaining

2. Assess Evaluate or estimate the nature, quality, ability, extent, orsignificance of something.

3. Avoirdupois A system of weights based on the 16-ounce pound (or 7,000grains)

4. British commonwealth An association of nations consisting of the united kingdom andseveral former British colonies that are now sovereign states butstill pay allegiance to the British crown

5. Calibration The act of checking or adjusting (by comparison with astandard) the accuracy of a measuring instrument.

6. Commonality Sharing of common attributes

7. Constant A quantity that does not vary

8. Constrain Restrict

9. Core The center of an object.10. Cubit An ancient unit of length based on the length of the forearm

11. Customary In accordance with convention or custom

12. Embracing An enclosure or encirclement

13. Encompass To constitute or include

14. Hundredweight A unit of weight equal to 100 kilograms in UK and for unitedstates is equivalent to 100 pounds

15. Inaccuracy The quality of being inaccurate and having errors

16. Issue The act of providing an item for general use or for officialpurposes

17. Measurement The act or process of assigning numbers to phenomenaaccording to a rule.

18. Pint A unit of liquid volume or capacity in the us customary system,equal to 16 fluid ounces or 28.88 cubic inches (about 0.47 liter).

A unit of dry volume or capacity used in the us customarysystem, equal to 1/2 of a quart or 34.6 cubic inches (about 0.55liter).

19. Reliably In a faithful manner



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20. Resemble Appear like; be similar or bear a likeness to

21. Slightly To a small degree or extent

22. Stride The distance covered by a step

23. Suitability The quality of having the properties that are right for a specificpurpose.

24. Tiny Very small.



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Measuring tapes

METROLOGY

Metrology is the science of weights and measures, this is animportant part of semiconductor manufacturing where high-resolution tools are required to measure the tiny elements in achip that continue to decrease year after year

Metrology is defined by the International Bureau of Weightsand Measures (BIPM) as "the science of measurement,embracing both experiment and theoretical determinations atany level of uncertainty in any field of Science andTechnology."

Metrology is a very broad field and may be divided into threesubfields:

• Scientific or fundamental metrology .• Applied or industrial metrology • Legal metrology

A core concept in metrology is (metrological) traceability, defined as "the property of theresult of a measurement or the value of a standard whereby it can be related to statedreferences, usually national or international standards, through an unbroken chain of

comparisons, all having stated uncertainties."

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Metrology has existed in some form or another since antiquity. The earliest forms ofmetrology were simply arbitrary standards set up by regional or local authorities, oftenbased on practical measures such as the length of an arm. The earliest examples of thesestandardized measures are length, time, and weight. These standards were established inorder to facilitate commerce and record human activity.

Metrology was thus one of the precursors to the Industrial Revolution, and was necessaryfor the implementation of mass production, equipment commonality, and assembly lines.

Modern metrology has its roots in the French Revolution, with the political motivation toharmonize units all over France and the concept of establishing units of measurementbased on constants of nature, and thus making measurement units available "for allpeople, for all time"; In this case deriving a unit of length from the dimensions of the Earth,and a unit of mass from a cube of water. The result was two platinum standards for themeter and the kilogram established as the basis of the metric system on June 22, 1799.This further led to the creation of the Système International d'Unités, or the InternationalSystem of Units.



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This system has gained unprecedented worldwide acceptance as definitions and standardsof modern measurement units. Though not the official system of units of all nations, the

definitions and specifications of SI are globally accepted and recognized.

INDUSTRY-SPECIFIC METROLOGY STANDARDS Theoretically, metrology, as the science of measurement, attempts to validate the dataobtained from test equipment. Though metrology is the science of measurement, inpractical applications, it is the enforcement and validation of predefined standards forprecision, accuracy, traceability, and reliability.

1. Accuracy is the degree of exactness which the final product corresponds to themeasurement standard.

2. Preciseness refers to the degree of exactness which a measuring instrument candetermine accuracy (actually, inaccuracy).

3. Reliability refers to the consistency of accurate results over consecutivemeasurements.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION It is the degree of conformity of a measured or calculated quantity to its actual (true) value.

Accuracy is closely related to precision, also called reproducibility or repeatability, thedegree to which further measurements or calculations show the same or similar results.The results of calculations or a measurement can be accurate but not precise; precise but

not accurate; neither; or both. A result is called valid if it is both accurate and precise. Therelated terms in surveying are error (random variability in research) and bias (non-randomor directed effects caused by a factor or factors unrelated by the independent variable).

Precision is sometimes stratified into:♦ Repeatability - the variation arising when all efforts are made to keep conditions

constant by using the same instrument and operator, and repeating during a shorttime period; and

♦ Reproducibility - the variation arising using the same measurement process amongdifferent instruments and operators, and over longer time periods.

S YSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT A system of measurement is a set of units which can be used to specify anything whichcan be measured and were historically important, regulated and defined because of tradeand internal commerce. Scientifically, when later analyzed, some quantities are designatedas fundamental units meaning all other needed units can be derived from them, whereas inthe early and most historic eras, the units were given by fiat by the ruling entities and werenot necessarily well inter-related or self-consistent.



