Kepemimpinan dan Manajerial Chapter 1 Mata kuliah: J0782 - Kepemimpinan Entrepreneurial Global Tahun...

Kepemimpinan dan Manajerial

Chapter 1

Mata kuliah : J0782 - Kepemimpinan Entrepreneurial GlobalTahun : 2010

Learning Objectives

• Understand why leadership has been defined in so many different ways

• Understand how leadership will be defined in this book

• Understand the controversy about differences between leadership and management

• Understand why it is so difficult to assess leadership effectiveness

Learning Objectives (Cont.)

• Understand the different indicators used to assess leadership effectiveness

• Understand what aspects of leadership have been studied the most during the past 50 years

• Understand how leadership can be described as an individual, dyadic, group, or organizational process

• Understand the organization of this book

Defining Leadership

“There are almost as many definitions of Leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept.” (Stogdill, 1974)

Definitions of Leadership

Additional Controversy

• Specialized role or shared influence

process

• Type of influence process

• Purpose of influence attempts

• Influence based on reason or emotions

• Direct versus indirect leadership

• Leadership versus management

Specialized Role or Shared Influence Process

• Specialized Role

– Specific leadership role – some functions cannot be shared

– Leaders and followers

• Shared Influence Process

– Naturally occurring – Any member can be a leader at any time

Type of Influence Process

• Leadership only occurs when influence attempts results in enthusiastic commitment

• All types of influence need to be examined – even when forcing or manipulating subordinates

Purpose of Influence Attempts

• Leadership occurs only when people are influenced to do what is ethical and consistent with organizational goals

• Look at outcome of the influence attempts and not necessarily the leader’s intended purpose

Influence Based on Reason or Emotion

• Traditional definitions of leadership emphasize rational, cognitive processes

• Recent views of leadership emphasize emotional aspects of influence

Leadership vs. Management

• Leaders and managers are completely different and mutually exclusive– Managers are concerned with

doing things right (efficiency)– Leaders are concerned with doing

the right things (effectiveness)

Leadership vs. Management (Cont.)

• Leaders and managers are different roles but don’t have to be different types of people– Mintzberg’s 10 leadership roles– Kotter differentiating between managers

and leaders in terms of core processes and intended outcomes

– Rost view of management as an authority relationship and leadership as a multidirectional influence relationship

Direct vs. Indirect Leadership

• Direct leadership– Leader’s direct influence on immediate subordinates– Leader’s direct influence on lower-level employees,

peers, bosses, or outsiders

• Indirect leadership– Cascading effect of leadership influence– Influence over formal programs, management

systems, and structural forms– Influence over organizational culture

A Working Definition of Leadership

“Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.”

What Leaders Can Influence

Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness

• Performance and growth of leader’s group or organization

• Follower attitudes and perceptions of the leader

• Leader’s contribution to the quality of group processes

• Extent to which a person has a successful career as a leader

• Development of a composite measure

Immediate and Delayed Outcomes

• Immediate outcomes easy to measure – Willingness to complete a project

• Delayed outcomes difficult to assess– Influenced by extraneous events

• Leader can effect both immediate and delayed outcomes– May be inconsistent and move in opposite directions

Leadership Causal Chain

Key Variables in Leadership Theories

• Characteristics of the Leader

• Characteristics of the Follower

• Characteristics of the Situation

Characteristics of the Leader

• Traits (motives, personality, values)• Confidence and optimism• Skills and expertise• Behavior• Integrity (honesty, behavior consistent

with values)• Influence tactics• Attributions about followers

Characteristics of the Follower

• Traits (needs, values, self concepts)• Confidence and optimism• Skills and expertise• Attributions about the leader• Trust in the leader• Task commitment and effort• Satisfaction with job and leader

Characteristics of the Situation

• Type of organizational unit• Size of unit• Position power and authority of leader• Task structure and complexity• Task interdependence• Environmental uncertainty• External dependencies• National cultural values

Causal Relationship Between Key Variables

Overview of Major Research Approaches

• Trait approach• Behavior approach• Power-influence approach• Situational approach• Integrative approach

Level of Conceptualization for Leadership

• Intra-Individual Theories– How leaders manage their time– How leader traits and values influence leadership

behavior– How leader skills are related to leader behavior– How leaders make decisions

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization

• Intra-Individual Theories (Cont.)– How leaders are influenced by role expectations and

constraints– How leaders react to feedback and learn from

experience– How leaders can use self-management techniques– How leaders can use self-development techniques

Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.)

