LASSI 2nd Ed User's Manual - H&H Publishing Company ... · Learning and Study Strategies Inventory...

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for those administering the

Learning andStudyStrategiesInventorySecond Edition

Claire E. Weinstein, Ph.D.Department of Educational Psychology,University of Texas at Austin

David R. Palmer, Ph.D.Texas Health and Human ServicesCommission

LASSIUser's Manual

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All rights reserved. It is a violation of the lawto copy any or all of this publication withoutwritten permission of the publisher. Do notreproduce this publication in any way usingany media including computer memory deviceswithout written permission of the publisher.User's Manual

Learning and StudyStrategies InventorySecond Edition

Copyright ©2002

Claire E. Weinstein, Ph.D.David R. Palmer, Ph.D.

H& H Publishing Company, Inc.(800) 366-4079 (727) 442-7760FAX (727) 442-2195E-Mail [email protected] www.hhpublishing.com

LASSI

Acknowlegdments

It is impossible to thank the large number of individuals who have contributed to thedevelopment of the LASSI over the years. Many generations of graduate students,numerous colleagues, and other friends have generously given of their time, talents,and skills. In addition, much of the research support for the design and develop-ment of earlier versions of the LASSI was provided by the Army Research Institutefor the Behavioral and Social Sciences and the Spencer Foundation. Finally, peoplehave made such enormous contributions that they deserve individual mention: theoriginal inspirations for this work, “Mama” and “Papa” Weinstein; our uncondi-tional support team, Leona Sheryl Weinstein, Dr. Linda Hargrove, and ChandlerHargrove Palmer; the psychometric consultant for our project, Dr. Gary Hanson,and our publisher and editorial team: Dr. Robert Hackworth, Michael Ealy, PriscillaTrimmier and Karen Hackworth. To all of you we are eternally grateful andappreciative of your efforts.

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Table of ContentsPart 1: Overview of the LASSI 4

Part 2: Administration and Scoring 6

Part 3: Description of the Individual LASSI Scales 9

Part 4: The Development of the LASSI, 1st Edition 14

Part 5: The Development of the LASSI, 2nd Edition 16

Appendix A: Descriptions of the Field Test and Norming Sample(Tables 1-13) 18

Appendix B: Summaries of the Item Statistics for each LASSI,2nd Edition Scale (Tables 14-23) 22

Appendix C: Individual Scale Statistics (Table 24) 26

Appendix D: Inter-Scale Correlations (Table 25) 27

Appendix E: LASSI 2nd Edition Scale Norms (Table 26) 28

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PART 1: OVERVIEW OF THE LASSI

WHAT IS THE LASSI AND WHATDOES IT MEASURE?

The Learning and Study Strategies Inventory(LASSI) is a 10-scale, 80-item assessment of stu-dents’ awareness about and use of learning andstudy strategies related to skill, will and self-regulation components of strategic learning. Thefocus is on both covert and overt thoughts, be-haviors, attitudes, motivations and beliefs thatrelate to successful learning in post-secondaryeducational and training settings and that canbe altered through educational interventions. Re-search has repeatedly demonstrated that thesefactors contribute significantly to success in col-lege and that they can be learned or enhancedthrough educational interventions such as learn-ing strategies and study skills courses.

The LASSI is both diagnostic and prescriptive.The LASSI provides standardized scores (per-centile score equivalents) and national norms forten different scales (there is no total score re-ported because this is a diagnostic instrument).It provides students with a diagnosis of theirstrengths and weaknesses, compared to othercollege students, in the areas covered by the tenscales, and it is prescriptive in that it providesfeedback about areas where students may beweak and need to improve their knowledge,skills, attitudes, motivations and beliefs.

HOW CAN THE LASSI BE USED?

The LASSI is designed to be used as:

(1) A screening measure to help students de-velop greater awareness of their learning andstudying strengths and weaknesses;

(2) A diagnostic measure to help identify areasin which students could benefit most from edu-cational interventions;

(3) A basis for planning individual prescrip-tions for both remediation and enrichment;

(4) A means for instructors to use for examin-ing individual students’ scores and class trendsto help them decide where to place the greatestemphasis for assignments, projects, individuallogs, journals, portfolios and other class activi-ties;

(5) A pre-post achievement measure for stu-dents participating in programs or courses fo-cusing on learning strategies and study skills;

(6) An evaluation tool to assess the degree ofsuccess of intervention courses or programs; and

(7) An advising/counseling tool for college ori-entation programs, advisors, developmental edu-cation programs, learning assistance programs,and learning centers.

INTRODUCTION TO THELASSI SCALES

There are eight items on each of the ten scales ofthe LASSI. These scales are: Anxiety, Attitude,Concentration, Information Processing, Motiva-tion, Selecting Main Ideas, Self Testing, StudyAids, Test Strategies, and Time Management.

Each of these scales is primarily related to oneof three of the components of strategic learning:skill, will and self-regulation. The conceptualframework of strategic learning underlies eachof these components, so there is some overlapand interaction among and within the compo-nents and individual scales. However, strategiclearners need to know about each of these cat-egories and about how to use information andskills in each of these categories. They also needto know how to pick and choose among thevarious elements in each category to help themreach specific learning goals and objectives.

SKILL COMPONENT OF STRATEGICLEARNING

The LASSI scales related to the skill componentof strategic learning are: Information Process-

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ing, Selecting Main Ideas, and Test Strategies.These scales examine students’ learning strate-gies, skills and thought processes related to iden-tifying, acquiring and constructing meaning forimportant new information, ideas and proce-dures, and how they prepare for and demon-strate their new knowledge on tests or otherevaluative procedures.

The Information Processing Scale assesses howwell students’ can use imagery, verbal elabora-tion, organization strategies, and reasoning skillsas learning strategies to help learn new infor-mation and skills and to build bridges betweenwhat they already know and what they are try-ing to learn and remember.

Do students try to summarize or para-phrase their class reading assignments?

Do they try to relate what is being pre-sented in class to their prior knowledge?

The Selecting Main Ideas Scale assesses stu-dents’ skill at identifying important informationfor further study from less important informa-tion and supporting details.

Can students identify the key points ina lecture?

Can they decide what is important tounderline in a textbook?

The Test Strategies Scale assesses students’ useof both test preparation and test taking strate-gies.