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METRIC SYSTEM Multiples and submultiples of metric units are related by powers of ten; the names for theseare formed with prefixes. This relationship is compatible with the decimal system ofnumbers and it contributes greatly to the convenience of metric units.

In the early metric system there were two fundamental or base units, the meter and thegram, for length and mass. The other units of length and mass, and all units of area,volume, and compound units such as density were derived from these two fundamentalunits.

A number of variations on the metric system have been in use. These include gravitationalsystems, the centimeter-gram-second systems (cgs) useful in science, the meter-tonne-second system (mts) once used in the USSR and the meter-kilogram-second system ofunits (mks) most commonly used today.

The current international standard metric system is the International System of Units(Système international d'unités or SI) It is an mks system based on the meter, kilogram andsecond as well as the kelvin, ampere, candela, and mole.

The SI includes two classes of units which are defined and agreed internationally. The firstof these classes are the seven SI base units for length, mass, time, temperature, electriccurrent, luminous intensity and amount of substance. The second of these are the SIderived units. These derived units are defined in terms of the seven base units. All otherquantities (e.g. work, force, power) are expressed in terms of SI derived units.

IMPERIAL AND U.S. CUSTOMARY UNITS Both the Imperial units and U.S. customary units derive from earlier English units. Imperialunits were mostly used in the British Commonwealth and the former British Empire. Theyare still used in common household applications to some extent and so are also sometimescalled common units, but have now been mostly replaced by the metric system incommercial, scientific, and industrial applications.

The metric system is preferred in certain fields such as science, medicine and technology.The building profession uses US customary units, though architects working internationally

are increasingly adapting to the metric system.

These two systems are closely related. There are, however, a number of differencesbetween them. Units of length and area (the inch, foot, yard, mile etc.) are identical exceptfor surveying purposes. The Avoirdupois units of mass and weight differ for units largerthan a pound (lb.). The Imperial system uses a stone of 14 lb., a long hundredweight of 112lb. and a long ton of 2240 lb. The stone is not used in the U.S. and the hundredweights andtons are short being 100 lb. and 2000 lb. respectively.

Where these systems most notably differ is in their respective units of volume. A U.S. fluidounce (fl. oz.) is slightly larger than its Imperial equivalent.



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The Avoirdupois system has served as the general system of mass and weight. In addition

to this there are the Troy and the Apothecaries' systems. Troy weight was customarily usedfor precious metals, black powder and gemstones. The troy ounce is the only unit of thesystem in current use; it is used for precious metals. Although the troy ounce is larger thanits Avoirdupois equivalent, the pound is smaller. The obsolete troy pound was divided intotwelve ounces opposed to the sixteen ounces per pound of the Avoirdupois system. The

Apothecaries' system; traditionally used in pharmacology, now replaced by the metricsystem; shares same pound and ounce as the troy system but with different furthersubdivisions.



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METROLOGY

59

EXERCISES

Answer the fol lowing quest ions :1. What’s the shortest definition of metrology?

2. What’s the current international standard system?

3. When does the Modern Metrology have its roots?

4. When was the meter and the kilogram established as the basis of the metricsystem?

5. DCP stands for?

Wri te in the blanks a T i f the sentence is t rue or F i f i t ’s fa lse. I f theanswer is fa lse, give your reason above i t .

1. Metrology includes all theoretical and practical aspects of measurement. ________

2. Traceability is most often obtained by repeating proofs. ________

3. An integral part of establishing traceability is evaluation of themeasurement of the uncertainty. ________

4. Metrology has existed since the World War II. ________

5. The earliest examples of standardized measures are length, timeand weight. ________

6. The standards were established in order to construct better ships. ________

7. Precision is also called reproducibility. ________

8. Multiples and submultiples of metric units are related bypowers of ten. ________

9. The names of the multiples and submultiples of the Imperial system areformed with prefixes. ________

10. The cgs, mts, and mks systems are variations of the metric system. ________



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ELECTRONICS

61

ELECTRONICS

Vocabulary

1. Actuator A mechanism that puts something into automatic action

2. Advent Arrival that has been awaited (especially of somethingmomentous);

3. Analog to Digital Converter Device that converts continuously varying analog signals from

instruments and sensors that monitor conditions, such as sound,movement and temperature into binary code for the computer.The A/D converter may be contained on a single chip or can beone circuit within a chip.

4. Buffer An electronic device to provide compatibility between twosignals, e.g. changing voltage levels or current capability.;

5. Capacitor An electrical device characterized by its capacity to store anelectric charge.

6. Convection The transfer of heat through a fluid (liquid or gas) caused bymolecular motion

7. Digital Signal Processor (DSP) It’s a specialized microprocessor designed specifically for digitalsignal processing, generally in real-time computing.

8. Digital to Analog converter A device that converts digital code into analog signals

9. Electric Current A flow of electricity through a conductor; "the current wasmeasured in amperes"

10. Electromagnetic FieldThe field of force associated with electric charge in motion,having both electric and magnetic components and containing a

definite amount of electromagnetic energy.11. Heat sink A protective device that absorbs and dissipates the excess heat

generated by a system.

12. Inductance An electrical phenomenon whereby an electromotive force (EMF)is generated in a closed circuit by a change in the flow of current.

