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LANGUAGE SHIFT TOWARDS BAHASA
MALAYSIA AND ENGLISH AMONG THE
MALAYSIAN BANJARESE: A CASE
STUDY
BY
NADHRATUNNAIM BINTI ABAS
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
MALAYSIA
MARCH 2005
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LANGUAGE SHIFT TOWARDS BAHASA
MALAYSIA AND ENGLISH AMONG THE
MALAYSIAN BANJARESE: A CASE STUDY
BY
NADHRATUNNAIM BINTI ABAS
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF HUMAN SCIENCES IN ENGLISH AS A
SECOND LANGUAGE
KULLIYYAH OF ISLAMIC REVEALEDKNOWLEDGE AND HUMAN SCIENCES
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
MALAYSIA
MARCH 2005
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ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS
The present case study hypothesized that there existed language shift from
Banjari towards the first and second socially and economically most important
languages in Malaysia, Bahasa Malaysia and English as the product of the ethnic and
linguistic assimilation introduced by the Malaysian government. To ensure that the
national unity was achieved, all Malaysian-born ethnic minorities of Indonesian-origin
(Banjarese being one of them) were assimilated into one major ethnic group, namely
the Malays, and sharing one language, Bahasa Malaysia. Language shift most
commonly involves the change in the habitual language use of the ethnic minority
such as the more frequent use of the dominant languages than the minority language.
Through three phases of data collection using three major research instruments
(questionnaire, interview and observation), the present study examines some factors,
namely the socio-demographic and sociolinguistic factors which have influenced the
shift. The first and second phases of data collection involved a set of questionnaire
and interviews with ninety Banjarese research participants in four states in the
Peninsular Malaysia, Johor, Pahang, Perak and Selangor. The third phase of this study
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involved a series of non-participant observation involving four households in both
urban and rural areas of Pahang and Perak.
The findings have indicated that language shift from Banjari is taking place in
the Malaysian Banjarese community. It is influenced by the socio-demographic
factors of the participants (age and generation, gender, level of profession, housing
area and housing type) and their interrelation with the sociolinguistic factors of the
participants (knowledge of language/s, language proficiency, language use, language
choice, language difficulties, code-switching and language attitudes).
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APPROVAL PAGE
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in English as a Second
Language.
___________________________Nora bt. Mohd Nasir
Examiner
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms
to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and
quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Human Sciences in English as a Second
Language.
____________________________
Haja Mohideen b. Mohd Ali
Supervisor
The thesis was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature and is
accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Human
Sciences in English as a Second Language.
_____________________________
Umar Abdurrahman
Head. Department of English
Language and Literature
The thesis was submitted to the Department of English Language and Literature and is
accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Human
Sciences in English as a Second Language.
______________________________
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Mohamad@Md. Som Sujimon
Dean. Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed
Knowledge and Human Sciences
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INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF
FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
Copyright 2005 by Nadhratunnaim binti Abas. All rights reserved.
Language Shift Towards Bahasa Malaysia and English Among the Malaysian
Banjarese: A Case Study.
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior written transmission of the copyright holder
except as provided below.
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only
be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or
electronic) for institutional and academic purposes
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and
supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universitiesand research libraries.
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Affirmed by Nadhratunnaim binti Abas
March 2005
Signature Date
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where
otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit
references and a bibliography is appended.
Name Nadhratunnaim binti Abas
Signature Date: March 2005
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To my parents, Hj. Abas and Hjh. Latifah, the last generation Banjarese in my family
who continue to use Banjari as their first language
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Haja Mohideen, to whom I owe an immeasurable debt. He has been offering
innumerable assistance and constructive criticism which help made the writing of this
thesis better and more presentable.
I would like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Subramaniam Govindasamy, whose
inspiration and insights on the scope of this research had made me pursue this topic of
research. To Assist. Prof. Dr. Adrian E. Hare and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Normala, thank you
for supporting me in pursuing this area as my research topic.
I am also grateful to all the Banjarese representatives who have offered
generous assistance to me while conducting this research in their places. This is
especially to Tn. Hj. Said and Puan Hjh. Fatonah (Batu Pahat), En. Najib (Shah
Alam), Tn. Hj. Zulkefli (Kuantan), Tn. Hj. Hamidin (Keratong), Tn. Hj. Johari and
Tn. Hj. Redzuan (Kluang), Tn. Hj. Abd. Jalil (Sg. Besar) and Tn. Hj. Jamaluddin
(Bagan Serai).
Words cannot adequately express my gratitude to those who have been helping
me throughout the completion of this thesis. Initially, I am indebted to both of my
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parents, especially to my mother who had accompanied me in each stage of this
research.