Do students know how to study for testsin different types of courses?

Do they review their answers to essayquestions?

THE WILL COMPONENT OFSTRATEGIC LEARNING

The LASSI scales related to the will componentof strategic learning are: Anxiety, Attitude, andMotivation. These scales measure the degree towhich students worry about their academic per-

formance, their receptivity to learning new in-formation, their attitudes and interest in college,their diligence, self-discipline, and willingnessto exert the effort necessary to successfully com-plete academic requirements.

The Anxiety Scale assesses the degree to whichstudents worry about school and their academicperformance.

Do students worry so much that it is hardfor them to concentrate?

Are they easily discouraged by low grades?

The Attitude Scale assesses students’ attitudesand interests in college and achieving academicsuccess.

How clear are students about their owneducational goals?

Is school really important or worthwhileto them?

The Motivation Scale assesses students’ dili-gence, self-discipline, and willingness to exertthe effort necessary to successfully complete aca-demic requirements.

Do students stay up-to-date in classassignments?

Do they easily “give up” in difficult classes?

THE SELF-REGULATION COMPONENTOF STRATEGIC LEARNING

The LASSI scales related to the self-regulationcomponent of strategic learning are: Concen-tration, Self-Testing, Study Aids, and TimeManagement. These scales measure how stu-dents manage, or self-regulate and control, thewhole learning process through using their timeeffectively, focusing their attention and main-taining their concentration over time, checkingto see if they have met the learning demands fora class, an assignment or a test, and using studysupports such as review sessions, tutors or spe-cial features of a textbook.

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The Concentration Scale assesses students’ abil-ity to direct and maintain their attention on aca-demic tasks.

Are students easily distracted?

Can they direct their attention to schooltasks?

The Self Testing Scale assesses students’ use ofreviewing and comprehension monitoring tech-niques to determine their level of understand-ing of the information or task to be learned.

Do the students review before a test?

Do they stop periodically while readingto review the content?

The Study Aids Scale assesses students’ use ofsupport techniques, materials or resources to

help them learn and remember new informa-tion.

Do students complete practice exercises?

Do they create or use organizational aids?

The Time Management Scale assesses students’use of time management principles for academictasks.

Are students well organized?

Do they anticipate scheduling problems?

Sample items for each scale are included in Part3: Description of the Individual LASSI Scales.

Coefficient Alphas for the scales range from alow of .73 to a high of. 89.

PART 2: ADMINISTRATION AND SCORINGThe LASSI is designed to simplify administra-tion and scoring as much as possible withoutlosing power or diagnostic information. To helpachieve this goal, it uses a self-report format anddoes not require any special administration pro-cedures, such as specially trained personnel. Thedirections are included on the front of eachprinted booklet so it can be used in both indi-vidual and group settings. The Web-adminis-tered version presents the same directions to eachuser. The LASSI, 2nd edition is not a timed mea-sure but most students complete it in approxi-mately 15-20 minutes. Self-scoring the print ver-sion takes approximately 10 minutes. However,if the Web-administered version of the LASSI isused, then the scoring will be completed onlineand the scoring reports will be computer-gener-ated. The LASSI uses a self-report format anddoes not require any special administration pro-cedures. In fact, it has a simple scoring schemethat can be used by students to compute theirown scale scores right on the print version ofthe instrument, making it easier to use in set-tings where scoring is prohibitively time con-suming, too expensive or where computers are

not available in sufficient numbers, such as stu-dent orientation programs, academic courses,and learning centers.

For each of the 80 items on the LASSI, studentsare requested to darken the letter that corre-sponds to how well the statement describesthem. For example, darkening the letter a for anitem would indicate that the statement is not atall typical of the student, while darkening theletter e would indicate that the statement is verymuch typical of the student. Students are alsocautioned to respond according to how well thestatements reflect their behaviors or thinking pro-cesses and not how they think they should re-spond or how others would respond.

The LASSI yields ten individual scale scores, onefor each of the ten scales. No total score is com-puted because this is a diagnostic instrument.These scale scores can then be compared nu-merically or graphically to the norms providedor to local norms or cut-off scores developed byan institution or program. The data providedwith the LASSI includes percentile score equiva-

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lents. Based on a student’s scale scores, eitherin relation to the national norms included withthe instrument or to a percentile cut-off score(the 75th percentile being a common cut-off usedon many campuses), prescriptions can then bemade. For example, if a student scores poorlyon the Test Strategies Scale, he/she should beadvised to concentrate at least part of his/herefforts on learning more about how to preparefor and take tests. A low score on the AnxietyScale indicates a difficulty with focusing atten-tion on task-relevant thoughts and behaviorsrather than on fears and concerns about failureand incompetence. The student doing poorlyon this scale would need to learn more aboutdealing with irrational thoughts and negativeself-talk. She or he would have to learn how tocope with anxiety-arousing stimuli and takemore responsibility for the direction of her orhis own thinking processes.

Each printed LASSI assessment contains the fol-lowing parts: 1) An introduction to the inven-tory; 2) an explanation of how to complete theLASSI; 3) the inventory items; 4) a summary ofthe students responses coded by scale (on pres-sure-sensitive paper for the print version); 5)scoring directions; 6) scoring summary sheets;and, 7) information about interpreting individualscale scores. The introduction to the LASSI ison the front page, the directions for taking theLASSI are on the second page. Pages 3 - 7 con-tain the LASSI items. Page 9 is the pressuresensitive page where student responses are re-corded and keyed to the appropriate scale usinga 3-letter code (e.g., SMI represents the Select-ing Main Ideas Scale). This pressure-sensitivepage is used to record students’ scale scores onPage 11 (Page 12 uses pressure sensitive paperto make a copy of students’ scale scores for theadministrator). Pages 11 and 12 also include agraph students can use to record and comparetheir scores, brief descriptions of each scale, andan explanation of how to interpret scale scoresin relation to national norms or two cut-offscores.

The Web version of the LASSI contains the fol-lowing parts: 1) An introduction to the inven-tory; 2) an explanation of how to complete theLASSI; 3) the inventory items; and, 4) informa-

tion about interpreting individual scale scores.All scoring, reporting and graphics are gener-ated automatically by the computer and pro-vided to the student (a copy can also be pro-vided to the administrator).

