Language Shift Towards Bahasa

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LANGUAGE SHIFT TOWARDS BAHASA

MALAYSIA AND ENGLISH AMONG THE

MALAYSIAN BANJARESE: A CASE

STUDY

BY

NADHRATUNNAIM BINTI ABAS

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

MALAYSIA

MARCH 2005


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LANGUAGE SHIFT TOWARDS BAHASA

MALAYSIA AND ENGLISH AMONG THE

MALAYSIAN BANJARESE: A CASE STUDY

BY

NADHRATUNNAIM BINTI ABAS

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF HUMAN SCIENCES IN ENGLISH AS A

SECOND LANGUAGE

KULLIYYAH OF ISLAMIC REVEALEDKNOWLEDGE AND HUMAN SCIENCES

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

MALAYSIA

MARCH 2005


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ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS

The present case study hypothesized that there existed language shift from

Banjari towards the first and second socially and economically most important

languages in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia and English as the product of the ethnic and

linguistic assimilation introduced by the Malaysian government. To ensure that the

national unity was achieved, all Malaysian-born ethnic minorities of Indonesian-origin

(Banjarese being one of them) were assimilated into one major ethnic group, namely

the Malays, and sharing one language, Bahasa Malaysia. Language shift most

commonly involves the change in the habitual language use of the ethnic minority

such as the more frequent use of the dominant languages than the minority language.

Through three phases of data collection using three major research instruments

(questionnaire, interview and observation), the present study examines some factors,

namely the socio-demographic and sociolinguistic factors which have influenced the

shift. The first and second phases of data collection involved a set of questionnaire

and interviews with ninety Banjarese research participants in four states in the

Peninsular Malaysia, Johor, Pahang, Perak and Selangor. The third phase of this study


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involved a series of non-participant observation involving four households in both

urban and rural areas of Pahang and Perak.

The findings have indicated that language shift from Banjari is taking place in

the Malaysian Banjarese community. It is influenced by the socio-demographic

factors of the participants (age and generation, gender, level of profession, housing

area and housing type) and their interrelation with the sociolinguistic factors of the

participants (knowledge of language/s, language proficiency, language use, language

choice, language difficulties, code-switching and language attitudes).


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APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms

to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and

quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in English as a Second

Language.

___________________________Nora bt. Mohd Nasir

Examiner

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms

to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and

quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in English as a Second

Language.

____________________________

Haja Mohideen b. Mohd Ali

Supervisor

The thesis was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature and is

accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Human

Sciences in English as a Second Language.

_____________________________

Umar Abdurrahman

Head. Department of English

Language and Literature

The thesis was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature and is

accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Human

Sciences in English as a Second Language.

______________________________


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Mohamad@Md. Som Sujimon

Dean. Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed

Knowledge and Human Sciences


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INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF

FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright 2005 by Nadhratunnaim binti Abas. All rights reserved.

Language Shift Towards Bahasa Malaysia and English Among the Malaysian

Banjarese: A Case Study.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise without the prior written transmission of the copyright holder

except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only

be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or

electronic) for institutional and academic purposes

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and

supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universitiesand research libraries.


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Affirmed by Nadhratunnaim binti Abas

March 2005

Signature Date


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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where

otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit

references and a bibliography is appended.

Name Nadhratunnaim binti Abas

Signature Date: March 2005


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To my parents, Hj. Abas and Hjh. Latifah, the last generation Banjarese in my family

who continue to use Banjari as their first language


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Haja Mohideen, to whom I owe an immeasurable debt. He has been offering

innumerable assistance and constructive criticism which help made the writing of this

thesis better and more presentable.

I would like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Subramaniam Govindasamy, whose

inspiration and insights on the scope of this research had made me pursue this topic of

research. To Assist. Prof. Dr. Adrian E. Hare and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Normala, thank you

for supporting me in pursuing this area as my research topic.

I am also grateful to all the Banjarese representatives who have offered

generous assistance to me while conducting this research in their places. This is

especially to Tn. Hj. Said and Puan Hjh. Fatonah (Batu Pahat), En. Najib (Shah

Alam), Tn. Hj. Zulkefli (Kuantan), Tn. Hj. Hamidin (Keratong), Tn. Hj. Johari and

Tn. Hj. Redzuan (Kluang), Tn. Hj. Abd. Jalil (Sg. Besar) and Tn. Hj. Jamaluddin

(Bagan Serai).

Words cannot adequately express my gratitude to those who have been helping

me throughout the completion of this thesis. Initially, I am indebted to both of my


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parents, especially to my mother who had accompanied me in each stage of this

research.