Finally, to all the research participants, I am grateful for their kindness and
cooperation while involving in this research. Without them, this research would never
have been successful.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract . ii
Approval page . iii
Declaration . iv
Acknowledgements vii
List of Tables and Figures viii
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION .. 1
1.1Introduction 11.1.1 The Migration of Banjarese to Peninsular 1
Malaysia
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
1.1.2.1 Ethnic and Linguistic Assimilation 3
1.2.2 The Status and Role of Bahasa Malaysia.. 4
and English in Malaysia
1.3 Purpose of the Study.... 7
1.4 Objectives of the Research.. 71.5 Research Questions. 8
1.6 Research Hypotheses.. 8
1.7 Significance of the Research.. 9
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW. 13
1.2.1 Background to Study
1.2.2 Theories and Perspectives on Language Shift 18
in Relation to the Present Study
1.2.3 Socio-demographic and Sociolinguistic Factors.. 24
and Language Shift
1.2.4 Theoretical Framework for Language Shift. 29
CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH 31
3.1 Population. 31
3.2 Sample.. 32
3.3 Sampling Procedure. 35
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3.4 Research Design.. 37
3.5 Instrumentation 40
3.5.1 Questionnaire. 40
3.5.2 Interview 42
3.5.3 Observation 43
3.6 Data Analysis.. 46
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .. 49
4.1 Language shift as influenced by socio-demographic.. 49
and sociolinguistic Factors4.1.1 Age and generation and sociolinguistic factors.. 50
4.1.2 Gender and sociolinguistic factors.. 62
4.1.3 Level of profession and sociolinguistic factors.. 71
4.1.4 Housing area and sociolinguistic factors 81
4.1.5 Housing type and sociolinguistic factors..... 89
4.2 Symptoms of language shift from Banjari towards.. 91
Bahasa Malaysia and English
4.3 Contributors to language shift according to generation... 94
4.4 Interrelation between the socio-demographic and... 95
sociolinguistic factors
CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION . 100
5.1 Summary and conclusion. 100
5.2 Suggestions for the maintenance of Banjari 109
5.3 Problems, Limitations and Areas for Future Research 112
5.4 Implications of the Present Study 114
BIBLIOGRAPHY 117
APPENDIX I 120
APPENDIX II .. 125APPENDIX III 127
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LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page
3.1 Sample by generation and gender 35
3.2 Snowball sampling technique in the first and second stages 37
of research
3.3 Total number of sample by research settings and gender 37
3.4 Research instruments by states 47
4.1 First language by generation (fand %) 51-52
4.2 Languages used currently by generation (fand %) 53
4.3 Patterns of language use in three levels of interaction 53
by generation (%)
4.4 Intrafamilial language use across and within generation (f) 54-55
4.5 Intraethnic and interethnic language use by generation (f) 56
4.6 Most frequently used languages by generation (fand %) 57
4.7 Generalized patterns of language choice with family and 60
non-family members (f)
4.8 First language by gender (fand %) 63
4.9 Languages used currently by gender (fand %) 64
4.10 Patterns of language use in three levels of interaction by gender (%) 65
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4.11 Most frequently used languages by gender (fand %) 69-70
4.12 First language by profession (fand %) 72
4.13 Languages used currently by profession (fand %) 75
4.14 Patterns of language use in three levels of 76-77
interaction by profession (%)
4.15 Most frequently used languages by profession (fand %) 78
4.16 First language by housing area (fand %) 82
4.17 Languages used currently by housing area (fand %) 83
4.18 Patterns of language use in three levels of interaction (%) 84
4.19 Most frequently used languages by housing area (fand %) 874.20
Intrafamilial language use by housing type 90
4.21 Intraethnic language use in a wooden house (f) 914.22 Interethnic language use in a semi-detached house (f) 91
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Page
1.1 Design of the study 7
2.1 Language shift by function and competence 16
on macro- and micro- levels
2.2 Schema representing the formation of attitudes 17
2.3 The four types of cognitive orientation theory beliefs 21
(italics) and the eight kinds of beliefs reflecting EV
defined in terms of their subjects and objects of reference
2.4 Theoretical framework for language shift 30
in the post-assimilation period
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The present study examines language shift that has affected the Malaysian-
born Banjari-speaking minority, ethnically known as the Banjarese. The shift from
Banjari is believed to be heading towards two socially and economically most
dominant and influential languages in Malaysia Bahasa Malaysia and English. In a
melting pot culture like Malaysia, linguistic integration and ethnic assimilation of
these groups of immigrants is desirable. Linguistic assimilation, which involves the
promotion of Bahasa Malaysia and English as the first and second languages (L1 and
L2) by the government, aims to remove barriers in interracial communication.