13. Inductor: An electrical device (typically a conducting coil) that introducesinductance into a circuit.

14. Node A connecting point at which several lines come together



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Printed CircuitBoard

Row ofResistors

15. Printed Circuit Board A flat plastic or fiberglass board on which you

can interconnect circuits and components. 16. Programmable Logic Controller - (PLC)

Device used to automate monitoring andcontrol of industrial plant. Can be used stand-alone or in conjunction with a SCADA or othersystem.

17. Radiation Energy that is radiated or transmitted in theform of rays or waves or particles

18. Resistor A part of an electrical circuit designed to produce aparticular amount of resistance to the flow ofcurrent

19. Semiconductor A material, such as silicon, which allows electricityto move through it more easily when itstemperature increases, or an electronic devicemade from this material:

20. Signal An impulse or a fluctuating electric quantity, such as voltage,current, or electric field strength, whose variations representcoded information.

21. Transducer An electrical device that converts one form of energy into another

22. Vacuum tube Electronic device consisting of a system of electrodes arranged

in an evacuated glass or metal envelope. An electron tube fromwhich all or most of the gas has been removed, permittingelectrons to move with low interaction with any remaining gasmolecules.



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Electronic Components

ELECTRONICS

Electronics is the study of the flow of charge through various materials and devices suchas semiconductors, resistors, inductors, capacitors, nano-structures and vacuum tubes.

Although considered to be a theoretical branch of physics, the design and construction ofelectronic circuits to solve practical problems is an essential technique in the fields ofelectronic engineering and computer engineering.

OVERVIEW OF ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS AND CIRCUITS Electronic systems are used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electroniccircuits are:1. The controlling and processing of data.2. The conversion to/from and distribution of electric power.

Both these applications involve the creation and/or detection of electromagnetic fields andelectric currents. While electrical energy had been used for some time prior to the late 19thcentury to transmit data over telegraph and telephone lines, development in electronicsgrew exponentially after the advent of radio.

One way of looking at an electronic system is to divide it into 3 parts:

♦ INPUTS – Electronic or mechanical sensors (or transducers). These devices take

signals/information from external sources in the physical world (such as antennas ortechnology networks) and convert those signals/information into current/voltage ordigital (high/low) signals within the system.

♦ SIGNAL PROCESSORS – These circuits serve to manipulate, interpret and transforminputted signals in order to make them useful for a desired application. Recently,complex signal processing has been accomplished with the use of Digital SignalProcessors.

♦ OUTPUTS – Actuators or other devices (such astransducers) that transform current/voltage signals

back into useful physical form (e.g., byaccomplishing a physical task such as rotating anelectric motor).

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND

COMPONENTS An electronic component is any physical entity in anelectronic system whose intention is to affect theelectrons or their associated fields in a desired manner



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Old-FashionedRadio

Close-up of a Laptop

Integrated Circuit

consistent with the intended function of the electronic system. Components are generallyintended to be in mutual electromechanical contact, usually by being soldered to a printed

circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example anamplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly or in more orless complex groups as integrated circuits.

T YPES OF CIRCUITS ANALOG CIRCUITS Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, areconstructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analogcircuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to discretelevels as in digital circuits.

Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although manynon-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers,modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuumtube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.

DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discretevoltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physicalrepresentation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digitalcomputers.

Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers PLC’s (used to control industrial processes) are constructed ofdigital circuits. Digital Signal Processors are another example.

MIXED-SIGNAL CIRCUITS

Mixed-signal circuits refers to integrated circuits (ICs) which haveboth analog circuits and digital circuits combined on a singlesemiconductor die or on the same circuit board. Mixed-signal circuitsare becoming increasingly common. Mixed circuits are usually usedto control an analog device using digital logic, for example the speedof a motor. Analog to digital converters and digital to analogconverters are the primary examples. Other examples aretransmission gates and buffers.



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HEAT DISSIPATION AND THERMAL

M ANAGEMENT Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure andimprove long term reliability. Techniques for heat dissipation can include heat sinks andfans for air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling. Thesetechniques use convection, conduction, & radiation of heat energy.

NOISE Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise is defined as unwanted disturbances

superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not thesame as signal distortion caused by a circuit.

ELECTRONICS THEORY Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics. To become proficient inelectronics it is also necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit analysis.

Circuit analysis is the study of methods of solving generally linear systems for unknownvariables such as the voltage at a certain node or the current though a certain branch of anetwork. A common analytical tool for this is the SPICE circuit simulator.

Also important to electronics is the study and understanding of electromagnetic field theory.



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EXERCISES Answer the fol lowing quest ions :

1. What’s electronics?

2. What are the parts that compose an electronic system?

3. What techniques can be included for heat dissipation in an electric circuit?

4. What’s the usual use of a Mixed-Signal Circuit?

5. What’s an electronic component?

Wri te in the blanks a T i f the sentence is t rue or F i f i t ’s fa lse. I f theanswer is fa lse, give the reason above i t .