If the LASSI is to be self-scored, students mustuse the data recorded on Page 9 and the scoringdirections on Page 11. On Page 9, they mustadd the item responses for each scale. Each itemis numbered and keyed with a 3-letter code toindicate the appropriate scale. Responses onthese sheets appear as numbers rather than let-ters. It should also be noted that approximatelyhalf of the items are numbered from 1 to 5 whilethe other half are numbered from 5 to 1. This isbecause some items are stated in a positive di-rection (such as item number 9, “I try to identifypotential test questions when reviewing my classmaterial,”) while others are stated in a negativedirection (such as item number 49, “I find it hardto pay attention during lectures.”). Studentsmust then add the numbers for the items oneach scale (8 numbers ranging from 1 to 5) andplace them in the appropriate places on the bot-tom of Page 9 of the LASSI booklet. To get abetter overall view of their performance, thesetotal scale scores can then be placed on the graphon Page 11 of the booklet. This graph uses thenational norms for each scale to transform theraw scores into percentiles so that relative per-formance in different areas can be assessed.

Using the graph on Page 11 students can seehow their answers compare to the answers ofthe norm groups. The graph is also marked offat the 75th and 50th percentiles to facilitate ad-vising and counseling. Students who scoreabove the 75th percentile often do not need towork on the strategies or skills for that scale.Students who score between the 75th and the50th percentile on any scale should consider im-proving the relevant learning and study skills tooptimize their academic performance. Studentswho score below the 50th percentile usually needto improve their relevant knowledge and skillsto increase their chances of succeeding in a post-secondary setting. It should also be noted thatthese cut-offs could be modified depending onthe local setting or the development of localnorms. A copy of the national norms used to

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create the graph can be found in Table 1 of thisuser’s manual. The data in Table 1 representthe percent of students in the norm group thatfall at or below a given raw score for each scale.

SUMMARY OF SCORINGINSTRUCTIONS

1. After completing all 80 LASSI items, turnto Page 9 to add up the score for each of the10 scales (the minimum possible is 8 andthe maximum possible is 40).

2. The 3-letter codes at the top of each columnon Page 9 indicate the scale code for thatset of items. For example, items 29, 61, 35,69, 43, 72, 46, and 78 all provide informa-tion about your anxiety (ANX). Each ofyour responses is marked on the right-handside of the page. Each response is connectedby a horizontal line to a box on the left-hand side of the page. Enter the numberyou circled for each statement in its associ-ated box.

3. When you have filled in all of the boxes,add each of the 10 columns of numbers andplace the totals in the spaces on the bottomleft of the page, just above the 3-letter codes.

4. To produce a profile of your learning andstudy strategies, turn to Page 11. Each col-umn is labeled with a 3-letter code repre-senting one of the ten LASSI scales. Findyour score on the scale directly above each

scale code and circle this number. Do thisfor each scale. For example, if your ATTscore was 32, find the number 32 just abovethe ATT scale code and circle the 32. If youcannot find your exact score, circle the nextlowest number.

5. When you have finished circling yourscores for all ten LASSI scales on the chart,connect the dots to see your LASSI profile.

6. The columns on the far left and far right ofthe chart show percentiles. To find yourpercentile rank for each of the ten scalescompared to a national norm group of col-lege students, locate the number in the leftor right column in the row where you circledyour score for each LASSI scale. For ex-ample, if you circled 32 in the MOT (Moti-vation) column, a 50 is in the left columnfor that row. This means that your re-sponses are in the 50th percentile of the na-tional norms for the Motivation Scale — 50%of the college students participating in thenorming sample scored at or below yourscore.

7. To compare a student’s profile with the na-tional norms for the LASSI, you can alsolook at the two rows marked with doublelines. If any of the circles in a profile areabove the lower double line, the student’sresponses are above the 50th percentile. Ifthey are above the upper double line, theyare above the 75th percentile. A copy of thenorms can be found in Table 26 in Appen-dix E.

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PART 3: DESCRIPTION OF THEINDIVIDUAL LASSI SCALES

ANXIETY

Current conceptions of anxiety emphasize theinteractive effects of our own thought processes,beliefs, and emotions and how they affect aca-demic performance. Cognitive worry, a majorcomponent of anxiety, is manifested in negativeself-referent statements. These negativethoughts, beliefs and feelings about one’s abili-ties, intelligence, future, interactions with oth-ers, or likelihood of success, divert a student’sattention away from the task at hand, such asstudying or taking a test. If a student is worriedthat he will not have the time to finish a test,then he is just making matters worse by takingeven more time away to worry about his perfor-mance. This type of self-defeating behavior of-ten sabotages a student’s efforts. If students aretense, anxious, or fearful about studying or per-forming in academic situations, this will diverttheir attention away from the academic task andinward to self-criticism or irrational fears.

Students’ scores on this scale measure how tenseor concerned they are when approaching aca-demic tasks. Students who score low on thismeasure (indicating high anxiety) need to learntechniques for coping with anxiety and reduc-ing worry so that they can focus on the task athand and not on their anxiety. Many very ca-pable students are often incapable of demon-strating their true level of knowledge and skillbecause they are paralyzed or distracted by de-bilitating anxiety. In fact, helping some studentslearn how to reduce their anxiety is sufficientfor helping them to improve their performance.Once these attentional blocks are removed, manystudents show large increases in performance.

Coefficient Alpha = .87

Sample Items:

When I am studying, worrying about doing

poorly in a course interferes with my concentra-tion.

I feel very panicky when I take an importanttest.

ATTITUDE

Students’ general attitudes toward school andtheir general motivation for succeeding in schoolhave a great impact on their diligence whenstudying, particularly in autonomous situationsin which they must study on their own. If therelationships between school and life goals (aca-demic, personal, social and work-related goals)are not clear, then it is difficult to maintain amind-set that promotes good work habits, con-centration, and attention to school and its re-lated tasks.

Students’ scores on this scale measure their gen-eral attitudes and motivation for succeeding inschool and performing the tasks related to schoolsuccess. Students who score low on this mea-sure need to work on higher-level goal settingand reassess how school fits into their future. Ifschool is not seen as relevant to the student’slife goals and attitudes, then it will be difficult,if not impossible, to generate the level of moti-vation needed to help take responsibility forone’s own learning and for helping to manageone’s own study activities.


