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Throughout mycareer as a

scientist and oceanexplorer, I havedreamed of makingocean exploration andresearch accessible tomore people. Blessed,as I have been, withthe ability to go intothe ocean, see its marvelsand puzzle over its mysteries, I come back fromevery dive longing for others to have such experiences. Children, fellow researchers, politicians, poets—anyone and everyone shouldhave a chance to explore this ocean planet. Withnew insights personally gained, there is hopethat we will be inspired to do what it takes toprotect the natural systems that support us.

In 1998, the National Geographic Societyinvited me to become their “Explorer-In-Residence.” Partly, I think, because of my experiences. But also because of my dream to use research and exploration as a way to energizeas many new “Ocean Citizens” as possible. Alittle later, the National Geographic Society,the National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA), and the Richard &

Rhoda Goldman Fund announced an excitingand unprecedented mission into the oceans.With a five million dollar grant from theGoldman Fund and additional support from theSociety, the Sustainable Seas Expeditions, a five-year project of ocean exploration and conserva-tion focusing on NOAA’s national marinesanctuaries, was launched.

These 12 marine sanctuaries re p resent the best ofthe best of our nation’s marine enviro n m e n t s .Like our country ’s other crown jewels—thenational parks—they are a legacy of our peopleand our ideals. They are the inheritance that wepass on to our children, and they to theirs. Thesanctuaries contain some of the most import a n tworking parts of our ocean life support system—the sheer abundance of species, the processes thatsustain us, the substances of tomorro w ’s medi-cines, and perhaps, the very secrets of life itself.

Ranging from American Samoa to New England,they include Pacific and Atlantic haunts of whales, sea lions, sharks, rays, and turtles; theoverwhelmingly complex communities of coralreefs and lush kelp forests; the remains ofnumerous historically-valuable shipwrecksincluding the Civil War Monitoroff NorthCarolina—and who knows what else.

Introduction toSustainable SeasExpeditionsby Dr. Sylvia Earle

Dr. Sylvia Earle

Kelp forest © JAMES FORTE

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I N T R O D U C T I O N

Beginning in April 1999, I will lead the expe-ditions to these protected areas, usingDeepWorker 2000, a tiny one-person sub-mersible capable of exploring 600 meters (2,000 feet) beneath the surface. This innovativesubmersible technology will let us:

~ Conduct the first sustained piloted explo-ration of the sanctuary system to depths of600 meters (2,000 feet).

~ Capture on tape and film the natural his-tory of each sanctuary’s algae, plants, andanimals.

~ Pioneer new methods to monitor anddocument the long-term health of themarine sanctuaries.

Ultimately, with state-of-the-art explorationmade possible by the DeepWorker, people willsee images and video of the ocean’s deep realms.From inside this small craft, DeepWorker pilotswill experience and share a sense of the oceanfrom within, the way astronauts reported theirview of Earth from space, and opened newhorizons for us all. These small spacecraft-likesubmarines are magnets to children and veteranexplorers alike. By seeing the DeepWorker subsup close at open houses and other public events,Sustainable Seas Expeditionswill fuel imaginationsand foster support for marine sanctuaries andconservation of our oceans.

The depths of our ocean are as uncharted as thevast interior of North America when President

Thomas Jefferson sent Lewis and Clark toexplore and record the unknown resources of theAmerican West. Sustainable Seas Expeditionscanproduce significant discoveries and extraordinaryeducational experiences for millions throughbooks, videos, and the Internet. In addition, thedata gathered during the Expeditionswill providestronger foundations for marine research andconservation policies.

Whatever else we achieve, the ultimate successwill be to dispel ignorance about the sea. Of all the ocean’s problems, what we don’t knowposes the greatest threat. My goal is to push thatfrontier of ignorance further and deeper—and toreturn to the surface brimming with knowledge.Because with knowing comes caring, and withcaring comes the hope that an ocean ethic willarise that will secure a sustainable future forourselves, our children, and for the seas.

The success of the Sustainable Seas Expeditionsdepends on many fellow ocean explorers. Todate, the Society and NOAA have been joinedby the United States Navy, National Aeronauticsand Space Administration (NASA), MontereyBay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI),Mote Marine Laboratory, Center for MarineConservation, the National Science TeachersAssociation, and SeaWeb—and the list continuesto grow. Join me and the 60 other DeepWorkerpilots and scores of support technicians, vesselcrew members, scientists, resource managers,and other Sustainable Seas Expeditionsteammembers as this dream becomes reality.

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Two web sites host information aboutSustainable Seas Expeditions. The official

Expeditions site reports day-to-day activities. Thesecond site, NOAA’s national marine sanctuariesweb site, contains a wealth of information aboutthe sanctuaries and Sustainable Seas. These sitesoffer dynamic research tools that students andteachers can use to explore our nation’s marinesanctuaries and follow Sustainable Seas Expeditionsexploration and research as it happens. Themajor components of the two sites follow.

1. The Sustainable Seas ExpeditionsWeb Site(http://sustainableseas.noaa.gov)

This site hosts the most current day-to-dayactivities taking place during the SustainableSeas Expeditionsmissions. It includes featuressuch as:

About Sustainable Seas—Describes theSustainable Seas Expeditionsprogram;

Technology—Showcases the DeepWorker submersible and other technology such asNOAA ships and camera equipment;

Online Calendar—Provides schedules ofevents including Expeditionsschedules, open houses, Sanctuary Summits, web chats,webcasts, and other opportunities at the sanctuaries;

Mission Logs—Reports the ongoing story ofSustainable Seas Expeditions including events,discoveries, and adventures of the missionparticipants; background essays about eachexpedition; interviews with sanctuarymanagers; site characterizations of eachsanctuary; and natural and cultural resourcesof the region.

2. The National Marine Sanctuaries Web Site (http://www.sanctuaries.noaa.gov)

This site provides comprehensive informationabout NOAA’s national marine sanctuaries. Itincludes general information about themarine sanctuaries program, specific informa-tion about the sanctuaries, and links to eachone. This site also includes an entire sectionon Sustainable Seas Expeditions. Features ofthis site include:

Science Investigations—Describes in detail theindividual Sustainable Seas Expeditions missionsat each sanctuary, the scientific projectsrelated to these dives, and profiles of the scientists;

Maps and Data—Provides maps and datacollected by Expeditionsscientists whichstudents can use in tracking the scientific in-vestigations or plotting and monitoring realdata. Maps of sea surface temperature will beavailable for each sanctuary as well as

Sustainable SeasExpeditions Web Sites

Orange sea star with brittle stars © JAMES FORTE

S U S T A I N A B L E S E A S E X P E D I T I O N S W E B S I T E S

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three-dimensional renderings ofDeepWorker’s undersea path;

Education—Provides an updated calendar ofSustainable Seas Expeditions education andoutreach activities at each sanctuary, descrip-

tions of Sanctuary Summits and studentprojects, teacher workshops, sample activities,and an extensive resource and reference list;

Photo Gallery—Displays stunning images thattell the story of each sanctuary. Images arecategorized into The Living Sanctuary,Habitats, Sustainable Seas Expeditions,andPeople in the Sanctuary. The Gallery willalso include a collection of student drawings.