• Dyadic Theories– How a leader influences subordinate motivation and task

commitment– How a leader facilitates the work of a subordinate– How a leader interprets information about a subordinate– How a leader develops a subordinate’s skills and

confidence


• Dyadic Theories (Cont.)– How a leader influences subordinate loyalty and trust– How a leader uses influence tactics with a subordinate,

peer, or boss– How a leader and a subordinate influence each other– How a leader develops a cooperative exchange

relationship with a subordinate


• Group-Level Theories– How different leader-member relations affect each other

and team performance– How leadership is shared in the group or team– How leaders organize and coordinate the activities of

team members– How leaders influence cooperation and resolve

disagreements in the team or unit


• Group-Level Theories (Cont.)– How leaders influence collective efficacy and optimism for the

team or unit– How leaders influence collective learning and innovation in

the team or unit– How leaders influence collective identification of members

with the team or unit– How unit leaders obtain resources and support from the

organization and other units


• Organization-Level Theories– How top executives influence lower-level members– How leaders are selected at each level (and implications

of process for the firm)– How leaders influence organizational culture– How leaders influence the efficiency and the cost of

internal operations


• Organization-Level Theories (Cont.)– How leaders influence human relations and human

capital in the organization– How leaders make decisions about competitive strategy

and external initiatives– How conflicts among leaders are resolved in an

organization– How leaders influence innovation and major change in

an organization


Level of Conceptualization for Leadership

• Intra-individual process – focuses on processes within a single individual

• Dyadic process – focuses on the relationship between a leader and another individual

• Group process – focuses on the leadership role in a task group and how a leader contributes to group effectiveness

• Organizational process – focuses on leadership as a process that occurs in a larger open system in which groups are a subsystem

• Multi-level theories – include constructs from more than one level of explanation

Other Bases for Comparing Leadership Theories

• Leader vs. Follower-Centered Theory• Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Theory• Universal vs. Contingency Theory

Perspectives on Effective Leadership Behavior

Learning Objectives

• Understand what research methods have been used to study leadership behavior

• Understand the findings in the early research on leadership behavior

• Understand how leadership behavior can be described with either broad or specific categories

• Understand the different methods for developing taxonomies of leadership behavior


• Understand why task and relations behaviors are important for leadership effectiveness

• Understand how specific types of task and relations behaviors can be used effectively

• Understand why it is useful to classify leadership behavior in terms of a three-dimensional model

• Understand the contributions and limitations of the behavior approach

Ohio State Leadership Studies

• Leadership Behaviors– Consideration – leader’s concern for people and

interpersonal relationships– Initiating structure – leader’s concern for

accomplishing the task

Ohio State Leadership StudiesResearch Results• Relation between consideration and turnover

rate

Research Results (Cont.)• Relation between initiating structure and turnover

rate

Ohio State Leadership Studies

Michigan Leadership Studies

• Leadership Behaviors– Task-oriented behaviors– Relations-oriented behaviors– Participative leadership

• Peer Leadership

Limitations of Survey Research

• Bias in Behavior Description Questionnaires– Ambiguous items– Response bias– Aggregation of items

Problems Interpreting

Causality in Survey Studies

Experiments

• Laboratory Experiments– Low external validity (generalizability)– High internal validity– Inconsistent findings

• Field Experiments– Difficult to conduct– High external validity– Low internal validity– Positive results for relations-oriented behaviors;

mixed and inconsistent results for task-oriented behaviors

Critical Incident Research

• Types of Leader Behaviors1. Planning, coordinating, and organizing

operations2. Supervising subordinates3. Establishing and maintaining good relations

with subordinates4. Establishing and maintaining good relations

with superiors, peers, and outsiders5. Assuming responsibility for observing

organizational policies, carrying out required duties, and making necessary decisions

• Limitations of Critical Incident Research

The “High-High” Leader

• The Managerial Grid & PM Leadership Theory

• Additive versus Multiplicative Model• Limited Support for a Universal Model• Need to incorporate situational variables

Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4Concern for Production

Co

nce

rn f

or

Peo

ple

(1,1)

Impoverished

Middle-of-the-Road

(5,5)

Authority-Compliance

(9,1)

Team Management

(9,9)(1,9)

Country Club

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Leadership Behavior Taxonomies

Leadership Behavior Taxonomies (Cont.)

• Sources of Diversity Among Taxonomies– No absolute set of correct behaviors– Levels of abstraction– Various methods used to develop taxonomies

• Limitations of Factor-Based Taxonomies

Behaviors at Different Levels of Abstraction

Leadership Behavior Taxonomies

• Three-Dimensional Taxonomy– Task-Oriented

Behaviors– Relations-Oriented

Behaviors– Change-Oriented

Behaviors

Task-Oriented Behaviors

• Organize work activities to improve efficiency• Plan short-term operation• Assign work to groups or individuals• Clarify what results are expected for a task • Set specific goals and standards for task

performance

Task-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.)