Sample Items:

I do not care about getting a general education,I just want to get a good job.

I only study the subjects I like.

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CONCENTRATION

Concentration helps students to focus their at-tention on school-related activities, such asstudying and listening in class, rather than ondistracting thoughts, emotions, feelings, or situ-ations. People have a limited capacity to pro-cess what is going on around them and in theirown thoughts; if they are distracted, there willbe less capacity to focus on the task at hand.For students this means that distractions, or any-thing else that interferes with concentration, willdivert attention away from school-related tasks.

Students’ scores on this scale measure their abili-ties to concentrate and direct their attention toschool and school-related tasks, including studyactivities. Students who score high on this mea-sure are effective at focusing their attention andmaintaining a high level of concentration. Stu-dents who score low on this measure are lesssuccessful at focusing their attention on the taskat hand by eliminating interfering thoughts, emo-tions, feelings, and situations. They need to learntechniques to enhance concentration and to setpriorities so that they can attend to school aswell as to their other responsibilities. Learningtechniques for focusing attention and maintain-ing concentration helps students implement ef-fective learning strategies and can make learn-ing and studying both more effective and moreefficient.


Sample Items:

My mind wanders a lot when I study.

If I get distracted during class, I am able to refo-cus my attention.

INFORMATION PROCESSING

Meaningful learning is enhanced by the use ofelaboration and organization strategies. Thesestrategies help to build bridges between what astudent knows and what he or she is trying tolearn and remember. Using what we alreadyknow, that is, our prior knowledge, experiences,attitudes, beliefs, and reasoning skills to helpmake meaning out of new information is criticalto success in educational and training settings.The difference between an expert and a noviceis not just the amount of knowledge they pos-sess but also, and perhaps even more impor-tant, the way that knowledge is acquired andorganized. It is the difference between storingone thousand folders by throwing them in themiddle of a room versus storing them by somemeaningful organization in filing cabinets.

Students’ scores on this scale measure how wellthey can create imaginal and verbal elaborationsand organizational schemes to foster understand-ing and recall. Students who score low on thismeasure need to learn methods that they canuse to help add meaning and organization towhat they are trying to learn. These methodsrange from simple paraphrasing and summariz-ing to creating analogies, the use of application,creating organizational schemes and outlining,and the use of synthesis, inferential, and ana-lytic reasoning skills. A student who does nothave a repertoire of these strategies and skillswill find it difficult to incorporate new knowl-edge and understanding in such a way that ac-quisition and recall will be effective, often de-spite the large amount of time spent studying.The effectiveness and efficiency of both autono-mous and classroom learning are facilitated bythe use of information processing strategies.


Sample Items:

To help me remember new principles we arelearning in class, I practice applying them.

I try to find relationships between what I amlearning and what I already know.

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MOTIVATION

The Attitude Scale measures students’ generalattitudes toward school and their general moti-vation for succeeding in school. However, al-though general attitudes and motivation levelsare important, so is a student’s motivation toperform the specific tasks related to achievement.The degree to which students accept responsi-bility for studying and for their performance isreflected in the everyday behaviors they exhibitrelated to school and school tasks. These be-haviors include reading the textbook, preparingfor class, finishing assignments on time, and be-ing diligent in studying, even if the topic is notparticularly interesting to them (or even tryingto figure out ways to make it more interesting).

Students’ scores on this scale measure the de-gree to which they accept responsibility for per-forming the specific tasks related to school suc-cess. Students who score low on this measureneed to work on goal setting, perhaps at themore global levels assessed on the Attitude Scale,but certainly at the more specific level of indi-vidual tasks and assignments. Accepting moreresponsibility for studying and achievement out-comes requires that students learn to attributemuch of what happens to them in school to theirown efforts rather than to outside forces such asluck or poor teachers, or to uncontrollable forcessuch as innate ability. Accepting more respon-sibility and attributing success to one’s effortsresults in more effective studying and schoolperformance.


Sample Items:

When work is difficult I either give up or studyonly the easy parts.

I set goals for the grades I want in my classes.

SELECTING MAIN IDEAS

Effective and efficient studying requires that thestudent be able to select the important materialfor in-depth attention. Most lectures, discus-sions, and textbooks contain redundant mate-rial, extra examples, and many supporting de-tails to help explain what is being taught or pre-sented. A major school task involves separatingthe important from the unimportant or simplydidactic information that does not have to beremembered. If a student cannot select the criti-cal information, then the learning task becomescomplicated by the huge amount of material theindividual is trying to acquire. Lacking this skillalso increases the likelihood that the student willnot have enough time to study everything thatmust be covered.

Students’ scores on this scale measure their skillsat selecting important information to concentrateon for further study in classroom, lecture or au-tonomous learning situations. Students whoscore low on this measure need to learn moreabout how to identify important information sothat they can focus their attention and informa-tion processing strategies on appropriate mate-rial.


Sample Items:

I have difficulty identifying the important pointsin my reading.

When studying, I seem to get lost in the detailsand miss the important information.

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SELF TESTING

Reviewing and testing one’s level of understand-ing are important for knowledge acquisition andcomprehension monitoring. These strategiesboth support and contribute to meaningful learn-ing and effective performance. Without themlearning could be incomplete or errors mightpersist undetected. Reviewing and self testingalso contribute to knowledge consolidation andintegration across topics. Using mental reviews,going over class notes and the text, thinking uppotential questions to guide reading or help pre-pare for an exam are all important methods forchecking understanding, consolidating newknowledge, integrating related information (bothfrom what is being learned and from what isalready known), and identifying if additionalstudying must be done.

Students’ scores on this scale measure theirawareness of the importance of self testing andreviewing and the degree to which they use thesemethods. Students who score low on this mea-sure need to learn more about the importance ofself testing as well as specific methods for re-viewing school material and monitoring theircomprehension. These methods include struc-tured reviews of large amounts of material; men-tal reviews of individual study segments; ask-ing questions before, during, and after reading,studying, or going to class; trying to use newinformation in novel ways; trying to apply aprinciple or method; and using a systematic ap-proach to study.


Sample Items:

I stop periodically while reading and mentallygo over or review what was said.

To check my understanding, I make up possibletest questions and try to answer them.