Student drawing

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The following articles provide backgroundinformation that will be helpful when

working with your students on the Investi-gations that follow. Each Investigation references one or more articles; some activities require students have their owncopies of them to review.

BackgroundInformation

Siphonophore © MONTEREY BAY AQUARIUM RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 1991

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“Today, marine sanctuaries are places in the sea, as elusiveas a sea breeze, as tangible as a singing whale. They arebeautiful, or priceless, or rare bargains, or long-termassets, or fun, or all of these and more. Above all, sanctu-aries are now and with care will continue to be ‘specialplaces.’ Each of us can have the pleasure of defining whatthat means.”

—Dr. Sylvia Earle

W H AT A R E M A R I N E S A N C T U A R I E S ?In 1972, as Americans became more aware of theintrinsic ecological and cultural value of our coastalwaters, Congress passed the Marine Protection, Researchand Sanctuaries Act. This law authorizes the Secretary ofCommerce to designate our most cherished marine watersas national marine sanctuaries, in order to protect andmanage their priceless resources.

In the years since that time, 12 national marine sanctuaries have been created. They include nearshore coral reefs and open ocean, rich banks andsubmarine canyons, intertidal areas, and sheltered bays.National marine sanctuaries range in size from less thana neighborhood (Fagatele Bay, American Samoa—0.6square kilometers or 0.25 square miles) to larger than thestate of Connecticut (Monterey Bay—13,800 square kilo-meters or 5,328 square miles). Sanctuaries harbor adazzling array of algae, plants, and animals. Theseprotected waters provide a secure habitat for species closeto extinction; and they protect historically significantshipwrecks and archaeological sites. They serve as natural classrooms for students of all ages and as living laboratories for scientists.

NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuaries

NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuaries

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Sanctuaries are cherished recreational spots for diving,wilderness hiking, and sport-fishing. They also supportvaluable commercial industries such as marine transporta-tion, fishing, and kelp harvesting. The perpetual challengeof managing these areas is maintaining the critical balancebetween environmental protection and economic growth.

S A N C T U A R I E S F O R A L LBut a sanctuary’s true definition lies in the eyes of thebeholder. To a scientist, a sanctuary is a natural laboratory.To a motel operator along the shore, it is a national com-mitment to keep the nature of the ocean healthy, andthus attractive to visitors. To schoolchildren of the area, asanctuary is a special playground—a place to explore anddiscover. To environmental engineers charged withrestoring damaged ecosystems, a sanctuary is a yardstickagainst which they can gauge “good health.” Fishermen,however, might see the sanctuary as a threat to traditionalfreedoms, yet upon reflection, realize that it is the besthope for maintaining their way of life.

Trying to meet these needs leaves many unansweredquestions. How large does a sanctuary need to be in orderto protect the ecosystems that lie within? How muchpressure can an ecosystem sustain from activitiesbordering its boundaries? How many fish can we takewhile ensuring a healthy population for the long term?

National marine sanctuaries represent our riches as anation. They are treasures that belong to every citizen,and to every generation of citizens to come. We have theright to enjoy them and—just as importantly—the respon-sibility to sustain them for the long-term.

N O A A ’ S N A T I O N A L M A R I N E S A N C T U A R I E S

Nudibranch

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E X P L O R E R S F R O M T H E B E G I N N I N GWe are all explorers. Our first journeys begin before wecan move, when, as infants, our field of vision begins totake in the shapes and forms around us, patterns of lightand dark on the walls, the features of our mother andfather’s faces. Gradually, our senses sharpen and weacquire halting mobility, the ability to crawl to the grass’sedge, to toddle toward a puddle, to enter a nearby wood.As our means to travel become more sophisticated, weventure further abroad—a bicycle, we discover, carries usfor kilometers; a city bus, across town; the family stationwagon, across the state; a backpack, into the wilderness.And as we grow physically in our capability to go places,our minds begin journeying too.

Gradually, we come to know the lore of travel, of explo-ration. We learn about the Great Explorers—Winken,Blinken and Nod in their shoe; Huckleberry Finn on hisMississippi River; Odysseus over the “wine-dark seas”;Marco Polo to the palaces of Cathay; Lewis and Clarkacross the distant Rockies; Neil Armstrong to the moon. Inturn, we become them. We listen raptly to their exploits,pore over their journals, memorize their footsteps—andmissteps—challenge ourselves to meet their challengesand grow the personal boldness it takes to enter intoexplorers’ lives.

T I M E S C H A N G EAll too soon, however, the universal explorer in most of usbegins to stay at home. We turn our attention to practicalmatters; perhaps we become satisfied with that at hand.Our concentration narrows and we master finer skills. Welearn our lessons and come to value personal safety aboverisk, security above uncertainty. Internally, we map a land-scape of the familiar and live most of our lives within it.

But not everyone. There is a certain lure that motivatesexplorers beyond. Sir George Mallory, the British moun-

taineer who explored—and vanished—in the Himalayas,was motivated to climb Mt. Everest “because it’s there.”But for others, needs emerge greater than their own—something honorable to their nation, or to humanity as awhole. As we close the 20th Century, it is clear that theworld’s oceans—explored and charted for hundreds ofyears—require a new kind of exploration if they are tosurvive as our planetary life-support systems.

E X P L O R I N G T H E S E A SThis new exploration is not about conquest of territory, orsovereignty over the ocean’s wealth. It is the conquestover our ignorance of ocean ecosystems, and particularly,the deeper realms of our most precious marine areas, thenational marine sanctuaries. Sustainable Seas Expeditions,led by Dr. Sylvia Earle and Francesca Cava, continue thelegacy of ocean exploration of Alexander the Great(reported to be the first person to descend into the sea to observe fish), of British scientists aboard the H.M.SChallenger (who discovered 4,417 new species in the1870s), and Jacques Piccard (who manned the Trieste10,912 meters, or 35,800 feet, deep in the Pacific in1960).

