Introduction to GeographyPeople, Places, and Environment, 6eCarl DahlmanWilliam H. Renwick

Chapter 3: Landforms: The Dynamic Earth

Holly BarcusMorehead State UniversityAnd Joe NaumannUMSL

2

Geologic Time – in 24 hours

• Humans have been around for ½ of one minute on this scale.

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Geomorphology

• Study of landforms and processes that create them

• Lithosphere–Rocks and soil–Surface landforms

• Plains, hills, plateaus, & mountains

• valleys, depressions

4

Landform Processes

• Endogenic (endogenous)– Internal forces beneath or at Earth’s surface

• Mountain building (diastrophism) • Earthquakes• Volcanism

• Exogenic (exogenous)– External forces

• Weathering – physical (mechanical) & chemical• Erosion by moving water, air, or ice

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Endogenous (endogenic) – Exogenous (exogenic)

• Forces from Inside the earth

• Forces from outside the earth

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Endogenic Forces

• Plate Tectonics• Volcanism• Seismic action

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Plate Tectonics

• Fixed Earth Theory– Continents and oceans fixed in place

• Pangaea Hypothesis– Supercontinent – Alfred Wegener, 1900s

• 1960s = Plate Tectonics Theory

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Understanding Geological Activity Spanning Geologic Time• Continental Drift

– Alfred Wegener, etc.

– International Geophysical Year research

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Process of Continental Drift

• Appears to be generated by heat-sustained convection cells in the interior (particularly the asthenosphere which is not solid)

• Movement occurs where plate boundaries abut– Divergence – spreading along mid-ocean ridges which lie above

and upwelling in the cell– Convergence (subduction) – colliding plates over the downward

portion of a convection cell– Ring of Fire – largely an area of subduction

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Earth’s Crust & Layers

• Mantle– Rock beneath

crust

• Tectonic plates– Earth’s rigid

crust

• Plate movement– Earthquakes – Volcanoes– Mountain

building

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Convectional Cell Movement

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Types of Crustal Forces

• Tensional – dragging action

• Compres-sional – pulling action

• Sheer – oblique action

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Plate Boundaries: click pictures

• Divergent – Plates spreading apart

• Seafloor spreading• Rift Valleys in Africa

• Convergent– Plates push together

• Dense plates dive below• Volcanic eruptions

• Transform – Grinding of plates past each

other• San Andreas Fault, CA

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Convergent Boundary: click the diagram below to see the video

• Oceanic plate meets oceanic plate, and an island arc develops.

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Convergent Boundary

• Oceanic plate meets continental plate and a volcanic mountain chain forms on the continental plate

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Convergent Boundary

• Continental plate meets continental plate and massive uplift occurs – click picture to see a video that reviews this type of plate boundary as well as the others.

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Earthquakes

• Focus– Place of actual

movement

• Epicenter– Surface directly

above focus

• Seismograph– Recording device for seismic waves– Richter Scale, 1935

• Seismic waves– Recordable vibrations

• Click on the diagram above to see the video

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Extent of Seismic Wave Transmission

• Due to differences in the nature of the bedrock in those areas

• New Madrid amplifies more than San Andreas

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Richter Scale

• An increase in one whole number signifies an earthquake 10 times greater power and a decrease in one number signifies an earthquake of 1/10th the power

• An increase in two whole numbers signifies an earthquake of 100 times greater power, etc.

• Compared to a 5.6 quake, one of 6.6 is 10 times more powerful and one of 7.6 is 100 times more powerful and one of 8.6 is 1000 times more powerful.

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Earthquakes

When Where RS Casualties

2/29/1960 Morocco 8.8 12,000

5/21/1960 Southern Chile 9.5 5,700

6/28/1976 Tangshan, China 8.0 750,000

3/31/1983 Papayah, Colombia 5.7 200,000

5/31/1970 Peru 7.7 66,794

6/20/1990 Caspian Sea (Iran) 7.6 50,000

12/7/1988 Armenia 6.9 28,854

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Earthquake Damage

• Rebound theory -- left

• Alaska ’64 - above

• Some soils may liquefy

Earthquake zones

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Volcanoes: Most frequent along subduction zones.