1. Electronic systems are used to control and process of data. ________

2. Signal processors serve to manipulate, interpret and transform thelevel of voltage in order to make them higher. ________

3. PCB stands for Printed Circuit Board. ________

4. Computers, electronic clocks and PLC’s are constructed of digital circuit ________

5. Mathematical methods are not important for the study of electronic ________

Wri te the correct word, or complete the fol lowing.1. It is defined as unwanted disturbances superposed on useful signal:

2. Explain what is the difference between a transducer and an actuator:

3. Do you think that it’s important a good thermal management in a circuitry? Explain:



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67

Data Storage Device

PROGRAMMING

Vocabulary

1. Analytical Engine a mechanical general-purpose computer created by the Britishprofessor of mathematics Charles Babbage.

2. Assembly LanguageIt’s a low-level language for programming computers. Itimplements a symbolic representation of the numeric machinecodes and other constants needed to program a particular CPUarchitecture.

3. Binary Numeral System or base-2 number system, is a numeral system that representsnumeric values using two symbols, usually 0 and 1.

4. Cam It’s a projecting part of a rotating wheel or shaft that strikes alever at one or more points on its circular path.

5. COBOL It’s one of the oldest programming languages still in active use.Its name is an acronym for COmmon Business-OrientedLanguage, defining its primary domain in business, finance, andadministrative systems for companies and governments.

6. Compiler It’s a computer program (or set of programs) that translates textwritten in a computer language (the source language) intoanother computer language (the target language).

7. Computer It’s a machine that manipulates data according to a list ofinstructions.

8. Computer Science It’s a special case of engineering overhead and is thecombination of excess or indirect computation time, memory,bandwidth, or other resources that arerequired to be utilized or expanded toenable a particular goal.

9. Computer Terminal It’s an electronic or electromechanicalhardware device that is used forentering data into, and displaying datafrom, a computer or a computingsystem.

10. Data Storage Device It’s a device for recording (storing) information (data).



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Jacquard Loom

Plugboard or ControlPanel

Man using a lever

11. Fortran (previously FORTRAN) is a general-purpose, procedural,imperative programming language that is especially suited to

numeric computation and scientific computing. 12. Jacquard Loom It’s a mechanical loom, invented by

Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801, thathas holes punched in pasteboard, eachrow of which corresponds to one row ofthe design.

13. Key punch It’s a device for entering data intopunched cards by precisely punchingholes at locations designated by thekeys struck by the operator.

14. Lever It’ s a rigid object that is used with anappropriate fulcrum or pivot point tomultiply the mechanical force that canbe applied to another object.

15. Mechanism It’s a device of which a mechanical jointis used.

16. Offshore outsourcing

It’s the practice of hiring an externalorganization to perform some business functions in a countryother than the one where the products or services are actually

developed or manufactured. It can be contrasted with offshoring,in which the functions are performed in aforeign country by a foreign subsidiary.

17. Plugboard, or control panel, was a device used todirect the operation of unit recordequipment some early computers. Theyconsisted of a number of plugs, or jacks,into which patch cords were inserted,completing a circuit.

18. Programmable Machine

It’s a machine whose behavior can becontrolled by changes to a "program"

19. Punch card or punched card

(or punchcard or Hollerith card or IBM card ), is a piece of stiffpaper that contains digital information represented by thepresence or absence of holes in predefined positions.

20. Punched Tape or paper tape It’s a largely obsolete form of data storage, consisting of a longstrip of paper in which holes are punched to store data.



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21. Text Editor is a type of program used for editing plain text files

22. Unit record equipment

Also named electric accounting machine (EAM) ortabulating machine was a machine designed to assist intabulations. Invented by Herman Hollerith, the machine wasdeveloped to help process data for the 1890 U.S. Census.

23. Von Neumann Architecture It’s a computer design model that uses a processing unit and asingle separate storage structure to hold both instructions anddata.



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HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING

The earliest programmable machine (that is a machine whose behavior can be controlledby changes to a "program") was Al-Jazari’s programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Al-Jazari’s robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake toentertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drummachine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. Thedrummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by movingthe pegs to different locations.

The Jacquard Loom, developed in 1801, is often quoted as a source of prior art. Themachine used a series of pasteboard cards with holes punched in them. The hole pattern

represented the pattern that the loom had to follow in weaving cloth. The loom couldproduce entirely different weaves using different sets of cards. The use of punched cardswas also adopted by Charles Babbage around 1830, to control his Analytical Engine.

This innovation was later refined by Herman Hollerith who, in 1896 founded the TabulatingMachine Company (which became IBM). He invented the Hollerith punched card, the cardreader, and the key punch machine. These inventions were the foundation of the moderninformation processing industry. The addition of a plug-board to his 1906 Type I Tabulatorallowed it to do different jobs without having to be rebuilt (the first step towardprogramming). By the late 1940s there were a variety of plug-board programmablemachines, called unit record equipment, to perform data processing tasks (card reading).

The early computers were also programmed using plug-boards.The invention of the Von Neumann architecture allowed programs to be stored in computermemory. Early programs had to be painstakingly crafted using the instructions of theparticular machine, often in binary notation. Every model of computer would be likely toneed different instructions to do the same task. Later assembly languages were developedthat let the programmer specify each instruction in a text format, entering abbreviations foreach operation code instead of a number and specifying addresses in symbolic form (e.g.