The three-dimensional world under water represents oneof the most challenging environments of all in which towork. Although we have adapted to nearly all conditionson Earth’s surface, extreme cold, crushing pressure, anddarkness deprive us of access to what amounts to nearly90 percent of biosphere by volume. Even with technology,we gain mere glimpses of this interior living space on ourplanet. We snatch samples with collecting bottles ordredges suspended on cables; we probe with sound,studying pattern in the echoes; we pilot robot submarineswith cameras. We skim the ocean’s upper surface withscuba systems. Occasionally, we deploy the several dozensof submersibles in existence for the purpose of going andlooking, in person.

Exploring—For Answers

• 9 •

We have explored less than one percent of the deepocean floor and know less about many aspects of geo-physical systems in the ocean than we know about theweather on Mars. This is particularly true in the dimly litmidwaters (below 100 meters, or 330 feet) and in theocean abyss. We are only beginning to understand thegeologic processes forming seafloor at the mid-oceanridges, the communities of organisms that feed solely onchemicals produced in volcanic eruptions or gas seeps.But these features are pinpoints in an area covering 70percent of our planet. Our experience studying them closeat hand would be equivalent to having spent severalhundred hours visiting five or six active volcanoesscattered about the continents.

T H E R E I S S T I L L M O R E T O L E A R NOur explorations of the ocean’s living systems are in theirinfancy. Of all the animal kingdom’s phyla, many describeresidents of the ocean. We know very little of this dazzlingarray of living things. Life evolved in the sea and few life-forms were able to survive without water supporting theirbodies. The sea continues to be our life support systemand our own health is connected to it.

The species we know best are those we take most freelyand which have the greatest utility for us as food, fertil-izer, or other material use. In most cases, that knowledgeis driven only by scarcity imposed by overuse. We take the

time to understand only after we have brought a stock orspecies to the brink of extinction. What do we know ofmost marine invertebrates? What are the key species thatbind deep ocean communities together? What are thepieces that simply cannot be removed without systemcollapse? These are questions with embarrassingly fewcomplete answers.

F U T U R E O F T H E S E AFor most of our history, life in the oceans has been out ofsight and out of mind. Yet dangerous signs of damage arenow plainly visible. Biodiversity in our oceans is threat-ened; habitats are being altered; our actions on land aremaking the seas a sink for toxic chemicals. We need toexplore the oceans in order to understand the intricateconnections between our actions and the oceans’ health.We need windows into this foreign world, observers whocan visit and record, discover and monitor, watchers whocan go and return, sharing the results of their explora-tions with the vast majority, who will never have such anexperience.

Our best explorers have been those who purposelybrought all of us along with them. Naturalist WilliamBeebe, plumbing the ocean depths off Bermuda in 1934in his bathysphere, broadcast live via the NBC RadioNetwork and followed with detailed articles in NationalGeographic magazine. The television era allowed millionsto be with Astronaut John Glenn as he circled the Earththree times. The tickertape parade he enjoyed after thathistoric space exploration was as much a spontaneous cel-ebration of our collective journey around the planet as itwas the recognition of a new explorer-hero.

A N O P P O R T U N I T Y T O D A YThe Sustainable Seas Expeditions a re your explorations—ofyour national marine sanctuaries. The inventors, techni-cians, re s e a rchers, ships’ crews, pilots, and support staff whocomprise the Sustainable Seas team are the tools by whichyou, too, embark on this historic exploration pro j e c t .

E X P L O R I N G — F O R A N S W E R S

Diver in kelp forest

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A N O C E A N E X P L O R E R ’ S D R E A MD e e p Worker 2000 is a one-person submersible about thesize of a small car. This remarkable vehicle can dive to adepth of 600 meters (2,000 feet) and provide life-sustain-ing oxygen for its pilot for up to 100 hours (in ane m e rg e n c y — n o rmal operations rarely exceed 12 hours).Without tethers or connecting lines to its support ship,D e e p Worker gives its pilot amazing mobility and the gift oftime—a precious commodity for humans in the under-water enviro n m e n t .

Because DeepWorker is a directly operated vehicle— or DOV—it moves independently of its surface supportship. The sub is driven by a trained pilot who may be ascientist, a technician, an explorer, or even a journalist,teacher, or poet. The sub’s simple, yet sophisticated technology means that the pilot and the passenger arecombined—one person can pilot the craft and still carryout observations and scientific experiments. Eliminatingthe second occupant from the sub reduces its weight,complexity, and the expense of operation.

DeepWorker’s small size and light weight make it moremobile than most other submersibles. Measuring just overtwo meters long (eight feet), it fits easily on a truck ortrailer for traveling overland. At the dock, it can be loadedon a ship with a relatively small crane; and at the dive site,

the 1,300 kilogram (1.3-ton) sub can be launched withmany types of common equipment. Older, heaviersystems require dedicated launch machinery and usuallydive only from a specially-constructed support ship.DeepWorker can be supported by many ships.

A T O U G H P L A C E T O W O R KThe physical environment under water requires any sub-mersible vehicle to have five important features: a hullthat resists collapse; a propulsion system for mobility; aballast system to control ascent and descent; a life-supportsystem for its occupant or occupants; and navigation andcommunication systems for orientation in the darknessand staying in touch with the surface.

P R E S S U R E H U L LThe pressure hull, or external structure, of a deep divingsubmersible must be built to withstand incrediblepressures. For every 10 meters (33 feet) a sub descendsinto the ocean, another 6.6 kilograms (14.7 pounds) ofpressure is added to every six square centimeters (onesquare inch) of the capsule. At 600 meters (2,000 feet),the depth reachable by DeepWorker, the pressure is over404 kilograms per six square centimeters (890 pounds persquare inch). In order to resist collapsing under pressure,most submersibles are spherical. Forces applied to asphere are equally distributed throughout its circumfer-ence, giving this shape incredible strength.

Most subs, including deep-diving craft like DeepWorker,Alvin, and Deep Flight, are not perfect spheres. If aportion of the sphere must be removed to accommodateother design features, such as battery pods or to createspace for a pilot’s comfort (like a leg-tube, or viewingdome) the strength can be replaced by inserting a thick,strong ring around the hole and attaching a cylinder orsemi-spherical shape. Like spheres, cylinders resist pressureby distributing forces through the circumference.However, they are not as strong as spheres.