• Magma– Molten rock below the Earth’s surface

• Lava– Molten rock reaching Earth’s surface

• Volcano– Surface vent for lava

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Volcanoes

• Click on the volcano to see a video

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Volcano Type: Shield Volcano

• Runny lava – low relief

• Basalt rock• Mauna Loa,

Hawaii• Sedate

Volcano Type: Strato-volcano

• Composite cone volcanoes (strato-volcanoes)– Krakatau in Indonesia, largest– Ash, pyroclasts, sulfurous gas– Explosive– High relief

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Life Cycle of a Hot Spot Island

Stages of development: (1) formation over hot spot (2) moved past the hotspot & inactive (3) being eroded by the action of the sea.

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Volcanoes & casualties

When Where Casualties

3/5/1815 Mt. Tambora, E. Indies 162,000

1/11/1683 Mt. Etna, Sicily 60,000

8/26/1883 Krakatau 37,000

5/8/1902

8/30/1902

Mt. Pele, Martinique 29,000

2,000

11/13/1985 Northern Columbia 25,000

3/25/1669 Mt. Etna, Sicily 20,000

1792 Mt. Unzen, Japan 15,000

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Rock Formation

• Igneous – Cooled molten crustal material– Basalt, granite

• Sedimentary– High pressure– Sandstone, shale, limestone

• Metamorphic– Compacted by heat, pressure– Marble from limestone– Slate from shale

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Igneous Rock Formation

• Igneous rock is cooled, hardened magma or lava

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Formation of Sedimentary Rock

• Click on the picture to see the video

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Metamorphic Rock Formation

• Metamorphic rock has been structurally changed – both igneous and sedimentary rock may become metamorphic rock.

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Minerals - Ores

• Natural substances that comprise rocks• Types

– Sima• Denser rocks = silicon, magnesium, iron minerals

– Sial• Less dense• Silicon and aluminum

• Distribution– Crustal movement

– Continental shields• Mining districts – where concentrations in ore are above

average.

Shields are the anchors of continents, being composed of the oldest rock formations. These often contain good mineral deposits.

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Faults

• Fractures in Earth’s crust from stress

• Types– Normal

• Divergent plate boundary• Stretching

– Reverse• Convergent plate boundary• Compressed rock• Appalachian Mountains, Wasatch Range, Himalayas

– Thrust• Horizontal movement

Normal Fault Reverse Fault

Normal & Reverse Faults

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Types of Faults – seismic activity

• Normal fault

• Reverse fault

• Left slip fault

• Right slip fault

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Earthquakes and Volcanoes canTrigger Tsunamis

• Click on the picture on the left to see the video on tsunamis, particularly December 26, 2004.

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Rocks & Landforms

• 3 influences– Crust movement = Landform creation

(endogenic)

– Rock movement• Reactions to crustal stresses

• Weak (greatly affected by weathering & erosion)

• Strong (less affected by weathering & erosion)

– Mineral composition of rocks affects soils• Also affects the degree to which it can be

weathered and the type of weathering to which it is most susceptible.

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Exogenic Forces

• Weathering• Erosion – reaction to the force of gravity

overcoming inertia– Mass wasting

– Moving water

– Moving air

– Moving ice (glaciers)

• Deposition – the flip side of erosion

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Weathering

• Process of breaking rock into pieces• First step in formation of soil

– Chemical weathering,• Process of breaking down rock by:

– Exposure to air and water– Acids released by decaying vegetation– Oxidation– Leaching– Decomposition of calcium carbonate

– Mechanical weathering • Process of rocks breaking down by physical force

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Weathering and Climate

• The combinations of temperature and precipitation affect the speed and extent of weathering.