Finally, to all the research participants, I am grateful for their kindness and

cooperation while involving in this research. Without them, this research would never

have been successful.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract . ii

Approval page . iii

Declaration . iv

Acknowledgements vii

List of Tables and Figures viii

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION .. 1

1.1Introduction 11.1.1 The Migration of Banjarese to Peninsular 1

Malaysia

1.2 Statement of the Problem 3

1.1.2.1 Ethnic and Linguistic Assimilation 3

1.2.2 The Status and Role of Bahasa Malaysia.. 4

and English in Malaysia

1.3 Purpose of the Study.... 7

1.4 Objectives of the Research.. 71.5 Research Questions. 8

1.6 Research Hypotheses.. 8

1.7 Significance of the Research.. 9

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW. 13

1.2.1 Background to Study

1.2.2 Theories and Perspectives on Language Shift 18

in Relation to the Present Study

1.2.3 Socio-demographic and Sociolinguistic Factors.. 24

and Language Shift

1.2.4 Theoretical Framework for Language Shift. 29

CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH 31

3.1 Population. 31

3.2 Sample.. 32

3.3 Sampling Procedure. 35


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3.4 Research Design.. 37

3.5 Instrumentation 40

3.5.1 Questionnaire. 40

3.5.2 Interview 42

3.5.3 Observation 43

3.6 Data Analysis.. 46

CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .. 49

4.1 Language shift as influenced by socio-demographic.. 49

and sociolinguistic Factors4.1.1 Age and generation and sociolinguistic factors.. 50

4.1.2 Gender and sociolinguistic factors.. 62

4.1.3 Level of profession and sociolinguistic factors.. 71

4.1.4 Housing area and sociolinguistic factors 81

4.1.5 Housing type and sociolinguistic factors..... 89

4.2 Symptoms of language shift from Banjari towards.. 91

Bahasa Malaysia and English

4.3 Contributors to language shift according to generation... 94

4.4 Interrelation between the socio-demographic and... 95

sociolinguistic factors

CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION . 100

5.1 Summary and conclusion. 100

5.2 Suggestions for the maintenance of Banjari 109

5.3 Problems, Limitations and Areas for Future Research 112

5.4 Implications of the Present Study 114

BIBLIOGRAPHY 117

APPENDIX I 120

APPENDIX II .. 125APPENDIX III 127


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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page

3.1 Sample by generation and gender 35

3.2 Snowball sampling technique in the first and second stages 37

of research

3.3 Total number of sample by research settings and gender 37

3.4 Research instruments by states 47

4.1 First language by generation (fand %) 51-52

4.2 Languages used currently by generation (fand %) 53

4.3 Patterns of language use in three levels of interaction 53

by generation (%)

4.4 Intrafamilial language use across and within generation (f) 54-55

4.5 Intraethnic and interethnic language use by generation (f) 56

4.6 Most frequently used languages by generation (fand %) 57

4.7 Generalized patterns of language choice with family and 60

non-family members (f)

4.8 First language by gender (fand %) 63

4.9 Languages used currently by gender (fand %) 64

4.10 Patterns of language use in three levels of interaction by gender (%) 65


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4.11 Most frequently used languages by gender (fand %) 69-70

4.12 First language by profession (fand %) 72

4.13 Languages used currently by profession (fand %) 75

4.14 Patterns of language use in three levels of 76-77

interaction by profession (%)

4.15 Most frequently used languages by profession (fand %) 78

4.16 First language by housing area (fand %) 82

4.17 Languages used currently by housing area (fand %) 83

4.18 Patterns of language use in three levels of interaction (%) 84

4.19 Most frequently used languages by housing area (fand %) 874.20

Intrafamilial language use by housing type 90

4.21 Intraethnic language use in a wooden house (f) 914.22 Interethnic language use in a semi-detached house (f) 91


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page

1.1 Design of the study 7

2.1 Language shift by function and competence 16

on macro- and micro- levels

2.2 Schema representing the formation of attitudes 17

2.3 The four types of cognitive orientation theory beliefs 21

(italics) and the eight kinds of beliefs reflecting EV

defined in terms of their subjects and objects of reference

2.4 Theoretical framework for language shift 30

in the post-assimilation period


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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The present study examines language shift that has affected the Malaysian-

born Banjari-speaking minority, ethnically known as the Banjarese. The shift from

Banjari is believed to be heading towards two socially and economically most

dominant and influential languages in Malaysia Bahasa Malaysia and English. In a

melting pot culture like Malaysia, linguistic integration and ethnic assimilation of

these groups of immigrants is desirable. Linguistic assimilation, which involves the

promotion of Bahasa Malaysia and English as the first and second languages (L1 and

L2) by the government, aims to remove barriers in interracial communication.