Meet DeepWorker

DeepWorker 2000

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DeepWorker actually consists of several spherical, cylindri-cal, and semi-spherical pressure hulls. The main hull is asphere (in which the pilot sits) with an attached cylinderon the bottom (for the pilot’s legs) and an acrylic domeon top for viewing. The two battery pods (lower starboardand port sides), the junction box (lower rear), and theoxygen and air tanks (mounted on the back in a floatpack) are cylinders. The acrylic dome also serves as ahatch to enter and exit the sub.

P R O P U L S I O NDeepWorker is powered by two battery pods, each con-taining 10 high-ampere, deep-cycle batteries (similar tothe ones used in motor homes). The sub can reach speedsof up to three knots. The batteries power two horizontalthrusters (for forward and reverse movement) and twovertical thrusters (for lateral movement), which are con-trolled by foot pedals inside the sub. To operate the sub, apilot pushes on the pedals: the right pedal moves the craftin the horizontal direction. Toe down is forward. Heeldown is reverse. A twist to the right turns you right and tothe left turns you left. The left foot moves the craft down(toe down) or up (toe up). A twist to the right makes thesub walk sideways (“crabbing”) to the right; twist to theleft and it crabs left. Crabbing is like turning all four tireson a car 90 degrees—great for parallel parking or formoving sideways to examine the face of an underwatercliff.

B A L L A S TIn order to regulate its position up and down in the waterand to remain a certain depth without rising or sinking,DeepWorker uses two forms of ballast systems—”soft”ballast and “hard” ballast.

Other submersibles use what is called a “soft” ballastsystem in which compressed air is released into an extern a ltank to increase the craft’s buoyancy and bring it back tothe surface. At deep depths, air becomes so compre s s e dby water pre s s u re that it can take an entire tank to lift thesub off the bottom. In these systems, such as the Deep-

Rover submersible, pilots must limit their up and downmovements at depth to conserve air for the final ascent.

D e e p Worker uses soft ballast together with another ballastsystem known as “hard” ballast. In the hard ballast system,c o l o red water is contained within an enclosed smallbladder outside the sub. After the pilot dumps all the airf rom the soft ballast tank in order to lower the sub belowthe surface, the sub remains slightly buoyant. To sink, thepilot opens a valve to allow a small amount of the colore dwater into the sub, which adds weight. The water beginsto fill a tank in the pilot’s seat, and the sub descends.When the sub is neutrally buoyant (neither sinking norrising), the pilot shuts off the valve. This ingenious designallows the pilot to remain neutrally buoyant at any depth.Pilots can tell when they are neutrally buoyant by lookingat minute particles drifting outside in the water column.When the sub hangs motionless in relation to the tinyo rganisms and debris that make up the “marine snow, ”the sub is neutrally buoyant.

L I F E S U P P O R TWater is essential for life. Yet, for many animals includinghumans, it is extremely toxic to breathe. Thus, thegreatest limit to our ability to work in the ocean is the factthat we can’t obtain enough oxygen from water to stayalive. Fortunately, inventors, engineers, and adventurershave figured out how to get oxygen into our lungs, andhow to remove poisonous carbon dioxide from the air weexhale—even when we are on the bottom of the sea.Life support systems aboard DeepWorker include twoseparate oxygen systems and two carbon dioxide removalsystems—one of each for normal use, the other asbackup. These life support systems create a normalbreathing environment inside the sub—at pressures comparable to your living room.

DeepWorker carries two oxygen cylinders outside of itsmain pressure hull and two mechanical controllers inside the hull where the percent of oxygen is monitoredelectronically. High pressure tubes and valves carry the

M E E T D E E P W O R K E R

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M E E T D E E P W O R K E R

Maneuvering is controlled by twomain 1-horse-power thrusters plustwo angled vertical thrusters forlateral movement. A 3-cubic-meter(100-cubic-foot) ballast air tankprovides additional control of depth.

Main thruster

DeepWorker 2000

SPECIFICATIONSWeight in air: 1,300 kilograms (1.3 tons)Operating depth: 600 meters (2,000 feet)Payload: 114 kilograms (250 pounds), including pilotLife Support: 100 hoursSpeed: 3 knots Crew: 1 pilot

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS include amodified Imaginex sonar, which allows standardscanning and ultra-high resolution for shortrange. Ocean sounds are recorded with a direc-tional hydrophone. Video cameras allow thepilot to record the dive. VHF and thru-watercommunications allow contact with surfacesupport personnel.

Power source: two 46-centimeter(18-inch) diameter battery pods,each containing 10 high-amps,deep-cycle batteries.

Life support systemsinclude two externaloxygen cylinders and tworedundant, mechanicaloxygen controllers withinternal electronic monitor-ing. Carbon dioxide isremoved by two scrubbers.

Antennas

Entry hatch

Pressure hull

Verticalthruster

The roboticarms arehydraulic-powered manipulatorsthat can extend3.6 meters (12 feet).

Acoustic tracking system permits surfacepersonnel to determine location of sub atall times.

oxygen in special “through-hull” fittings into the mainhull. A special regulator reduces the flow of oxygen to atrickle—about equal to the amount the pilot consumes innon-aerobic activity. As the pilot breathes in, oxygen goesinto the lungs, replaced by oxygen regulated to trickle intothe cabin. As the pilot exhales into the cabin, a small fanforces the air through a chemical filter, called a scrubber,removing dangerous carbon dioxide. Pilots frequentlymonitor the oxygen content of the cabin (it should be20.8 percent), the pressure of the oxygen entering thehull, the pressure of the oxygen in the regulator, and theoperation of the scrubber fan. In event of a failure of theprimary system, the pilot simply switches to the backup.

Oxygen bottles and scrubber chemicals are changed afterevery dive, but DeepWorker’s life support systems couldprovide nearly 100 hours of time under water if necessary.

N AV I G AT I O N A N D C O M M U N I C A T I O NOn board, an integrated navigation system constantly sends signals to the support ship on the surface, trackingD e e p Wo r k e r ’s whereabouts. Pilots overcome the naturallimits of seeing long distances under water by using sonar—c o m p u t e r- s o rted echoes that actually create visual images ofthe underwater landscape from sound. Powerful headlightsilluminate the depths close to the sub. Other instru m e n t sd e t e rmine the sub’s depth and altitude off the bottom.To communicate with the mother ship, two communica-

tion systems are used: VHF radio while DeepWorker is onthe surface; and a thru-water system that sends soundwaves through the water to receivers on the ship above.Pilots and the surface support teams communicateregularly to confirm relative locations and the status ofDeepWorker’s life support and electrical systems.