STUDY AIDS

Students need to know how to create their ownstudy aids and how to use those created by oth-ers. For example, textbook authors or publish-ers will often use headings, special type, whitespace, special markings, summaries, and state-ments of objectives to help students learn fromtheir materials. Many also provide Web sites orother supplementary materials to help studentslearn the material. However, unless studentsknow how to recognize and use these hints andaids, they will not benefit from them. It is alsoimportant for students to know how to generatetheir own study aids by methods such as thecreation of diagrams, text marking, creatingcharts or summary sheets, and underlining.There are other supplementary activities that alsosupport and enhance meaningful learning suchas attending group review sessions, going to theinstructor during office hours, searching for re-lated material on the Web, forming study groups,or comparing notes with other students to checkfor accuracy or completeness.

Students’ scores on this scale measure their abil-ity to use or create study aids that support andincrease meaningful learning and retention. Stu-dents who score low on this scale may need tolearn more about the types of study aids pro-vided in educational materials and classes andhow they can create their own aids. Using andcreating study aids improves both the effective-ness and the efficiency of learning.


Sample Items:

I try to find a study partner or study group foreach of my classes.

My underlining is helpful when I review textmaterial.

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TEST STRATEGIES

Effective test performance depends on bothpreparation strategies and test-taking strategies.A student needs to know how to prepare for thetype of performance that will be required andhow to maximize that performance. Test prepa-ration includes knowing about the type of testthey will be taking. For example, is it going tobe a short-answer or a multiple-choice exam?Will performance require simple recall or willconcepts, principles, and ideas need to be ap-plied? Test preparation also includes knowingabout methods for studying and learning thematerial in a way that will facilitate remember-ing the mateiral and using it at a later time.Test-taking strategies include knowing about thecharacteristics of tests and test items, and howto create an effective test-taking plan.

Students’ scores on this scale measure their useof test-taking and test preparation strategies.Students who score low on this measure mayneed to learn more about how to prepare fortests, how to create a plan of attack for taking atest, the characteristics of different types of testsand test items, and how to reason through to ananswer. Often, students’ performance on a testis not an accurate indicator of what they havelearned. Knowing about test-taking and test-preparation strategies and how to use them helpsstudents target their study activities, set up use-ful study goals, implement an effective studyplan, and demonstrate their knowledge and skillacquisition so it can be accurately evaluated.


Sample Items:

I have difficulty adapting my studying to differ-ent types of courses.

I review my answers on essay tests to make sureI have made and supported my main points.

TIME MANAGEMENT

Managing time effectively is an important self-regulation strategy for learning. Most studentshave various demands on their time; only bycreating realistic schedules and using them canthey fit in everything. Creating and using sched-ules also encourages students to take more re-sponsibility for their own behavior. It requiressome knowledge about themselves as studentsand learners. What are their best and worsttimes of day? Which subjects are easier or harderfor them? What are their preferences for learn-ing methods? This type of knowledge and selfawareness helps students to create workableschedules, and perhaps even more important, ithelps students to create the motivation to usethem.

Students’ scores on this scale measure the de-gree to which they create and use schedules.Students who score low on this scale may needto learn about how to create a schedule and howto deal with distractions, competing goals, andprocrastination. Accepting more responsibilityfor studying and achievement outcomes requiresthat students set realistic school goals and cre-ate plans that will facilitate goal achievement.Effective time management enhances these ac-tivities.


Sample Items:

I find it hard to stick to a study schedule.

I set aside more time to study the subjects thatare difficult for me.

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PART 4: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THELASSI, 1ST EDITION

The developmental work that led to the creationof the LASSI began twenty-two years ago as partof the Cognitive Learning Strategies Project atthe University of Texas at Austin. In responseto the increasing numbers of academically un-der-prepared students entering post-secondaryeducational and training settings, many institu-tions were creating programs to address studentdeficiencies. However, one of the major prob-lem areas in this field related to assessment. Thesuccessful implementation of a learning andstudy strategies course or program requires areliable and valid means for measuring students’deficits and progress. In addition, an accuratediagnosis of entry-level skills could be used tocreate individualized prescriptions for improve-ment and subsequent assessments as well as toprovide a basis for evaluating the effectivenessof the course or program.

EARLY DEVELOPMENTALACTIVITIES

The first few years of work focused on data gath-ering. In addition, an analysis was made of ex-isting published and experimental instrumentsand inventories. We found that the topics en-compassed by the terms “study skills” and“learning strategies” varied considerably amongresearchers, practitioners, and assessment mea-sures. Since there was no consensus concerningdefinitional components, the initial phases of thiswork involved an attempt to create a categoricalscheme. To assist in this work, we conducted asurvey project to examine the contents of studyskills books, manuals, and programs. Input wasalso gathered from a series of experts in the area.

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ITEMPOOL

Using the data gathered in the first series ofstudies, an initial item pool was created. Thispool of 645 items was drawn from all of thesources used in the early developmental stage.Using a tentative categorical scheme that wasdeveloped, expert judges sorted the items.

During the process of sorting the items, two ma-jor problems were identified: first, many itemswere close duplicates; and second, a number ofitems fit into more than one category (e.g., timemanagement as a test-taking strategy). The firstproblem was resolved by eliminating duplicateitems and the second was left to be addressedafter the initial pilot tests when the categoricalscheme could be revised based on both the de-scriptive and correlational data collected. In ad-dition, items that did not directly deal with studypractices (e.g., items about personality charac-teristics) and items whose content concerned anaspect of behavior or experience that could notbe altered and, therefore, could not be a targetfor remediation (e.g., “My parents read to me asa child.”) were eliminated. Specialists in testsand measurements rewrote items that were con-fusing, compound items (those containing morethan one question or statement in the same item),and poorly worded items.

As a result of these selection processes, the poolof potential items was reduced to 291. Althoughthe LASSI currently uses a Likert-type scale,these initial pilot items were converted to a true-false format. Approximately half of the itemswere worded positively and half were wordednegatively.

15

PILOT TESTING

A preliminary pilot test was conducted to evalu-ate the administration procedures and to begincollecting psychometric data about the items.Different groups of students completed approxi-mately one third of the items (to reduce the bur-den of testing for any one individual), a mea-sure of social desirability and a questionnaireabout the items and administration procedures.A subset of this population was also interviewed.