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Mechanical Weathering: Ice

• Ice contracts as the temperature drops to a point around 4ºF – below that temperature, it begins to expand

• This is the same process that prepares streets for potholes in the winter.

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Freezing & Thawing at Work

• frost shattered granite bedrock in Manitoba, Canada – similar occurrences in Siberia.

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Mechanical Weathering: Exfoliation

• Some rock seems to have layers that peel off, hence the name

• The surface of the rock expands and contracts more readily and to a greater degree than the interior. This weakens bonds and the surface breaks off.

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Movement of Weathered Material

• Mass movement (Mass wasting)– Slow gradual movement occurring near the surface,

soil creep

– Dramatic movements such as rock slides, landslides and mudflows

• Surface erosion– Caused mostly by rainfall

– Runoff (overland flow)

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Agents of Erosion and Deposition

• Running Water– Stream Landscapes

• in Humid Areas• in Arid Areas

• Groundwater• Glaciers• Waves and Currents• Wind• Gravity

We live on a water world where water is a very active force

70%

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Humans Are the #1 Earth Movers

1000

1000

4300

14000

24000

30000

45000

0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000

Tons of earth moved per year

Winds

Ocean Waves

Glaciers

continental mountain building

rivers

oceanic mountain building

Humans

Pro

ce

ss

Who Moved the Earth

Series1 1000 1000 4300 14000 24000 30000 45000

WindsOcean Waves

Glacierscontinental mountain

riversoceanic mountain

Humans

Source:

Discover

Magazine,

October

2004

Remember the damaged houses in Black Jack, Missouri in the 1970s?

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Soil Creep at Missouri Bottoms

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Stream Drainage

• 2 sources – Ground water – Overland flow

• Drainage basin

• Discharge– Volume of water

carried per unit time

• Sediment transport – Movement of material– l Deposition

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Side-cutting by streams

• As the grade becomes less steep (as one approaches the mouth of the stream), side-cutting action becomes more active than down-cutting and the valley widens and the stream meanders.

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Running Water: Erosion and Deposition

• Weathering breaks rock down into smaller pieces which can then be carried away by moving water with sufficient speed and volume.

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Erosion and stream (valley) formation

• Where the slope is steep, the down-cutting action is greatest• Where the slope is slight, the side-cutting action is greatest.

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Stages of Stream Development

• Youthful – V-shaped – relatively straight course• Mature – U-shaped – moderate meandering & possible

braiding• Old Age – wide floodplain – meandering stream and ox-bow

lakes

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Stream Action in Humid Areas

Cycle of Landmass Denudation

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Stream Action in Arid Areas – less rounded and more angular landforms

Moving water is the major erosional and depositional force even in desert areas!

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Stream Gradation

• Exogenic forces operate to reduce all earth land features to sea level. Click the picture below to see the video

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Waterfalls

• Click on the picture below to see the video

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KARST TOPOGRAPHY

This involves the combination of chemical weathering and moving water to create a very unique kind of topography found where there are deep layers of limestone.

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Karst Topography Development

• St. Louis, MO, is located in a karst area.

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Diagram of Karst Features

• When large caverns collapse, large depressions are formed

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Karst Features

UK

Vietnam

IllinoisSinkhole

Springs

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Karst Regions

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Erosion from Human Activity

• Faster than that which occurs geologically– Accelerates natural processes

• Sharply increase amount of sediment in streams– Increasing the possibility of and extent of flooding.

• Major contributors include:– Deforestation – clear-cutting in particular– Agricultural development– Urban development – particularly choosing land not well

suited for development, i.e., floodplains

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Human-enhanced erosion by water

Homes in danger

Sea surges undercut hotel

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Movement of Water in Soil

• This is a major part of the hydrologic cycle.

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Using Water Table Water

• The Water table reflects the surface somewhat

• Water drawn from the water table is the major source for life in some areas.