D E E P W O R K E R ’ S T O O L SIn addition to DeepWorker’s design and life supportsystems, the sub also uses specialized equipment todocument marine life, habitat characteristics, and tomonitor physical factors such as temperature, the amountof light penetrating the sea, and water quality. Equipmentfor collecting this data includes:

• cameras (video and still); • external lights that can be turned on and off; • a CTD instrument that continuously records conductivity

(to determine salinity), temperature, and depth; • manipulator arms capable of reaching to 3.6 meters

(12 feet); • cable cutters on the arms to cut free from entanglement; • suction samplers to collect sea water and animals; • core samplers; and • sample baskets for transporting organisms.

• 13 •

Over the next five years, the Sustainable Seas Expeditionswill provide a unique opportunity to seek greater insightinto what makes some of our nation’s most import a n tnatural re s o u rces tick. Sustainable Seas Expeditions will usenew submersible technology to undertake deep explo-ration of the nation’s national marine sanctuaries to depthsup to 600 meters (2,000 feet). The E x p e d i t i o n s w i l lphotodocument the natural history of each sanctuary ’salgae, plants, animals, and cultural re s o u rces, build onexisting site characterizations, and in some cases, pro d u c ethe best information to date on these protected are a s .

Over the course of the project, Sustainable Seas Expeditionswill help establish permanent monitoring field stationswithin the sanctuaries, and conduct other underwater in-vestigations. These projects are critical to effective marineprotection and conservation.

“Sustainable Seas Expeditions has the potential to producestunning scientific discoveries and extraordinary educa-tional experiences for millions of people,” said John Fahey,president of the National Geographic Society. “The datawe gather will provide stronger foundations for marineresearch and for more sound marine conservation policies.Through new knowledge, we have the opportunity tocreate a ‘sea change’ in how Americans perceive—andcare about—their coastal and ocean resources.”

Putting Sustainable Seas Expeditions research into perspec-tive requires understanding three important goals of theresearch projects:

• Understanding what is there by systematic explo-ration, mapping, and species inventories—aprocess known as site characterization;

• Looking at a place over time and making spatialcomparisons to understand what changes are takingplace, and why—a process known as monitoring;

• Assessing the potential of new tools, likeDeepworker, in research and management ofmarine sanctuaries.

S I T E C H A R A C T E R I Z A T I O NIn order to understand any natural environment and makewise decisions that lead to its protection, sanctuarymanagers need several critical pieces of information.These include knowing what is there (the “parts” of anecosystem such as the algae, plants, animals, water tem-perature, and so on), the ecosystem’s condition in thepast—or at least its condition now—and enough under-standing of how the ecosystem works to predict futureconditions given certain variables. These are all elementsof what sanctuary managers call “site characterizations.”Many of the sanctuaries will be conducting site characteri-zations as part of their Sustainable Seas Expeditionsprojects. (A more detailed description of these projectscan be found beginning on page 16.)

Site characterizations provide managers with informationthat helps them make effective decisions when it comes todetermining human activities in protected areas; settingagendas for research, monitoring, education, outreach,and enforcement programs; and using the most appropri-ate methods to restore an area, should that be necessary.

Site characterizations are detailed re p o rts that contain infor-mation on an are a ’s biological and physical enviro n m e n t s ,cultural history, and human use patterns. They chro n i c l ethe history of discovery and use, the re c o rd of scientific investigations, the pre s s u res being placed on natural and

Sustainable Seas Expeditions Research

cultural re s o u rces, and the nature of attempts to pro t e c tthe re s o u rces. Properly done, they are complete sources ofc u rrent information for an area of particular intere s t .

When conducting site characterizations, there are anumber of ways scientists document the presence andabundance of species relative to the environment’sphysical factors. One method is conducting vertical andhorizontal transects.

Vertical transects in the sea are useful to define theocean’s layering system of physical and biological parts.Imagine dropping a line from one point in the watercolumn down to another. Physical factors are thenobserved and recorded at various points along this line, ortransect. Increments along the transect are usually evenlyspaced, and when combined with similar transects inother locations, may reveal changes taking place due towater currents, upwelling, and other phenomena.

Horizontal transects are conducted similarly. These aremost often used along the seafloor or at a particulardepth. For instance, a horizontal transect at a depth of600 meters might look for distribution of fish species closeto a canyon wall compared to fish species at the samedepth further from the wall.

Given the constraints of time and money, these tech-niques provide researchers with methods to constructmodels of an ecosystem while only studying smallportions of it. The models help us understand how anecosystem functions. They may describe the flow ofenergy through a system or they may allow us to predictthe effects of natural or human-caused events on anecosystem.

M O N I T O R I N GMonitoring programs are designed to detect changesspatially and over time—changes in physical conditions,changes in distribution or abundance of organisms, orchanges caused by human actions and natural events.

Physical factors such as temperature and salinity measuredas baseline data can form the foundation of a monitoringprogram. So can the presence or absence of a species, orage groups of a single species or entire groups of species.Habitats can be monitored to observe changes instructure, such as physical disturbance. In a monitoringproject, observations are made or samples are taken—like“snapshots” of the habitat—on a regular basis, at variousintervals depending on the type of information needed.Periodic reports of data compare snapshots against eachother and against the baseline data. This informationhelps resource managers evaluate trends (systematicchanges over time) or perturbations (sudden changes).

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S U S T A I N A B L E S E A S E X P E D I T I O N S R E S E A R C H

Deepwater jelly

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Although the causes of these changes may not beapparent as a result of monitoring, they alert managersand suggest ways of studying, in closer detail, the causesof change.

A S S E S S I N G R E S E A R C H T O O L SIn addition to supporting sanctuary site characterizationand monitoring needs, the five-year Sustainable SeasExpeditions project and the newly developed submersibletechnology offer the scientific community a chance toevaluate the use of the new one-person sub. NuytcoResearch Ltd. developed the lightweight DeepWorker submersible (900 kilograms, or 2,000 pounds) to operatealmost as easily as remotely operated vehicles (ROVs),which are unmanned, underwater robots often used atthese depths. As Nuytco founder Phil Nuytten puts it, theconcept was to “take the ROV operator out of the control

shack and put him in the ROV.” With the potential of newdiscoveries beckoning and a new national commitment toassess and understand our ocean planet, the SustainableSeas Expeditions promise new knowledge and new ways togather knowledge over the next five years.