The measure of social desirability was used todetermine the degree of relationship betweenresponses to individual items and the subject’sdesire to be socially acceptable. This responsebias can be a major problem for self-report in-struments. The post-experimental questionnairewas used to gather information from the stu-dents about perceived difficulties, problem ques-tions, and suggested modifications and improve-ments.

Based on an analysis of this data set and itsrelation to other student data such as ScholasticAptitude Test scores, grade-point average, andhigh school rank, a number of changes weremade. First, the format was changed to a Likert-type measure. Second, wording and phrasingchanges were made on a number of items. Fi-nally, items correlating above .50 with the mea-sure of social desirability were eliminated. Inaddition, confusing or unclear items were re-written or eliminated.

In addition to eliminating items from the poten-tial pool, a number of new items were added.The sources of these new items included: a sur-vey of current research literature in cognitivepsychology, responses from students on the post-experimental questionnaire, suggestions frompractitioners, and student responses on theLearning Activities Questionnaire, a precursorof the LASSI developed as part of the project.

Two content matter specialists and two psycho-metricians then examined this new pool of itemsindependently. A revised set of 14 categoriescontaining at least 7 items for each category wascreated. This version of the LASSI had 149 items.

A second pilot test was conducted to evaluatethe administration procedures and to examinethe properties of the items on the revised instru-ment. The descriptive data collected and thestudent comments made during the feedbackportion of the administration sessions were usedto establish criteria for selecting items for thefield test version of the LASSI. This version ofthe LASSI had 130 items. In addition, a prelimi-nary study of test-retest reliability (with a 3- to4-week interval) was conducted. A test-retestcorrelation of .88 was computed for the totalinstrument.

SCALE CONSTRUCTION

A series of field tests was conducted over a 2-year period. During this period the number ofitems was reduced from 130 to 90, and 10 scalesmeasuring clusters of learning strategies, studyskills, attitudes and beliefs were developed.These clusters were identified by groups of ex-perts and refined using psychometric data, suchas Coefficient Alpha, for each potential scale. Inaddition, preliminary norms were developed us-ing the Fall 1982 incoming freshman class at asmall private college in the eastern United States(with a representative student body). A total of850 students participated, with complete dataavailable for 780 students.

The scales were refined and thirty new itemswere created and added prior to another large-scale field test in 1984. Item analysis data wereused to create the 77-item form of the LASSI.Norms were developed using a sample of 880incoming freshman from a large southern uni-versity. Test-retest correlations (3-week inter-vals) were computed on a sample of 209 stu-dents from an introductory course in communi-cations at the same school.

A number of different approaches were used toexamine the validity of the LASSI. First, thescale scores were compared, where possible, toother tests or subscales measuring similar fac-tors. Second, several of the scales were vali-dated against performance measures. Finally,the LASSI was subjected to repeated tests of user

16

validity. Professors, advisors, developmentaleducators, counselors, and learning center spe-cialists at more than 30 colleges and universitiesused the LASSI on a trial basis. They reportedfew, if any, administration problems and a highdegree of usefulness in their settings.

We have also examined the usefulness of theLASSI as part of our own work on the CognitiveLearning Strategies Project. It has been usedrepeatedly in an undergraduate course in learn-ing-to-learn that is a part of our real-world labo-

ratory. This course is designed to help academi-cally underprepared and educationally disadvan-taged students who are either experiencing, orare predicted to experience, academic problemswhile attending college. Approximately 1,000students per year enroll. This 3-credit electivecourse is taught in sections of about 30 each.The LASSI has been used to help diagnose indi-vidual student problems, to direct bothremediation and enrichment activities, and toevaluate student progress and course compo-nents.

PART 5: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THELASSI, 2nd EDITION

The developmental work that led to the creationof the LASSI, 2nd Edition began 5 years ago aspart of the Cognitive Learning Strategies Projectat the University of Texas at Austin. The LASSI,2nd Edition was developed to:

1. Update the LASSI and remove dated items,such as Item #72, “Often when studying Iseem to get lost in details and ‘can’t see theforest for the trees’.” The expression, “…can’t see the forest for the trees,” was com-monly used in the 1980’s when the LASSIwas developed but is no longer familiar tomany college students.

2. Incorporate current research findings in theareas of cognitive educational psychology,developmental education, higher education,instructional psychology and the psychol-ogy of learning. For example, a greater em-phasis was placed on the metacognitive con-cepts of awareness, reflection and self-regu-lation.

3. Incorporate changes in educational practiceand instruction in higher education. Forexample, the Study Aids scale was updatedto reflect students’ use of Web sites associ-ated with their textbooks or courses.

4. Broaden the scope of some of the scales toincrease the degree to which they samplethe underlying domains. For example, theConcentration Scale samples more broadlyfrom the domain of academic tasks requiredof a college student.

5. Create equal numbers of items for eachscale. The Selecting Main Ideas Scale onthe original LASSI contained only five items.Now all of the scales contain eight items.

6. Improve further the psychometric proper-ties of the LASSI. For example, the lowestCoefficient Alpha for any scale on the LASSI,2nd Edition, is now .73, and all but two scalesare above .80.

7. Create national norms based on a morebroad-based sample. The sample wasdrawn from twelve different institutionsrepresenting different geographical regionsas well as university, community college,state college and technical institutions.

17

EARLY DEVELOPMENTALACTIVITIES

The initial task in this project consisted of a se-ries of interviews with professionals in both de-velopmental education and educational psychol-ogy who either worked with or conducted re-search about students who were at-risk, or pre-dicted to be at-risk, of academic failure or lowperformance in higher education settings,broadly defined. The data from these interviewshelped us to identify criteria for the improve-ment of the LASSI, 1st Edition. In addition, feed-back was also solicited from educational psy-chometricians with expertise in diagnostic/pre-scriptive assessments. Finally, a review of rel-evant research, related textbooks, and otherlearning assistance materials and Web sites wasalso conducted.

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ITEMPOOL

Using the data gathered during the early devel-opment activities, an initial item pool was cre-ated. This initial pool of 134 items consisted of77 items drawn from the 1st edition of the LASSIand 57 items created for the 2nd edition to ad-dress the seven developmental goals listed abovein the introduction to this section. This pool ofitems was then examined by a team of develop-mental educators and educational psychologists,and, as a result of their input, a number of modi-fications were made: the wording of some ofthe items was changed, several items were de-leted and new items were created to replace thediscarded ones. After a second review, the itemswere randomly sorted to create a pilot test ver-sion of the instrument.