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Soil and ground water

• More porous soil (right) allows more water to percolate down into the soil & move slowly move toward streams, raising them gradually

• Less porous soil (left) allows more water to run off and raise stream levels more quickly

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Vegetative cover encourages water absorption by soil

• Vegetation temporarily holds & water releases it slowly so it can be more easily absorbed by the soil.

• Where vegetation is absent, water may fall faster then bare earth can absorb it and run downhill to streams causing floods

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Groundwater Use

• When the rate of withdrawing groundwater exceeds the rate of recharging, the water table drops. Wet years with flooding = high water table & drought years – low water table

Recharging Withdrawing

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Artesian systems

• Aquiclude (impermeable rock layer) above and beneath the aquifer holds or “traps” the water under pressure.

• Often used to irrigate crops in arid areas.

When water is withdrawn at a rate greater than the recharge rate, the aquifer is gradually emptied – it will take nature much longer to recharge it than humans to drain it.

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Flooding can cause big changes

• THEY CALL IT A FLOOPLAIN BECAUSE FLOODING IS A NATURAL OCCURANCE – IT IS THE “RELEASE VALVE” OF THE DRAINAGE BASIN

1993 N. Mississippi Basin Flashflood in northern Arizona

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FLOODPLAINS

• Floodplains are not appropriate places for intensive, expensive developments.Appropriate uses

of floodplains include farming, wildlife preserves, parks, recreation areas for camping boating, etc.

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Ice, Wind & Waves

• Glaciers – currently not very active

• Wind causes erosion wherever soil is bare– Deserts

– Farmlands

– Coastal areas

• Coastal areas – Active areas of erosion

– Pounding waves and surf

– Land lost or gained

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MOVING ICE: GLACIAL ACTION

Glaciers are melting back more than they are advancing today. When glaciers advance, erosion is the major action; however, when they melt back, deposition is the major action.

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Alpine Glaciers

• Rivers of ice flowing from colder to warmer regions

• Act like conveyor belts picking up sediment and dropping it in depositional areas– Moraines

• Terminal moraines

• Lateral moraines

• Medial moraines

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Two Primary Categories

• Alpine or valley glaciers – in the last 100 years, these have been greatly reduced in number and size due to melting back.

• Continental glaciers – those that cover large expanses of land – Antarctica and Greenland are the last two remaining areas of this type. There is evidence that both are thinning and shrinking.

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Glacier Terms:

• Fjord (fiord): As tidewater glaciers retreat, the steep-sided valleys fill in with sea water.

• Calving: Tidewater glacier sheds icebergs off its face into the sea -- sections as large as huge buildings.

• Moraines:The accumulation of eroded rock that a glacier picks up and drops as it recedes. This can be seen at the face of a glacier (end moraine), the side of a glacier (lateral moraine) or at the glacier's farthest point of advance (terminal moraine). Underwater moraine shoals can decrease the depth of a fjord from hundreds of feet to less than ten feet over very little distance.

• Terminus:The front or termination of a glacier. The beginning of a glacier is called its head.

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Glaciers

• Click on the picture to see the video

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Valley Glaciers (Alpine) Merging

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Mountains before glaciation

Before

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Mountains after glaciation

After

Horn

Bridal veil fall

Pater noster lakes

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Glacial Valleys & Fjords

• Fiords form when rising sea levels fill the bottom of coastal glacial valleys after melt back occurs.

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Coastal Glaciers

• Icebergs present a hazard to shipping lanes

Calving

Small fiord

Icebergs

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Some Glacial Landforms

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Drumlins & Kames

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Continental Glaciation

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4 Advances in North America

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Glacier Facts #1

• Presently, 10% of land area is covered with glaciers.• Glaciers store about 75% of the world's freshwater.• Glacierized areas cover over 15,000,000 square

kilometers.• Antarctic ice is over 4,200 meters thick in some areas.• In the United States, glaciers cover over 75,000 square

kilometers, with most of the glaciers located in Alaska.• During the last Ice Age, glaciers covered 32% of the total

land area.• If all land ice melted, sea level would rise approximately 70

meters worldwide.• Glacier ice crystals can grow to be as large as baseballs.