ADD X, TOTAL). In 1954 Fortran, the first higher level programming language, wasinvented. This allowed programmers to specify calculations by entering a formula directly(e.g. Y = X*2 + 5*X + 9). The program text, or source, was converted into machine

instructions using a special program called a compiler. Many other languages weredeveloped, including ones for commercial programming, such as COBOL. Programs weremostly still entered using punch cards or paper tape. By the late-60s, data storage devicesand computer terminals became inexpensive enough so programs could be created bytyping directly into the computers. Text editors were developed that allowed changes andcorrections to be made much more easily than with punch cards.

As time has progressed computers have made giant leaps in the area of processing power.This has brought about newer programming languages that are more abstracted from theunderlying hardware. Although these more abstracted languages require additionaloverhead, in most cases the huge increase in speed of modern computers has brought



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about little performance decrease compared to earlier counterparts. The benefits of thesemore abstracted languages is that they allow both an easier learning curve for people less

familiar with the older lower-level programming languages, and they also allow a moreexperienced programmer to develop simple applications quickly. Despite these benefits,large complicated programs, and programs that are more dependent on speed still requirethe faster and relatively lower-level languages with today’s hardware. (The same concernswere raised about the original Fortran language.)

Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, programming was an attractive careerin most developed countries. Some forms of programming have been increasingly subjectto offshore outsourcing (importing software and services from other countries, usually at alower wage), making programming career decisions in developed countries morecomplicated, while increasing economic opportunities in less developed areas. It is unclear

how far this trend will continue and how deeply it will impact programmer wages andopportunities.



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EXERCISES

Complete the chart wi th the informat ion that appl ies:DATE TECHNOLOGY INVENTOR UTILITY ADDITIONAL FACTS1206 Al-Jazari's

programmablehumanoid robot

Al-Jazari entertain guestsat royal drinkingparties

It was originally aboat with fourautomatic musiciansthat floated on a lake

1801

1830

1896

1906

1940s

1954

Late60’s

Earliestyears



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CONTROL S YSTEMS

Vocabulary

1. Actuators: One that activates, especially a device responsible for actuatinga mechanical device, such as one connected to a computer bya sensor link.

2. Algorithms: Is a type of effective method in which a definite list of well-defined instructions for completing a task.

3. Attempt: To make an effort at; try;

4. Control system: Is a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct orregulate the behavior of other devices or systems.

5. Devices: A thing made for a particular purpose; an invention.

6. Embedded system: Is a special-purpose computer system designed to performone or a few dedicated functions.

7. Feedback: A reaction or response to a particular process or activity.

8. Furnace: A structure or apparatus in which heat may be generated, as forheating houses or producing steam.

9. Fuzzy logic: It can be thought of as the application side of fuzzy set theory

dealing with well thought out real world expert values for acomplex problem.

10. Fuzzy: Incoherent.

11. Microcontrollers: Is a computer-on-a-chip.

12. Paradigm: An example serving as a model; pattern.

13. PID controller: Attempts to correct the error between a measured processvariable and a desired set point.

14. Pneumatic: is the use of pressurized air to effect mechanical motion.

15. Relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control ofanother electrical circuit

16. Resemble: To be like or similar to.

17. Set point: Is the target value for an automatic control system.

18. Slope: Deviation from the horizontal or vertical. An inclined surface.

19. Stream: Term applied to all elements flowing in channels.

20. Supply: Provide (a person, establishment, place, etc.) with what islacking.



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21. Transistor is a semiconductor device, commonly used to amplify or switchelectronic signals.

22. Trigger: To initiate or precipitate.23. Unwieldy: Not readily handled or managed in use or action, as from size,

shape, or weight; awkward.

24. Vacuum tubes: is a device used to amplify, switch, otherwise modify, or createan electrical signal by controlling the movement of electrons in alow-pressure space, often tubular in form.



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CONTROL S YSTEMS THEORY

A control system is a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate thebehavior of other devices or systems.

There are two common classes of control systems, with many variations and combinations:logic or sequential controls, and feedback or linear controls. There is also fuzzy logic,which attempts to combine some of the design simplicity of logic with

the utility of linear control. Some devices or systems are inherently not controllable.The term "control system" may be applied to the essentially manual controls that allow anoperator to, for example, close and open a hydraulic press, where the logic requires that it

cannot be moved unless safety guards are in place.

An automatic sequential control system may trigger a series of mechanical actuators in thecorrect sequence to perform a task. For example various electric and pneumatictransducers may fold and glue a cardboard box, fill it with product and then seal it in anautomatic packaging machine.

In the case of linear feedback systems, a control loop, including sensors, controlalgorithms and actuators, is arranged in such a fashion as to try to regulate a variable at aset point or reference value. An example of this may increase the fuel supply to a furnacewhen a measured temperature drops. PID controllers are common and effective in cases

such as this. Control systems that include some sensing of the results they are trying toachieve are making use of feedback and so can, to some extent, adapt to varyingcircumstances. Open-loop control systems do not directly make use of feedback, but runonly in pre-arranged ways.

LOGIC CONTROL Pure logic control systems were historically implemented by electricians with networks ofrelays, and designed with a notation called ladder logic. Today, most such systems areconstructed with programmable logic devices.