Another attempt to achieve unity is through ethnic assimilation where all the

Malaysian-born of Indonesian origins are recognized as one major ethnic group

namely, the Malays. Consequently, both forms of assimilation might have forced the


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Banjarese to give up their ethnic language, Banjari and replace it with Bahasa

Malaysia and/or English.

Thus, aimed at understanding the current state of the use of Banjari in the post-

assimilation period, the present study investigates the extent of the language shift from

Banjari to Bahasa Malaysia and English as well as the socio-demographic and

sociolinguistic factors associated with it.

1.1.1 The Migration of the Banjarese to Peninsular Malaysia

Yustan (1990:506-513) has elaborated in detail on the history of the Banjarese.

Originated from Banjarmasin, Kalimantan, according to him, the name Banjarese

was derived from the name of Patih Masih or Oloh Masih, a Malay officer in the

Banjar Kingdom. Historically speaking, the Banjarese ethnicity was resulted from the

exogamous marriages of the major ethnic groups in Kalimantan, the Javanese and the

Malays. Occupying a wide area of South Kalimantan, they populated the cities with

direct or easy access to the oceans in East Kalimantan as well as in other cities in the

Centre of Kalimantan. Actively running the trading and seafaring business, Banjari

was once the socially and economically powerful language when it was used as the


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lingua franca of the people. Eventually, their lives prospered and developed in that

area, which was known as the Kingdom of Banjar or currently, Banjarmasin.

However, the Dutch colonialism in 1859 brought a major change on the

Banjarese. They were forced to be labourers and slaves in their own land. Unable to

endure the pressure from the Dutch colonialists, they migrated to other places

including Indragiri and Peninsular Malaya.

In Malaya (later Malaysia), their earliest settlement was in Semerah, Johor.

Also known as the river culture, the Banjarese settled in places where there was

good irrigation for agricultural purposes. In the past, most of them were peasants and

by involving in agricultural activities, most commonly paddy field, they populated the

rural areas. Nowadays, the Banjarese population is scattered in some Malaysian states

like Selangor, Perak, Pulau Pinang and Pahang. No longer restricted to the previous

rural life, the Banjarese nowadays are rapidly moving forward in the country together

with their fellow Malaysians.

Before the assimilation took place, there was an ethnic distinction between the

Malays and the Banjarese in which the ethnicity of the Banjarese was clearly written

on the birth certificate. However, in the post-assimilation period, all the Banjarese as

well as other ethnic minorities of Indonesian origin were assimilated into one major


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ethnic group the Malay which is currently the dominant group in Malaysia.

Furthermore, the Banjarese, who are now known as the Malays also do assimilate

linguistically when they speak the language of the dominant group, Bahasa Malaysia

more frequently than Banjari. This has greatly influenced language shift among this

group of immigrants, which the present study intends to look into.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The problem that had long encountered by the descendents of the immigrants

of Indonesian origin, the Malaysian Banjarese in particular, is, maintaining their

ethnic language, which is competing for existence with the more powerful languages

in the Malaysian society. What follows next are some issues that have strongly

motivated language shift from Banjari.

1.2.1 Ethnic and Linguistic Assimilation

The ethnic assimilation took place when the Malaysian Constitution and

population censuses taken after independence, considered the Banjarese, along with

other ethnic Malays, as bumiputra. This indicates that all ethnic Malays regardless of

their place of origin were regarded as a single group: Malay. For the sake of racial


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unity, the distinction as to whether a person from Indonesia was Javanese or Banjarese

no longer existed. This had inevitably assimilated the Banjarese into the language of

the Malays: Bahasa Malaysia. Although the Constitution did not prevent them from

speaking their own language other than for official purposes, there was no serious

attempt by the government to incorporate these minority languages. As a result, it

appears that the Banjarese had to adapt to the environment of the host country in order

to achieve social and economic stability by assimilating into the Malay culture and

becoming unilingual Malays.

1.2.2 The Status and Role of Bahasa Malaysia and English in Malaysia

The National Language Policy had placed Bahasa Malaysia as the national

language and second to it is English, the official language. Both are what Asmah

(1994) called the primary languages. Their influence was defined by the wider

geographical distributions and used by the various communities, allocation of their

uses in the language planning such as the national language and official language, and

their uses in the administration.

Being the first most important language, proficiency in Bahasa Malaysia is

required of every Malaysian citizen and for the children in schools to earn at least a

Language Shift Towards Bahasa

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