S U S T A I N A B L E S E A S E X P E D I T I O N S R E S E A R C H

Diver explores coral formation

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A Look at the SanctuariesThe nation’s sanctuaries encompass sites that areeither biologically, culturally, recreationally, aes-thetically, or historically significant. In someways similar to the national parks on land, eachone has its own character, and each sanctuary ismany things to many people, adding to theircharm.

Channel IslandsCalifornia

The waters that swirlaround the five islandscontained withinNOAA's Channel Islands National MarineSanctuary combine warm and cool currents tocreate an exceptional breeding ground for manyspecies of algae and animals. Nearby forests ofgiant kelp provide a nutrient-rich environmentfor teeming populations of fish and inverte-brates. Every year, over 27 species of whales anddolphins visit or inhabit the sanctuary includingthe rare blue, humpback, and sei whales. Seabirdcolonies and pinniped rookeries flourish on theislands; while overhead, Brown Pelicans andWestern Gulls search the water for food.

HabitatsKelp forestsSeagrass meadowsRocky shoresPelagic, open oceanSandy beachesDeep rocky reefs

Key SpeciesCalifornia sea lion Blue sharkElephant seal Brown PelicanHarbor seal Western GullBlue whale AbaloneGray whale GaribaldiDolphins Rockfish

Cultural ResourcesChumash Indian artifacts

Protected Area4,294 square kilometers (1,658 square miles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsThe primary objective during the first year willbe characterization of benthic habitats and theirassociated flora and fauna, including relation-ships between physical features and deep waterbiological communities. Future long-term moni-

Sanctuaries and Their 1999 Investigations

California

Pacific Ocean

NChannel

Island NMS

Santa Barbara Channel

Garibaldi in kelp forest

Harbor seal © W. E. TOWNSEND

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toring sites will be established to track the healthof these deep sea areas.

Benthic habitats in and around reserves closed tofishing will be areas of focus. Experiments arecurrently being conducted and additional studiesare being planned to test the effectiveness ofreserves as nurseries for fishes. Additionalprojects include collecting data on the spawninggrounds of market squid, an important fisheryresource in the area.

Cordell BankCalifornia

A region of astonish-ing productivity,NOAA’s Cordell BankNational Marine Sanctuary surrounds a 6-by-14-kilometer (4-by-9-mile) submerged graniteisland on the very edge of the continental shelf.Lying just off the northern California coast, theBank rises to within 35 meters (115 feet) of thesea surface with depths of 1,830 meters (6,000feet) only a few kilometers away. The prevailingCalifornia Current flows southward along thecoast and the upwelling of nutrient-rich, deepocean waters stimulates the growth of organismsat all levels of the marine food web. Manymarine mammals and seabirds rely on this areaas their feeding ground.

HabitatsRocky subtidalPelagic, open oceanSoft sediment continental shelf and slopeSubmerged island

Key SpeciesKrill Blue whalePacific salmon HydrocoralRockfish AlbatrossHumpback whale Shearwater

Protected Area1,362 square kilometers (526 square miles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsInvestigations in the first year will focus on sitecharacterization. The primary objective will beto survey the top of Cordell Bank and assessalgae, invertebrate and fish populations, andhabitat. A second objective will be to investigatefishing impacts on the Bank. (Cordell Bank hasbeen identified as one of the most critical andfragile fisheries habitats in California.) Only thetops of the highest pinnacles have been mapped,and Cordell Bank remains relatively unexplored.Year-one missions will help inventory and char-acterize sanctuary resources by describingcommunity structure at Cordell Bank and estab-lishing monitoring sites and transects forbaseline and long-term studies.

California

Pacific Ocean

N

Cordell Bank NMS

SanFrancisco

Bay

Strawberry anemone

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Fagatele BayAmericanSamoa

Located 14 degreessouth of the equator,NOAA’s Fagatele Baycomprises a fringing coral reef ecosystem nestledwithin an eroded volcanic crater on the island ofTutuila. Nearly 200 species of coral are recover-ing from a devastating crown-of-thorns starfishattack in the late 1970s which destroyed over 90percent of the corals. Since then, new growthhas been compromised by two hurricanes,several tropical storms, and coral bleaching. This cycle of growth and destruction is typical of tropicalmarine ecosystems.

Habitat

Tropical coral reef

Key Species

Surgeon fish Hawksbill turtleCrown-of-thorns sea star Giant clamBlacktip reef shark Parrotfish

Cultural Resources3,000-plus-year-old thriving Polynesian cultureoriginated in Samoa

Protected Area0.6 square kilometers (0.25 square miles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsNo projects planned for this year.

Florida KeysFlorida

The Florida Keysmarine ecosystemsupports one of themost diverse arrays of underwater algae, plants,and animals in North America. Although theKeys are best known for coral reefs, there aremany other significant interconnecting and in-terdependent habitats. These include fringingmangroves, seagrass meadows, hardbottomregions, patch reefs, and bank reefs. Thiscomplex marine ecosystem is the foundation forthe commercial fishing and tourism-basedeconomies that are so important to Florida.

HabitatsCoral reefsPatch and bank reefsMangrove-fringed shorelines and islandsSand flatsSeagrass meadows

Key SpeciesBrain and star coral Spiny lobsterSea fan Stone crabLoggerhead sponge GrouperTurtle grass TarponAngelfish

Tutuila IslandAmerican Samoa

Pacific Ocean

NFagatele

NMS

Florida

Atlantic Ocean

N

Florida Keys NMS

Florida Bay

Sea stars

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CulturalResourcesHistoric shipwrecks

Historic lighthouses

Protected Area9,515 square kilometers (3,674 square miles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsInvestigations in the first year will focus on as-sessment of the fate and effects of artificial reefsand exploration and characterization of coralreef habitat that cannot be researched by con-ventional diving techniques. Several artificialreefs, which a re usually large sunken vessels,recently have or will soon be established in thes a n c t u a ry. Use of such reefs in re s o u rce manage-ment is controversial. Some believe artificial re e f si n c rease fish populations or lessen human use ofnatural reefs. Others believe they detract fishf rom their natural communities or are equivalentto dumping waste in the ocean. There is a lack ofl o n g - t e rm monitoring data for artificial reefs inthe sanctuary to support or refute these argu-ments. Investigations will establish a baseline forfuture monitoring of long-term stability andecological impacts of these artificial reefs.

Deep water exploration of coral reefs will beconducted to expand present knowledge ofsanctuary resources and provide informationimportant to understanding ecosystem health.This work will focus on three reef areasincluding Tortugas Banks which is proposed as aSpecial Protection Area. Data will serve as abaseline to monitor future changes.