• Explain rules, policies, and standard operating procedures

• Direct and coordinate work activities• Monitor operations and performance• Resolve immediate problems that would disrupt

the work

Relations-Oriented Behaviors

• Provide support and encouragement to someone with a difficult task

• Express confidence that a person or group can perform a difficult task

• Socialize with people to build relationships• Recognize contributions and accomplishments• Provide coaching and mentoring when

appropriate

Relations-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.)

• Consult with people on decisions affecting them• Allow people to determine the best way to do a

task• Keep people informed about actions affecting

them• Help resolve conflicts in a constructive way• Use symbols, ceremonies, rituals, and stories to

build team identity• Recruit competent new members for the team

or organization

Change-Oriented Behaviors

• Monitor the external environment to detect threats and opportunities

• Interpret events to explain the urgent need for change• Study competitors and outsiders to get ideas for

improvements• Envision exciting new possibilities for the organization• Encourage people to view problems or opportunities in a

different way• Develop innovative new strategies linked to core

competencies

Change-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.)• Encourage and facilitate innovation and entrepreneurship in

the organization• Encourage and facilitate collective learning in the team or

organization• Experiment with new approaches for achieving objectives• Make symbolic changes that are consistent with a new

vision or strategy• Encourage and facilitate efforts to implement major change• Announce and celebrate progress in implementing change• Influence outsiders to support change and negotiate

agreements with them

Comparison of Recent Taxonomies

Specific Task Behaviors

• Action Planning1. Identify necessary action steps2. Identify the optimal sequence of action steps3. Estimate the time needed to carry out each

action step4. Determine starting times and deadlines for

each action step5. Estimate the cost of each action step6. Determine who will be accountable for each

action step7. Develop procedures for monitoring progress

Specific Task Behaviors (cont.)Clarifying Roles and Objectives

• Defining Job Responsibilities– Explain the important job responsibilities– Clarify the person’s scope of authority– Explain how the job relates to the mission of

the unit– Explain important policies, rules, and

requirements• Assigning Work

– Clearly explain the assignment– Explain the reasons for an assignment– Clarify priorities and deadlines– Check for comprehension

• Setting Performance Goals– Set goals for relevant aspects of performance– Set goals that are clear and specific– Set goals that are challenging but realistic– Set a target date for attainment of each goal

Specific Relations BehaviorsGuidelines for Supporting

Specific Relations BehaviorsGuidelines for Coaching

Specific Relations BehaviorsGuidelines for Mentoring

Specific Relations BehaviorsGuidelines for Recognizing

The Nature of Managerial Work

Learning Objectives

• Understand what methods have been used to study managerial work

• Understand the typical activity patterns for people in managerial positions

• Understand the different roles required for managers and how they are changing


• Understand how managerial roles and activities are affected by aspects of the situation

• Understand how managers cope with the demands, constraints, and choices confronting them

• Understand the limitations of descriptive research on managerial activities

• Understand how managers can make effective use of their time

Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work

• Pace of work is hectic and unrelenting• Content of work is varied and fragmented• Many activities are reactive• Interactions often involve peers and outsiders

• Many interactions involve oral communication

• Decision processes are disorderly and political

• Most planning is informal and adaptive

Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work (Cont.)

The Content of Managerial Work

• Job description research– Supervising– Planning and organizing– Decision making– Monitoring indicators– Controlling– Representing– Coordinating– Consulting– Administering

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

Role Conflicts

• Role senders• Role expectations• Conflicting demands• Perceptions of role requirements

Unique Role RequirementsStewart (1967, 1976, 1982)

• Demands – required duties, activities, and responsibilities

• Constraints – limiting characteristics of the organization and external environment

• Choices – activities that a manager may do but is not required to do

Unique Role RequirementsSituational Determinants

• Pattern of relationships

• Work patterns

• Exposure

Research on Situational Determinants

• Level of management• Size of organizational unit• Lateral interdependence• Crisis situation• Stage in the organizational life cycle

Changes in the Nature of Managerial Work

• Economics, politics, and society• Globalization• New computer and telecommunications

technology• Structure of organizations• Outsourcing and just-in-time inventories

Managerial Activities

Applications for ManagersGuidelines for Managing Time

• Understand the reasons for demands and constraints

• Expand the range of choices• Determine what you want to accomplish• Analyze how to use your time• Plan daily and weekly activities

• Avoid unnecessary activities• Conquer procrastination• Take advantage of reactive activities• Make time for reflective planning

Applications for ManagersGuidelines for Managing Time (Cont.)

Applications for ManagersGuidelines for Problem Solving

• Identify important problems that can be solved• Look for connections among problems• Experiment with innovative solutions• Take decisive action to deal with crises

Kepemimpinan dan Manajerial Chapter 1 Mata kuliah: J0782 - Kepemimpinan Entrepreneurial Global Tahun...

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