PILOT TESTING

The pilot test was administered to 2,400 enter-ing students at a major university in the south-western part of the United States. Students’Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, if avail-able, were also collected at this time. Achieve-

ment data were collected from these students inboth the fall and spring semesters of 1998 and1999. Based on an analysis of the students’ LASSIitem pool data set and its psychometric proper-ties (including item/scale characteristics) and re-lation to other student data such as their SATscores, grade-point averages, and high schoolrank, a number of changes were made. For ex-ample, some items were eliminated, some weremodified, and work began on the developmentof additional items to strengthen further the scaledefinitions and psychometric properties.

A team of developmental educators, educationalpsychologists and educational psychometriciansexamined this new pool of 166 items (77 itemsfrom the LASSI, 1st Edition, 29 items from thepilot test version of the LASSI, 2nd Edition, and60 new items written for the field test of theLASSI, 2nd Edition). After relatively minor word-ing revisions, a series of pilot tests were con-ducted with five groups of college students toexamine the item characteristics and interpreta-tion by students. This student feedback was thefinal step in preparing for the broad-based fieldtest and norm development.

FIELD TESTING AND NORMDEVELOPMENT

The field test and norming version of the LASSI,2nd Edition contained extra items for each scale(only 80 of the 166 items field tested were neededfor the final instrument. The field test/normingversion was administered to 1,092 students fromtwelve different institutions representing differ-ent geographical regions as well as university,community college, state college and technicalinstitutions. See Appendix A, Table 1 for a sum-mary of the sample size by institution break-down. See Appendix A, Tables 2-13 for break-downs of the sample according to age, ethnicity,gender, and GPA, as well as the breakdownsacross these categories.

Balancing both conceptual and psychometricanalyses, ten scales of eight items each were de-veloped using those items that best representedthe breadth and depth of the conception under-

18

Appendix A: Descriptions of the Field Test and Norming Sample (Tables 1-13)

Table 1Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleSample Size by Type of Institution

Number of Number ofSchools Students

University 3 201Community College 5 495State College 3 348Technical Institute 1 48

Total 12 1,092

Table 2Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleGPA by Gender

GPA Male Female Total

Below 2.0 6 20 262.0 - 2.5 70 76 1462.5 - 3.0 120 182 3023.0 - 3.5 131 260 3913.5 - 4.0 50 177 227

Total 377 715 1,092

Table 3Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleEthnicity by Gender

Ethnicity Male Female Total

White, non-Hispanic 235 474 709African-American 58 95 153Hispanic 54 95 149Asian or Pacific Islander 7 9 16Other 23 42 65

Grand Total 377 715 1,092

lying each scale and that provided the strongestpsychometric properties for the scale. Summa-ries of the item statistics for each of the LASSI,2nd Edition scales can be found in Appendix B,Tables 14-23. Appendix C, Table 24 presentsscale statistics (mean, standard deviation and

Coefficient Alpha) for each of the 10 scales. Ap-pendix D, Table 25 lists the inter-scale correla-tions for all scales and Appendix E, Table 26contains a listing of the norms for the LASSI, 2nd

Edition.

19

Table 4Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleAge by Gender

Age Male Female Total

17 or younger 32 52 8418-19 225 403 62820-21 45 56 10122-23 16 37 5324-25 12 31 4326 or older 47 136 183

Total 377 715 1,092

Table 5Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleEthnicity by Age

Ethnicity 17 or 18-19 20-21 22-23 24-25 26 or Totalyounger older

White, non-Hispanic 49 394 67 38 32 129 709African-American 14 83 13 6 6 31 153Hispanic 11 110 13 4 1 10 149Asian or Pacific Islander 1 9 2 1 2 1 16Other 9 32 6 4 2 12 65

Total 84 628 101 53 43 183 1,092

Table 6Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleEthnicity by GPA

Ethnicity Below 2.0 2.0 - 2.5 2.5 - 3.0 3.0 - 3.5 3.5 - 4.0 Total

White, non-Hispanic 15 75 167 264 188 709African-American 7 40 63 36 7 153Hispanic 1 21 45 62 20 149Asian or Pacific Islander 1 2 4 6 3 16Other 2 8 23 23 9 65

Total 146 302 391 227 26 1,092

20

Table 7Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleGPA by Age


Below 2.0 1 9 5 2 5 4 262.0 - 2.5 7 80 22 13 8 16 1462.5 - 3.0 26 177 27 16 8 48 3023.0 - 3.5 35 237 32 16 9 62 3913.5 - 4.0 15 125 15 6 13 53 227

Grand Total 84 628 101 53 43 183 1,092

Table 8Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleEthnicity by GPA — Males

Ethnicity Below 2.0 2.0 - 2.5 2.5 - 3.0 3.0 - 3.5 3.5 - 4.0 Total


Total 6 70 120 131 50 377

Table 9Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleEthnicity by GPA — Females

GPA Below 2.0 2.0 - 2.5 2.5 - 3.0 3.0 - 3.5 3.5 - 4.0 Total


Total 20 76 182 260 177 715

21

Table 10Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleAge by GPA — Males

Age Below 2.0 2.0 - 2.5 2.5 - 3.0 3.0 - 3.5 3.5 - 4.0 Total

17 or younger 0 4 10 14 4 3218-19 2 43 78 73 29 22520-21 2 10 13 17 3 4522-23 1 6 6 3 0 1624-25 1 3 2 2 4 1226 or older 0 4 11 22 10 47

Total 6 70 120 131 50 377

Table 11Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleAge by GPA — Females

Age Below 2.0 2.0 - 2.5 2.5 - 3.0 3.0 - 3.5 3.5 - 4.0 Total

17 or younger 1 3 16 21 11 5218-19 7 37 99 164 96 40320-21 3 12 14 15 12 5622-23 1 7 10 13 6 3724-25 4 5 6 7 9 3126 or older 4 12 37 40 43 136

Total 20 76 182 260 177 715

Table 12Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleEthnicity by Age — Males



Total 32 225 45 16 12 47 377

22

Table 13Demographics of the LASSI Norming SampleEthnicity by Age — Females



Total 52 403 56 37 31 136 715

Appendix B: Summaries of the Item Statistics for Each LASSI, 2nd EditionScale (Tables 14-23)