Another attempt to achieve unity is through ethnic assimilation where all the
Malaysian-born of Indonesian origins are recognized as one major ethnic group
namely, the Malays. Consequently, both forms of assimilation might have forced the
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Banjarese to give up their ethnic language, Banjari and replace it with Bahasa
Malaysia and/or English.
Thus, aimed at understanding the current state of the use of Banjari in the post-
assimilation period, the present study investigates the extent of the language shift from
Banjari to Bahasa Malaysia and English as well as the socio-demographic and
sociolinguistic factors associated with it.
1.1.1 The Migration of the Banjarese to Peninsular Malaysia
Yustan (1990:506-513) has elaborated in detail on the history of the Banjarese.
Originated from Banjarmasin, Kalimantan, according to him, the name Banjarese
was derived from the name of Patih Masih or Oloh Masih, a Malay officer in the
Banjar Kingdom. Historically speaking, the Banjarese ethnicity was resulted from the
exogamous marriages of the major ethnic groups in Kalimantan, the Javanese and the
Malays. Occupying a wide area of South Kalimantan, they populated the cities with
direct or easy access to the oceans in East Kalimantan as well as in other cities in the
Centre of Kalimantan. Actively running the trading and seafaring business, Banjari
was once the socially and economically powerful language when it was used as the
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lingua franca of the people. Eventually, their lives prospered and developed in that
area, which was known as the Kingdom of Banjar or currently, Banjarmasin.
However, the Dutch colonialism in 1859 brought a major change on the
Banjarese. They were forced to be labourers and slaves in their own land. Unable to
endure the pressure from the Dutch colonialists, they migrated to other places
including Indragiri and Peninsular Malaya.
In Malaya (later Malaysia), their earliest settlement was in Semerah, Johor.
Also known as the river culture, the Banjarese settled in places where there was
good irrigation for agricultural purposes. In the past, most of them were peasants and
by involving in agricultural activities, most commonly paddy field, they populated the
rural areas. Nowadays, the Banjarese population is scattered in some Malaysian states
like Selangor, Perak, Pulau Pinang and Pahang. No longer restricted to the previous
rural life, the Banjarese nowadays are rapidly moving forward in the country together
with their fellow Malaysians.
Before the assimilation took place, there was an ethnic distinction between the
Malays and the Banjarese in which the ethnicity of the Banjarese was clearly written
on the birth certificate. However, in the post-assimilation period, all the Banjarese as
well as other ethnic minorities of Indonesian origin were assimilated into one major
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ethnic group the Malay which is currently the dominant group in Malaysia.
Furthermore, the Banjarese, who are now known as the Malays also do assimilate
linguistically when they speak the language of the dominant group, Bahasa Malaysia
more frequently than Banjari. This has greatly influenced language shift among this
group of immigrants, which the present study intends to look into.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The problem that had long encountered by the descendents of the immigrants
of Indonesian origin, the Malaysian Banjarese in particular, is, maintaining their
ethnic language, which is competing for existence with the more powerful languages
in the Malaysian society. What follows next are some issues that have strongly
motivated language shift from Banjari.
1.2.1 Ethnic and Linguistic Assimilation
The ethnic assimilation took place when the Malaysian Constitution and
population censuses taken after independence, considered the Banjarese, along with
other ethnic Malays, as bumiputra. This indicates that all ethnic Malays regardless of
their place of origin were regarded as a single group: Malay. For the sake of racial
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unity, the distinction as to whether a person from Indonesia was Javanese or Banjarese
no longer existed. This had inevitably assimilated the Banjarese into the language of
the Malays: Bahasa Malaysia. Although the Constitution did not prevent them from
speaking their own language other than for official purposes, there was no serious
attempt by the government to incorporate these minority languages. As a result, it
appears that the Banjarese had to adapt to the environment of the host country in order
to achieve social and economic stability by assimilating into the Malay culture and
becoming unilingual Malays.
1.2.2 The Status and Role of Bahasa Malaysia and English in Malaysia
The National Language Policy had placed Bahasa Malaysia as the national
language and second to it is English, the official language. Both are what Asmah
(1994) called the primary languages. Their influence was defined by the wider
geographical distributions and used by the various communities, allocation of their
uses in the language planning such as the national language and official language, and
their uses in the administration.
Being the first most important language, proficiency in Bahasa Malaysia is
required of every Malaysian citizen and for the children in schools to earn at least a
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