Flower GardenBanksTexas/Louisiana

One hundred sixty-one kilometers (100miles) off the coasts ofTexas and Louisiana, a trio of underwater saltdomes emerge from the depths of the Gulf ofMexico. Lush gardens of coral blanket thedomes. This premiere diving destination harborsthe northern-most coral reefs in the UnitedStates and serves as a regional reservoir ofshallow-water Caribbean reef fishes and inverte-brates. For a few nights each August, in associa-tion with the full moon, the corals undergo amass spawning, releasing billions of gametes intothe water in a spectacular display.

HabitatsCoral reefs Sand flatsPelagic, open ocean Artificial reefAlgal-sponge communities Brine seep

Key SpeciesStar coral Hammerhead sharkBrain coral Loggerhead turtleManta ray

Protected Area145 square kilometers (56 square miles)

Texas

Gulf of Mexico

N

Flower GardenBanks NMS

Galveston BayMangroves

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Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsInvestigations in the first year will focus on re-productive biology of mass spawning corals andcharacterization of deep habitats, specificallybrine seeps and grabens. (Grabens are areas ofcollapsed substrate.) Since 1990, coral spawningresearch has focused on identifying participatingorganisms, recording their behavior, andcapturing genetic material for fertilization anddevelopment studies. Researchers are now inter-ested in determining gene flow among reef sitesthroughout the western Caribbean and Gulf ofMexico. Year-one missions will conduct uninter-rupted observations throughout the coralspawning period, conduct observation of coralspawning in habitat deeper than previouslyobserved, and collect gamete samples.

Studies of the Banks’ deep habitats are currentlylimited to work conducted in the 1970s. Areas ofspecial interest include brine seeps and grabens.The Flower Garden Banks are surface expres-sions of underlying salt domes, pushed up asportions of 160-million-year-old salt layers risethrough the seabed.Seawater percolatingthrough the porouscarbonate bank to thelevel of the salt domeproduces brine seepage,most notably on the EastFlower Garden Bank

where water is seven times saltier than overlyingseawater. The unusual chemistry of brine seepsgives rise to bacterial-based food chains we knowlittle about. As salt layers dissolve, grabens form.The DeepWorker will be used in a comprehen-sive exploration of these unique habitats.Missions will likely significantly increase thenumber of species reported to date.

Gray’s ReefGeorgia

Just off the coast ofGeorgia, in waters 20meters (66 feet) deep,lies one of the largestnear-shore sandstonereefs in the southeastern United States. The areaearned sanctuary designation in 1981, and wasrecognized as an international Biosphere Reserveby UNESCO in 1986. NOAA’s Gray’s ReefNational Marine Sanctuary consists of sand-stone outcroppings and ledges up to threemeters in height, with sandy, flat-bottomedtroughs between. Because of the diversity ofmarine life, Gray’s Reef is one of the mostpopular sport fishing and diving destinationsalong the Georgia coast.

HabitatsCalcareous sandstoneSand bottom communities

Tropical/temperate reef

Georgia

AtlanticOcean

NGray’sReef NMS

Coral spawning

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Key SpeciesNorthern right whale AngelfishLoggerhead turtle Barrel spongeGrouper Ivory bush coral Black sea bass Sea whips

Protected Area60 square kilometers (23 square miles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsInvestigations in the first year will focus onstudies of paleoenvironmental and archaeologicalresources and characterization of deep waterfishes. Previous undersea exploration at Gray’sReef has found rich and unexpected potential forsignificant new finds of both a paleontologicaland archaeological nature. These findingsinclude fossilized remains of nearly 12 extinctmammals from the last glacial period (thePleistocene).

Fish surveys will beconducted usingstandard surveymethods and dataforms developed by Reef Environmental Education Foundation (REEF). The REEF FishSurvey Project is designed to provide informa-tion necessary to assess the long-term trends offishes in popular recreation areas such asnational marine sanctuaries. DeepWorker andscuba diving missions will collect data on thepresence/absence, frequency of occurrence, andrelative abundance of fishes in the sanctuary.

Gulf of theFarallonesCalifornia

NOAA’s Gulf of theFarallones NationalMarine Sanctuaryincludes nurseries and spawning grounds forcommercially valuable species, at least 33 speciesof marine mammals, and 15 species of breedingseabirds. One quarter of California’s harbor sealsbreed within the sanctuary. The Farallon Islandsare home to the largest concentration ofbreeding seabirds in the continental UnitedStates. The sanctuary boundaries include thecoastline up to mean high tide, protecting anumber of accessible lagoons, estuaries, bays,and beaches for the public.

HabitatsSandy beaches Pelagic, open oceanRocky shores Esteros Mud and tidal flats Salt marshRocky subtidalDeep benthos, continental shelf and slope

Key SpeciesDungeness crab Common MurreGray whale Ashy Storm-petrelSteller sea lion White sharkShort-bellied rockfish Pacific sardine

California

PacificOcean

N

Gulf of theFarallones

NMS San Francisco

Bay

Greater amberjack

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Cultural ResourcesShipwrecksFossil beds

Protected Area3,250 square kilometers(1,255 square miles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsInvestigations in the first year will focus on sitecharacterization. The primary objectives will be to characterize subtidal habitats and assessalgae, invertebrate, and fish populations.Previously, the presence of white sharks hasprevented systematic investigations of thesubtidal environment in this area. DeepWorkerwill be used to establish transects for document-ing species composition and abundance. Specialattention will be given to assessing red abaloneabundance and creating a species list of subtidalalgae.

HawaiianIslandsHumpbackWhaleHawaii

The shallow, warmwaters surrounding the main Hawaiian Islandsconstitute one of the world’s most importanthumpback whale habitats. Scientists estimate

that two-thirds of the entire North Pacifichumpback whale population migrates toHawaiian waters each winter to engage inbreeding, calving, and nursing activities. Thecontinued protection of humpback whales andtheir habitat is crucial to the long-term recoveryof this endangered species.

HabitatsHumpback whale breeding, calving, and nursing groundsCoral reefsSandy beaches

Key SpeciesHumpback whale Green sea turtlePilot whale Trigger fishHawaiian monk seal Cauliflower coralSpinner dolphin Limu

Cultural ResourcesNative Hawaiian practicesNative Hawaiian fish pondArchaeological sitesHistoric shipwrecks

ProtectedArea3,367 squaremiles (1,300square miles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsNo projects planned for 1999.