Table 14Item Statistics for the Anxiety Scale

CoefficientItem-Total r Alpha

Standard Excluding ExcludingItem Number Item Mean Deviation Item-Total r This Item This Item

29 2.630 1.238 0.668 0.550 0.86235 3.006 1.237 0.836 0.769 0.83743 3.073 1.219 0.785 0.701 0.84546 3.881 1.255 0.631 0.503 0.86761 2.810 1.252 0.724 0.619 0.85469 3.381 1.119 0.794 0.722 0.84472 3.208 1.156 0.589 0.463 0.87078 3.531 1.136 0.764 0.682 0.848

23

Table 15Item Statistics for the Attitude Scale



6 3.220 0.962 0.487 0.289 0.78117 4.120 0.853 0.641 0.499 0.74236 4.229 0.901 0.660 0.514 0.73941 4.396 0.909 0.690 0.551 0.73248 4.287 0.916 0.629 0.472 0.74751 3.897 0.886 0.685 0.550 0.73370 4.773 0.655 0.527 0.403 0.75876 4.494 0.806 0.656 0.527 0.738

Table 16Item Statistics for the Concentration Scale



1 3.169 1.003 0.701 0.600 0.8478 3.804 0.908 0.679 0.584 0.84916 3.346 1.041 0.737 0.640 0.84332 2.803 1.172 0.773 0.674 0.83949 3.531 1.087 0.718 0.610 0.84655 3.130 1.149 0.793 0.703 0.83567 3.556 1.035 0.764 0.676 0.83975 3.633 0.999 0.536 0.402 0.868

Table 17Item Statistics for the Information Processing Scale



3 3.573 1.047 0.666 0.542 0.81911 3.115 0.982 0.694 0.585 0.81315 3.629 0.988 0.650 0.530 0.82023 3.431 0.988 0.795 0.715 0.79727 3.565 0.976 0.700 0.594 0.81244 3.140 1.082 0.735 0.626 0.80750 3.322 1.073 0.757 0.655 0.80358 3.472 1.155 0.487 0.308 0.852

24

Table 18Item Statistics for the Motivation Scale



14 4.030 1.029 0.744 0.636 0.81122 3.786 0.951 0.563 0.422 0.83830 3.787 0.947 0.710 0.603 0.81639 3.869 0.913 0.705 0.601 0.81742 3.913 1.027 0.685 0.560 0.82256 4.075 0.944 0.774 0.686 0.80665 4.169 0.858 0.611 0.494 0.82980 3.557 1.066 0.695 0.567 0.821

Table 19Item Statistics for the Self Testing Scale



9 3.341 1.079 0.659 0.541 0.82918 2.924 1.110 0.714 0.606 0.82125 3.048 1.137 0.747 0.646 0.81633 3.311 1.107 0.550 0.406 0.84637 3.071 1.111 0.696 0.583 0.82447 3.121 1.098 0.732 0.630 0.81860 2.763 1.165 0.718 0.605 0.82174 2.952 1.101 0.707 0.599 0.822

Table 20Item Statistics for the Selecting Main Ideas Scale



10 3.497 1.178 0.751 0.645 0.87521 3.437 1.054 0.801 0.725 0.86524 3.536 1.010 0.727 0.633 0.87553 3.539 0.974 0.774 0.696 0.86957 3.487 1.079 0.792 0.709 0.86764 3.665 0.936 0.611 0.500 0.88768 3.421 0.958 0.768 0.690 0.86973 3.473 0.958 0.753 0.671 0.871

25

Table 21Item Statistics for the Study Aids Scale



12 3.601 1.050 0.506 0.345 0.72120 2.788 1.288 0.526 0.328 0.72834 2.713 1.258 0.622 0.451 0.70140 3.033 1.205 0.651 0.497 0.69254 3.481 1.119 0.516 0.345 0.72266 3.605 1.124 0.618 0.468 0.69971 2.595 1.154 0.633 0.482 0.69677 3.439 1.192 0.653 0.501 0.691

Table 22Item Statistics for the Time Management Scale



4 3.053 1.136 0.753 0.657 0.8287 2.882 1.170 0.602 0.462 0.85113 2.957 1.261 0.795 0.700 0.82128 3.040 1.173 0.807 0.724 0.81931 3.126 1.083 0.698 0.592 0.83659 3.992 0.989 0.627 0.516 0.84462 3.737 1.002 0.557 0.433 0.85379 3.290 1.132 0.755 0.660 0.827

Table 23Item Statistics for the Test Strategies Scale



2 3.725 1.060 0.648 0.500 0.7835 3.501 1.022 0.692 0.562 0.77319 4.047 0.887 0.596 0.464 0.78726 3.534 0.865 0.656 0.541 0.77738 3.481 0.938 0.737 0.632 0.76345 3.539 0.940 0.718 0.608 0.76652 3.619 1.091 0.505 0.319 0.81263 3.684 1.022 0.662 0.524 0.779

26

Appendix C: Individual Scale Statistics (Table 24)

Table 24Scale Statistics for the Final Version of Each Scale

Scale Standard CoefficientScale Name Mean Deviation Alpha

Anxiety 25.52 6.95 .87Attitude 33.41 4.29 .77Concentration 26.97 6.01 .86Information Processing 27.25 5.66 .84Motivation 31.19 5.32 .84Self Testing 24.53 6.15 .84Selecting Main Ideas 28.06 6.10 .89Study Aids 25.25 5.56 .73Time Management 26.08 6.30 .85Test Strategies 29.13 5.08 .80

27

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LASSILearning andStudy Strategies Inventory2nd Edition

© 2002 H&H Publishing Company, Inc.

User’s Manual

This User’s Manual includes a history of the instrument’s development, a completedescription of the ten scales included in the LASSI, 2nd Edition, a section on administrationand scoring, results of pilot and field testing, scale statistics, norms, and the processes usedin scale construction. In addition, it contains information to help create individualprescriptions for enhancing students’ skills.

Ordering Information

Volume discounts are available. Complete information on ordering LASSI,2nd Edition is available from:

H&H Publishing Company, Inc.1231 Kapp DriveClearwater, FL 33765-2116(800) 366-4079 (727) 442-7760FAX (727) 442-2195E-Mail [email protected] www.hhpublishing.com

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