Logic controllers may respond to switches, light sensors, pressure switches etc and causethe machinery to perform some operation. Logic systems are used to sequencemechanical operations in many applications. Examples include elevators, washingmachines and other systems with interrelated stop-go operations.

Logic systems are quite easy to design, and can handle very complex operations. Someaspects of logic system design make use of Boolean logic.

ON-OFF CONTROL For example, a thermostat is a simple negative-feedback control: when the temperature(the "measured variable" or MV) goes below a set point (SP), the heater is switched on.



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Another example could be a pressure-switch on an air compressor: when the pressure(MV) drops below the threshold (SP), the pump is powered. Refrigerators and vacuum

pumps contain similar mechanisms operating in reverse, but still providing negativefeedback to correct errors.

Simple on-off feedback control systems like these are cheap and effective. In some cases,like the simple compressor example, they may represent a good design choice.

In most applications of on-off feedback control, some consideration needs to be given toother costs, such as wear and tear of control valves and maybe other start-up costs whenpower is reapplied each time the MV drops. Therefore, practical on-off control systems aredesigned to include hysteresis, usually in the form of a dead band, a region around the setpoint value in which no control action occurs. The width of dead band may be adjustable or

programmable.

LINEAR CONTROL Linear control systems use linear negative feedback to produce a control signalmathematically based on other variables, with a view to maintaining the controlled processwithin an acceptable operating range.

The output from a linear control system into the controlled process may be in the form of adirectly variable signal, such as a valve that may be 0 or 100% open or anywhere inbetween. Sometimes this is not feasible and so, after calculating the current requiredcorrective signal, a linear control system may repeatedly switch an actuator, such as a

pump, motor or heater, fully on and then fully off again, regulating the duty cycle usingpulse-width modulation.

FUZZY LOGIC Fuzzy logic is an attempt to get the easy design of logic controllers and yet controlcontinuously-varying systems. Basically, a measurement in a fuzzy logic system can bepartly true, that is if yes is 1 and no is 0, a fuzzy measurement can be between 0 and 1.

The rules of the system are written in natural language and translated into fuzzy logic. Forexample, the design for a furnace would start with: "If the temperature is too high, reduce

the fuel to the furnace. If the temperature is too low, increase the fuel to the furnace."

Measurements from the real world (such as the temperature of a furnace) are converted tovalues between 0 and 1 by seeing where they fall on a triangle. Usually the tip of thetriangle is the maximum possible value which translates to "1."Fuzzy logic then modifies Boolean logic to be arithmetical. Usually the "not" operation is"output = 1 - input," the "and" operation is "output = input.1 multiplied by input.2," and "or"is "output = 1 - ((1 - input.1) multiplied by (1 - input.2))."

The last step is to "defuzzify" an output. Basically, the fuzzy calculations make a valuebetween zero and one. That number is used to select a value on a line whose slope and



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height converts the fuzzy value to a real-world output number. The number then controlsreal machinery.

If the triangles are defined correctly and rules are right the result can be a good controlsystem.

When a robust fuzzy design is reduced into a single, quick calculation, it begins toresemble a conventional feedback loop solution. For this reason, many control engineersthink one should not bother with it. However, the fuzzy logic paradigm may providescalability for large control systems where conventional methods become unwieldy orcostly to derive.

Fuzzy electronics is an electronic technology that uses fuzzy logic instead of the two-valuelogic more commonly used in digital electronics.

PHYSICAL IMPLEMENTATIONS Since modern small microcontrollers are so cheap (often less than $1 US), it's verycommon to implement control systems, including feedback loops, with computers, often inan embedded system. The feedback controls are simulated by having the computer makeperiodic measurements and then calculating from this stream of measurements.

Computers emulate logic devices by making measurements of switch inputs, calculating alogic function from these measurements and then sending the results out to electronically-controlled switches.

Logic systems and feedback controllers are usually implemented with programmable logiccontrollers which are devices available from electrical supply houses. They include a littlecomputer and a simplified system for programming. Most often they are programmed withpersonal computers. Logic controllers have also been constructed from relays, hydraulicand pneumatic devices, and electronics using both transistors and vacuum tubes(feedback controllers can also be constructed in this manner).



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EXERCISES

Fi l l in the blanks wi th the missing word f rom the group of words below .

1. A ________________ is a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct orregulate the behavior of other devices or systems.

2. In the case of linear feedback systems, a __________________ , including sensors,control algorithms and actuators, is arranged in such a fashion as to try to regulate avariable at a set point or reference value.

3. Pure ___________________ were historically implemented by electricians withnetworks of relays, and designed with a notation called ladder logic. Today, mostsuch systems are constructed with programmable logic devices.

4. Logic systems are quite easy to design, and can handle very complex operations.Some aspects of logic system design make use of ___________________.

5. Simple _________________ systems like these are cheap and effective. In somecases, like the simple compressor example, they may represent a good designchoice.

6. _______________________ use linear negative feedback to produce a controlsignal mathematically based on other variables, with a view to maintaining thecontrolled process within an acceptable operating range.

7. _____________is an attempt to get the easy design of logic controllers and yetcontrol continuously-varying systems. Basically, a measurement in a fuzzy logicsystem can be partly true, that is if yes is 1 and no is 0, a fuzzy measurement can

be between 0 and 1.