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Glacier Facts #2

• The land underneath parts of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet may be up to 2.5 kilometers below sea level, due to the weight of the ice.

• North America's longest glacier is the Bering Glacier in Alaska, measuring 204 kilometers long.

• The Malaspina Glacier in Alaska is the world's largest piedmont glacier, covering over 8,000 square kilometers and measuring over 193 kilometers across at its widest point.

• Glacial ice often appears blue because ice absorbs all other colors and reflects blue.

• Kutiah Glacier in Pakistan holds the record for the fastest glacial surge. In 1953, it raced more than 12 km in three months, averaging 112 meters per day

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Glacier Facts #3

• In Washington state alone, glaciers provide 470 billion gallons of water each summer.

• Antarctic ice shelves may calve icebergs that are over 80 kilometers long.

• Almost 90% of an iceberg is below water--only about 10% shows above water.

• The Antarctic ice sheet has been in existence for at least 40 million years.

• From the 17th century to the late 19th century, the world experienced a "Little Ice Age," when temperatures were consistently cool enough for significant glacier advances.

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Impact of Past Glaciations

• Soils– Advance and retreat of glaciers leave behind

highly fertile soil

• Water supply– Retreating glaciers left sand and gravel

deposits yielding large supplies of ground water

• Transportation routes– Water transport is heavily influenced by glacial

melt water channels left behind by receding glaciers• Check Ohio & Missouri River courses!

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WIND ACTION

Wind is most active in arid regions, but never as important as water in altering the earth surface and creating landforms

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Effects of Wind on Landforms

• Significant shaper of landforms in dry regions and regions not well covered by vegetation

• Carries great quantity of fine grained sediment such as sand and loess

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Wind Speed

• As the wind speed increases, larger particles can be carried by the wind (erosion)

• As the wind speed decreases, larger particles begin to settle to the surface first (deposition)

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Arid Landscapes

• Erosion and deposition by wind helped create this landscape, BUT moving water was the more active shaping force here.

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Land shaping water in the desert

• Water carved this canyon and wind and mass wasting assisted.

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Coastal Erosion

• Waves– Form of energy traveling horizontally along the

boundary between water and air

• Longshore currents– Currents traveling parallel to the shore, caused by

repeated breaking of waves. Capable of carrying enormous amounts of sediment

• Sea-level change– Continuing to rise as seawater volume increases from

glacial melting– Causes increased erosion as waves break closer to

shore

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Oceans, Waves, & Gradation

• Wave action erodes and builds the coastal margins of islands and continents

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Dynamic Waves and Currents

• The shoreline is constantly changing – click on the picture below to see the video

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Rates of Landform Change

• Horizontal movement

• Vertical movement

• Human activity

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Landform Regions

• Plains• Hills and Low

Tablelands• High

Tablelands• Mountains• Widely Spaced

Mountains• Basins or

Depressions

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Major Landform Types

Plains: level to gently rolling land at a low elevation

Plateaus: level to gently rolling land at a higher elevation and often with a sharp drop-off or scarp (escarpment) on at least one side.

Hills: rounded landforms with little level land and at moderate elevations (1,000 to 5,000 ft.)

Mountains: steeply sloped landforms with narrow ridges and practically no level land – found at high elevations usually above 5000 feet.

Major Landforms in Profile Escarpment

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Environmental Hazards

• Environmental processes–Natural

– Tornadoes, landslides, earthquakes

–Human vulnerability– Rebuilding after natural disaster– Seawalls– Levees

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The Rock Cycle

• Much of the earth, and all living things, is composed of recycled materials.

End of Chapter 3