jihad = “striving/struggle”

On battlefield, speaking to defend faith,working against evil

Particular importance of struggle vs. innersinfulness

Jihad doctrine forming in late 8th c./early9th c.

Mixed attitude to violence in Qur’an

Traditional reading: initially non-violentposition, but move to defensive warfarein face of Meccan threats afteremigration to Medina in 622, thenoffensive warfare as fighting continued

Restrictions even on offensive warfare

Example - initial non-violence:

Invite (all) to the Way of thy Lord withwisdom and beautiful preaching; andargue with them in ways that are best andmost gracious: for thy Lord knoweth best,who have strayed from His Path, and whoreceive guidance. And if ye do catch themout, catch them out no worse than theycatch you out: But if ye show patience,that is indeed the best (course) for thosewho are patient.

Qur’an 16: 125-26

Example - defensive warfare:

To those against whom war is made, permission is given(to fight), because they are wronged;- and verily, Allahis most powerful for their aid;- (They are) those whohave been expelled from their homes in defiance ofright,- (for no cause) except that they say, “our Lord isAllah”. Did not Allah check one set of people by meansof another, there would surely have been pulled downmonasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques, inwhich the name of Allah is commemorated in abundantmeasure. Allah will certainly aid those who aid his(cause);- for verily Allah is full of Strength, Exalted inMight, (able to enforce His Will).

Qur’an 22: 39-40

Example - restrictions on warfare:

Fight in the cause of Allah those who fightyou, but do not transgress limits; for Allahloveth not transgressors.

Qur’an 2: 190

Example - offensive warfare:

But when the forbidden months are past,then fight and slay the Pagans wherever yefind them, and seize them, beleaguer them,and lie in wait for them in every stratagem(of war); but if they repent, and establishregular prayers and practise regular charity,then open the way for them: for Allah isOft-forgiving, Most Merciful.

Qur’an 9: 5

Example - offensive warfare:

Fight those who believe not in Allah northe Last Day, nor hold that forbiddenwhich hath been forbidden by Allah andHis Messenger, nor acknowledge thereligion of Truth, (even if they are) of thePeople of the Book, until they pay the jizyawith willing submission, and feelthemselves subdued.

Qur’an 9: 29

People of the Book (ahl al-kitab):

Those who believe (in the Qur’an), andthose who follow the Jewish (scriptures),and the Christians and the Sabians,- anywho believe in Allah and the Last Day,and work righteousness, shall have theirreward with their Lord; on them shall beno fear, nor shall they grieve.

Qur’an 2: 62

People of the Book (ahl al-kitab):

Those who believe (in the Qur’an), thosewho follow the Jewish (scriptures), andthe Sabians, Christians, Magians, andPolytheists,- Allah will judge betweenthem on the Day of Judgment: for Allahis witness of all things.

Qur’an 22: 17

Jesus in the Qur’an:

And behold! Allah will say: “O Jesus theson of Mary! Didst thou say unto men,worship me and my mother as gods inderogation of Allah?” He will say: “Gloryto Thee! never could I say what I had noright (to say). Had I said such a thing,thou wouldst indeed have known it. Thouknowest what is in my heart, though I knownot what is in Thine. For Thou knowest infull all that is hidden.”

Qur’an 5: 116

Christians and Jews in the Qur’an:

The Jews call ‘Uzair [Ezra] a son of Allah,and the Christians call Christ the son ofAllah. That is a saying from their mouth;(in this) they but imitate what theunbelievers of old used to say. Allah’s cursebe on them: how they are deluded awayfrom the Truth!

Qur’an 9: 30

Mixed attitude to non-Muslims in Qur’an

Rulings based on Qur’an 9: 29: non-pagannon-Muslims allowed freedom of worshipin return for obedience and jizya (poll tax)

Sometimes additional restrictions

Truces of increasing length with foreign, non-Muslim powers

Ptolemy (d. c. 165)

Seven “climes”

Warlike Franks:

e.g. Battle of Tours/Poitiers, 732/33

Also in Byzantine forces? Only significantpresence from 11th century

Al-Mas‘udi (d. 956): Muruj al-Dhahabwa Ma‘adin al-Jawhar (Meadows ofGold and Mines of Gemstone) vs.Kitab al-Tanbih wa’l-Ishraf (Book ofInstruction and Supervision)

Other features of the Franks:

Who is their king? Al-Mas‘udi’s king list;Ibn Rustah (9th-10th c.) and the pope

Capital? Rome? Paris?

Relationship with Byzantines? Impact ofshared religion

Role of fanciful stories? Role of accountof Frankish embassy of 906?

Al-Istakhri (10th c.)

Ibn Hawqal (10th c.)