8. Since modern small ________________ are so cheap (often less than $1 US), it'svery common to implement control systems, including feedback loops, withcomputers, often in an embedded system.

9. Logic controllers have also been constructed from relays, hydraulic and pneumaticdevices, and electronics using both _______________ and _________________(feedback controllers can also be constructed in this manner).

Boolean Logic Vacuum Tubes

Fuzzy Logic Logic Control Systems Microcontrollers Transistors

On-off Feedback Control Linear Control Systems

Control S stem Control Loo



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Vocabulary

1. Achieve: To bring to a successful end; carry through; accomplish.

2. Artificial intelligence:The study and design of intelligent agents.

3. Astonishing: To fill with sudden wonder or amazement; surprise.

4. Cognitive science It’s most simply defined as the scientific study either of mind or

of intelligence.5. Coin (Coined): A mode of expression considered standard.

6. Control theory: Is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics,which deals with the behavior of dynamical systems.

7. Data Mining: Is the principle of sorting through large amounts of data andpicking out relevant information.

8. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA):Is an agency of the United States Department of Defenseresponsible for the development of new technology for use bythe military.

9. Disrepute: bad repute; disfavor

10. Endow (Endowed): To equip or supply with a talent or quality.

11. Facial recognition system:Is a computer application for automatically identifying orverifying a person from a digital image or a video frame from avideo source.

12. Insights: The capacity to discern the true nature of a situation.

13. Intelligent agent: Is a system that perceives its environment and takes actionswhich maximize its chances of success.

14. Issue: A point the decision of which determines a matter.

15. Logic: Is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference anddemonstration.

16. Logistics is the art of managing the supply chain and science ofmanaging and controlling the flow of goods, information andother resources like energy and people between the point oforigin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers'requirements.



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17. Manga: A Japanese graphic novel, typically intended for adults,characterized by highly stylized art.

18. Moore's Law: Describes an important trend in the history of computerhardware: that the number of transistors that can beinexpensively placed on an integrated circuit is increasingexponentially, doubling approximately every two years.

19. Neuroscience: Is a field that is devoted to the scientific study of the nervoussystem.

20. Ontology: Is a representation of a set of concepts within a domain and therelationships between those concepts.

21. Operations Research:Is an interdisciplinary branch of applied mathematics whichuses methods like mathematical modeling, statistics, andalgorithms to arrive at optimal or good decisions in complexproblems.

22. Optimization: Refers to the study of problems in which one seeks to minimizeor maximize values.

23. Pervaded: Became spread throughout all parts of something.

24. Robotics: Is the science and technology of robots, their design,manufacture, and application.

25. Speech recognition:

Converts spoken words to machine-readable input.26. Traits: A genetically determined characteristic or condition.

27. Tran humanism: Is the term applied to human beings and machine merged in thefuture into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful thaneither.



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Hologram created by AI


Artificial intelligence (or AI) is both the intelligence of machines and the branch of computerscience which aims to create it.

Major AI textbooks define artificial intelligence as "thestudy and design of intelligent agents," where anintelligent agent is a system that perceives itsenvironment and takes actions which maximize itschances of success. AI can be seen as a realization of anabstract intelligent agent (AIA) which exhibits thefunctional essence of intelligence. John McCarthy, who

coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science andengineering of making intelligent machines."

Among the traits that researchers hope machines willexhibit are reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning,communication, perception and the ability to move andmanipulate objects. General intelligence (or "strong AI") has not yet been achieved and is along-term goal of AI research.

AI research uses tools and insights from many fields, including computer science,psychology, philosophy, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, ontology, operations

research, economics, control theory, probability, optimization and logic. AI research alsooverlaps with tasks such as robotics, control systems, scheduling, data mining, logistics,speech recognition, facial recognition and many others. Other names for the field havebeen proposed, such as computational intelligence, synthetic intelligence, intelligentsystems, or computational rationality.

PERSPECTIVES ON AI

AI in myth, fiction and speculation

Humanity has imagined in great detail the implications of thinking machines or artificialbeings. They appear in Greek myths, such as Talos of Crete, the golden robots ofHephaestus and Pygmalion's Galatea. The earliest known humanoid robots (orautomatons) were sacred statues worshipped in Egypt and Greece, believed to have beenendowed with genuine consciousness by craftsman. In medieval times, alchemists such asParacelsus claimed to have created artificial beings. Realistic clockwork imitations ofhuman beings have been built by people such as Yan Shi, Hero of Alexandria, Al-Jazariand Wolfgang von Kempelen. Pamela McCorduck observes that "artificial intelligence inone form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream inurgent need of being realized."

In modern fiction, beginning with Mary Shelley's classic Frankenstein, writers haveexplored the ethical issues presented by thinking machines. If a machine can be created



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that has intelligence, can it also feel ? If it can feel, does it have the same rights as a humanbeing? This is a key issue in Frankenstein as well as in modern science fiction: for

example, the film Artificial Intelligence: A.I. considers a machine in the form of a small boywhich has been given the ability to feel human emotions, including, tragically, the capacityto suffer. This issue is also being considered by futurists, such as California's Institute forthe Future under the name "robot rights", although many critics believe that the discussionis premature.