Pacific Ocean

N

Hawaiian IslandsHumpback Whale NMS

Kaua’iO’ahu

Moloka’i

Lana’i

Kaho’oiawe

California sea lion

Humpback whale

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MonitorNorth Carolina

On January 30, 1975,the nation designatedits first nationalmarine sanctuary. Thesite was the wreck of the USS Monitor,a Civil War vessel that lies 26 kilometers (16 miles) southeast of Cape Hatteras, NorthCarolina. The Monitorwas the prototype for aclass of U.S. Civil War ironclad, turretedwarships that significantly altered both navaltechnology and marine architecture in the nine-teenth century. The Monitorwas constructed in a mere 110 days. At 70 meters (230 feet) deep, it is beyond reach for most people to visit.However, this artificial reef provides a home formany animals, including sea anemones, seaurchins, and ahost of fishes.

HabitatsPelagic, openoceanArtificial reef

Key SpeciesAmberjack Sea anemonesBlack sea bass DolphinRed barbier Sand tiger sharkScad Sea urchins

Cultural ResourcesThe remains of the Civil War ironclad USSMonitor

Protected Area2.6 square kilometers (1 square mile)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsNo projects planned for 1999.

Monterey BayCalifornia

Monterey Bay, thelargest of NOAA’smarine sanctuaries,hosts a rich array of habitats. Within its bound-aries lie rugged rocky shores, lush kelp forests,and one of the deepest underwater canyons onthe west coast. The canyon cuts more than 3,500 meters (2 miles) deep and reaches nearly100 kilometers (60 miles) out to sea. Sanctuaryhabitats abound with life, from tiny plankton tohuge blue whales. With its great diversity ofhabitats and life, the sanctuary is a national focusfor marine research and education programs.

HabitatsSandy beaches Submarine canyonRocky shores Pelagic, open oceanKelp forests Wetlands

Key SpeciesSea otter Brown PelicanGray whale RockfishMarket squid Giant kelp

NorthCarolina

Atlantic Ocean

N

Monitor NMS

PamlicoSound

California

Pacific Ocean

N

MontereyBay NMS

San Francisco Bay

MontereyBay

Big Sur

CapeHatteras

Amberjacks living in the wreck

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Cultural ResourcesIndian midden sitesNaval airship USS Macon

ProtectedArea13,798 squarekilometers (5,328 squaremiles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsInvestigations in the first year will focus onmonitoring fish populations at Big CreekEcological Reserve (BCER); characterizing mid-water and deep sea day-night activity patterns inthe Monterey Canyon; and studying the ecologyof prickly sharks. A baseline of benthic habitatsand fauna has already been established forBCER, but long-term monitoring is critical inevaluating this reserve’s effectiveness. Relativeabundance, species composition, and sizestructure of fishes relative to depth and habitattype in BCER and adjacent unprotected areaswill be quantified.

The distribution and abundance of midwater fishand invertebrates will be assessed, comparing observations from DeepWorker with those madefrom a remotely operated vehicle, the Ventana.

The ecology of prickly sharks (Echinorhinuscookei) will also be investigated. MontereyCanyon is the only place that prickly sharks havebeen observed and tagged in large numbers. It isnot known whether prickly sharks reside in thecanyon or stop there along a migratory route.Also, very little is known about the sharks’behavior and habitat preferences.

Olympic CoastWashington

NOAA’s OlympicCoast NationalMarine Sanctuaryspans 8,570 squarekilometers (3,310 square miles) of marine watersoff the rugged Olympic Peninsula coastline. Thesanctuary averages approximately 56 kilometers(35 miles) seaward, covering much of the conti-nental shelf and protecting habitat for one of themost diverse marine mammal faunas in NorthAmerica. It is also a critical link in the PacificFlyway. The sanctuary boasts a rich mix ofcultures, preserved in contemporary lives ofmembers of the Quinault, Hoh, Quileute, andMakah tribes.

HabitatsRocky and sandy shores Seastacks and islandsPelagic, open ocean Kelp forests

Key SpeciesTufted Puffin Humpback whaleBald Eagle Pacific salmonNorthern sea otter DolphinGray whale

PacificOcean

N

OlympicCoast NMS

Gray’s Harbor

Monterey coastline

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Cultural ResourcesNative American petroglyphs and villagesHistoric lighthousesShipwrecks

ProtectedArea8,572 squarekilometers (3,310 squaremiles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsInvestigations in the first year will focus onlocating and exploring habitats and species in thedeep sea and assessing the impacts of varyingdegrees of commercial fishing. Little is knownabout deep sea fisheries, yet commercial fishingis one of the most significant activities in thissanctuary. Researchers will expand on workalready begun to map trawlable and untrawlablehabitats and estimate fish densities in them.First, fish attraction and avoidance experimentswill be conducted to test the validity of underseavideo fish counts. Fish and invertebrate popula-tions will also be surveyed. Investigators hope tocompare control, lightly trawled, and heavilytrawled sites.

Researchers will also characterize physical andgeological features and associated biological communities of areas that have not been wellstudied, such as submarine canyons, faults,diapirs, and other parts of the continental shelf.The unique physical and chemical features ofthese deep sea habitats will likely give rise tounusual biological communities.

StellwagenBankMassachusetts

Formed by the retreat of glaciersfrom the last Ice Age,Stellwagen Bank consists primarily of coarsesand and gravel. Its position at the mouth ofMassachusetts Bay forces an upwelling ofnutrient-rich water from the Gulf of Maine overthe bank—leading to high productivity and amulti-layered food web with species rangingfrom single-celled phytoplankton to the greatwhales.

HabitatsSand and gravel bank Boulder fieldsMuddy basins Rocky ledges

Key SpeciesNorthern right whale Bluefin tunaHumpback whale Atlantic codWhite-sided dolphin Winter flounderStorm Petrel Sea scallopNorthern Gannet Northern lobster

Cultural Resources1898 wreck of the steamer PortlandMiddle Ground fishing area

Massachusetts

AtlanticOcean

N

StellwagenBank NMS

Cape Cod

Tskawahyah Island

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Protected Area2,181 square kilometers (842 square miles)

Sustainable Seas Expeditions ProjectsInvestigations in the first year will focus ondeep-water fish characterization and day-nightactivities of fishes at deep boulder reefs. Deepboulder reefs are a common habitat within theGulf of Maine, particularly in Stellwagen Bank.Previous and ongoing studies have shown that

boulder reefs support unique fish communities.Preliminary observations suggest that speciescomposition and activity patterns change fromday to night, even at reefs as deep as 100 meters.DeepWorker will be used to collect data onspecies composition and behavior of fishes usingdeep boulder reefs during day and night.

Wolffish