Science fiction writers and futurists have also speculated on the technology's potentialimpact on humanity. In fiction, AI has appeared as a servant (R2D2), a comrade (Lt.Commander Data), an extension to human abilities (Ghost in the Shell), a conqueror (TheMatrix), a dictator (With Folded Hands) and an exterminator (Terminator, BattlestarGalactica). Some realistic potential consequences of AI are decreased labor demand, the

enhancement of human ability or experience, and a need for redefinition of human identityand basic values.

Futurists estimate the capabilities of machines using Moore's Law, which measures therelentless exponential improvement in digital technology with uncanny accuracy. RayKurzweil has calculated that desktop computers will have the same processing power ashuman brains by the year 2029, and that by 2040 artificial intelligence will reach a pointwhere it is able to improve itself at a rate that far exceeds anything conceivable in the past,a scenario that science fiction writer Vernor Vinge named the "technological singularity".

"Artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution," Edward Fredkin said in the 1980s,expressing an idea first proposed by Samuel Butler's Darwin Among the Machines (1863),and expanded upon by George Dyson (science historian) in his book of the same name(1998). Several futurists and science fiction writers have predicted that human beings andmachines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful thaneither. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger, isnow associated with robot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick and RayKurzweil. Transhumanism has been illustrated in fiction as well, for example on the mangaGhost in the Shell.

HISTORY OF AI RESEARCH In the middle of the 20th century, a handful of scientists began a new approach to building

intelligent machines, based on recent discoveries in neurology, a new mathematical theoryof information, an understanding of control and stability called cybernetics, and above all,by the invention of the digital computer, a machine based on the abstract essence ofmathematical reasoning.

The field of modern AI research was founded at conference on the campus of DartmouthCollege in the summer of 1956. Those who attended would become the leaders of AIresearch for many decades, especially John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell andHerbert Simon, who founded AI laboratories at MIT, CMU and Stanford. They and theirstudents wrote programs that were, to most people, simply astonishing: computers weresolving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English. By the



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middle 60s their research was heavily funded by the U.S. Department of Defense and theywere optimistic about the future of the new field:

♦ 1965, H. A. Simon: "Machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing anywork a man can do"

♦ 1967, Marvin Minsky: "Within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificialintelligence' will substantially be solved."

These predictions, and many like them, would not come true. They had failed to recognizethe difficulty of some of the problems they faced. In 1974, in response to the criticism ofEngland's Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from Congress to fund more productiveprojects, DARPA cut off all undirected, exploratory research in AI. This was the first AI

Winter.In the early 80s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems;applying the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts. By 1985 themarket for AI had reached more than a billion dollars. Minsky and others warned thecommunity that enthusiasm for AI had spiraled out of control and that disappointment wassure to follow. Beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI onceagain fell into disrepute, and a second, more lasting AI Winter began.

In the 90s and early 21st century AI achieved its greatest successes, somewhat behind thescenes. Artificial intelligence was adopted throughout the technology industry, providing theheavy lifting for logistics, data mining, medical diagnosis and many other areas. Thesuccess was due to several factors: the incredible power of computers today (see Moore'slaw), a greater emphasis on solving specific sub problems, the creation of new tiesbetween AI and other fields working on similar problems, and above all a new commitmentby researchers to solid mathematical methods and rigorous scientific standards.



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EXERCISES

Write the number of the word that corresponds to the def in i t ion.Remember to use proper def in i t ion according to the Art i f ic ia l Intel l igencelecture context .

Bad repute; disfavor.

“The number of transistors that can be inexpensively placed on an integratedcircuit is increasing exponentially, doubling approximately every two years”.

A Japanese graphic novel, typically intended for adults, characterized by highlystylized art. Is the art of managing the supply chain and science of managing and controlling

the flow of goods, information and other resources.The study and design of intelligent agents.

Is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics, which deals withthe behavior of dynamical systems.

Is most simply defined as the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence.

Is the science and technology of robots, their design, manufacture, andapplication.Is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize itschances of success.

A genetically determined characteristic or condition.

The capacity to discern the true nature of a situation.

Is the principle of sorting through large amounts of data and picking out relevantinformation.Is a representation of a set of concepts within a domain and the relationshipsbetween those concepts.Is the term applied to human beings and machine merged in the future intocyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either.

A mode of expression considered standard.1. Artificial intelligence2. Intelligent agent3. Moore's Law4. Traits5. Data Mining6. Insights7. Ontology8. Control theory

9. Tran humanism10. Coin11. Operations Research12. Robotics13. Manga14. Cognitive science15. Disrepute



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R EFERENCES

R EFERENCES

♦ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming

♦ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_system

♦ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_system

♦ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics

♦ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing

♦ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_engineering

♦ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrology

♦ http://www.larutamayaonline.com/guatemala_facts.php

♦ http://www.quetzalnet.com/N_Trad_Inv.html

♦ http://www.quetzalnet.com/Trad_Inv.html

♦ Çengel, Yunus; Boles, Michael. Thermodynamics, an Engineering Approach. Fifthedition, McGraw-Hill. 2006

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