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51

Overview of Alternative Fuels

By

M. K. Chaudhari

Consultant

mkc.arai@gmail.com

VIT M. Tech (AUTO) Course: Elective-Automotive Fuels and Emission

VTU M.Tech (ICE) Course; Internal Combustion Engine

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Why Alternative Fuels??

• Environmental concerns

– Global Warming

– Toxic Emissions (Health Effects)

– Drilling and Transport

• Supply Concerns

– Fossil fuels are nonrenewable

– Will eventually run out

• Political Concerns

– Dependence on Foreign Oil (Import Bill)

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Characteristics of Alternative

Fuels

• Provide more energy on weight basis.

• Higher octane rating

• Simpler and smaller molecular structure

• Low carbon to hydrogen ratio

• Low volumetric energy content

55

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Vehicle

Issues

Less volumetric efficiency leading to power loss

On board storage

Infrastructure.

Engine Valve seat wear

Fast filling causes heating of cylinder,hence under filling

Failure of Bust Disk of Cylinder valve

Fuel Composition

Advantages Octane > 120 Good lean combustion

characteristics, clean burning

Abundant availability Negligible sulfur / toxic HC

content Less CO2 / unit of energy

than gasoline or diesel

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NGV’s in the World * Source INGAV Website

Total ~ 3. 9

million

Canada

20,505

USA

130,000

Columbia

43,380

Bolivia

15486

Argentina

1,243,024

Brazil

850,000

Venezuela

50,000

Europe

495000

Egypt

52,000

Iran 22,058

Russia

36,000

Ukrain

45,000

Japan

20,600

India

204,000

China

69,300

Taiwan 6

Pakistan

600,000

New

Zealand

1555

Indonesia

4660

Italy 400,800

Bangladesh

31,650

Malaysia

12,000

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Gas Market in India-Snapshot • Demand and Supply conditions

– Actual supply of ~81 MMSCMD(metric million standard cubic metres per Day) against an allocation of ~120 MMSCMD

– Huge latent demand- demand to be 231 MMSCMD by 2007

• Infrastructure

– Limited infrastructure- HBJ(Hazira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur), Parts of AP, Tamilnadu and Northeast

• Key players

– Upstream- ONGC, OVL(ONGC Videsh Ltd.), Reliance, BG, Cairn, Niko, HOEC (Hindustan Oil Exploration Company)

– About 85% supplies from ONGC, OVL

– Midstream – Gail, GSPL(Gujarat State Petronet Ltd), Oil

– About 90% transportation volumes by GAIL

– Downstream- GAIL, GGCL, IGL, MGL, GAEL (Gujarat Adani Energy Limited)

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Gas Market in India – Recent Developments

•India’s First LNG Project of 5

MMTPA(million metric tonnes per

annum) set up at Dahej , first

shipment in January 2004

•Reliance Discoveries in KG Basin

and Orissa blocks- 50MMSCMD

supplies in 3-4 years

•25 year –7.5 MMTPA contract with

Iran- supplies to commence in 2009

•Talks underway for transitional

pipelines from Iran, Myanmar

•1,100 km Pipeline planned to be

commissioned by 2006 from from

Kakinada to Uran – connecting East-

West

•Plans of ~ 6000 km National Gas

Grid by GAIL

•Draft Regulatory Bill and Revised

Draft Pipeline Policy Under

Circulation

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Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Vehicle

• Issues

– volumetric efficiency less

=>power loss (however less than

CNG)

– On board storage

– Phase change

– Heavier than air

– Fuel Composition

Advantages

Octane rating nearly 100

Clean burning, lower tendency for smog formation

Easily be liquefied

Negligible sulphur/ toxic HC content

Less CO2 / unit of energy than gasoline or diesel

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Alternative Fuels - Pros & Cons

Methanol/Ethanol

– Advantages

• High octane rating

• Ease of fuel storage

• Clean burning

characteristics

– Disadvantages

• Materials compatibility

• Burns with invisible flame

• Low energy density

• Infrastructure

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Ethanol Demand and Supply Ethanol demand and supply for blending in gasoline

Ethanol Production Utilization of Ethanol

Year Gasoline demand MMT

Ethanol demand Th KL

Molasses production MMT

Molasses Th KL

Cane Th KL

Total Th KL

Potable Th KL

Industry Th KL

Balance Th KL

2001-02

7.07 416.14 8.77 1775 0 1775 648 600 527

2006-07

10.07 592.72 11.36 2300 1485 3785 765 711 2309

2011-12

12.85 756.35 11.36 2300 1485 3785 887 844 2054

2016-17

16.4 965.30 11.36 2300 1485 3785 1028 1003 1754

From the table it is clear that the present production of ethanol is mainly from

molasses. It is projected that in the year 2006-07, 1485 thousand kl of ethanol

ethanol from sugarcane directly will be produced in addition to 2300 thousand kl

from molasses. Thus for meeting the demand of 10% blending, capacity to

produce ethanol in the country is sufficient. But for blending purposes anhydrous

ethanol is required and the distilleries will have to put up facility to dehydrate

ethanol and produce anhydrous ethanol.

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Alternative Fuels - Pros & Cons

Hydrogen/Fuel Cell Vehicles

– Advantages • Very less emissions

• High octane rating

• High energy content

• Lighter than air

• High efficiency with fuel cell vehicles

– Disadvantages • Infrastructure

• Wider flammability limit

• Fuel storage

• Vehicle range and power loss

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Properties of Alternative Fuels

Fuel Density(kg/m3)

Igni.Temp

( C)

Stoi.A/F

RON EnergyContent(MJ/kg)

Energyrelative toGasoline/

Diesel

NG 0.83 650 16.2 130 47.7 1.11/1.12

LPG 2.25 400 15.5 104 46.1 1.08/1.08

Methanol 0.79x103 420 6.4 112 19.7 0.46/0.46

Ethanol 0.79x103 450 9.0 111 26.8 0.627/0.63

Hydrogen 0.090 560 34.0 106 120.0 2.81/2.82

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Emission Performance Comparison

Fuel Exh. Emission Performance

CO NOx THC NMHC F A

Petrol (TWC) B B B B B B

Diesel =/

Methanol = =

M85 =/ =/ =

Ethanol = =

Natural gas =/

LPG

Hydrogen =/ N N

F=Formaldehyde, A= Acetaldehyde, B=Baseline, = Lower,

= Higher, N=None

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Comparison of Costs of CNG and LPG v/s

Gasoline and Diesel Type of vehicle 4 wheelers (Cars) 3 wheelers

(Autorickshaw) Bus

Fuel CNG LPG PETROL

CNG LPG PETROL

CNG DIESEL

Measuring unit Kg Ltr Ltr Kg Ltr Ltr Kg Ltr

Fuel cost in Rs. Per unit 20.88 22.75 42.61 20.88 22.75 42.61 20.88 29.95

Mileage- kms/unit of fuel 21 13.5 15 35 22.5 25 3.5 3.5

Operating cost in Rs. /km 0.99 1.69 2.84 0.60 1.01 1.70 5.97 8.56

Average vehicle running per day – kms

50 50 50 100 100 100 100 100

Operating cost Rs. /day 50 84 142 60 101 170 597 856

Saving per day (compared to petrol)

92 58 111 69 259

Annual Savings 33696 21088 40436 25305

94587

Approx. Conversion cost- caburettor vehicle

30000 350000

Approx. Conversion Cost- MPFI Vehicle

45000

19000 20000 15000

Pay Back period by using CNG (in months)- For Carburretor vehicle

11

Pay Back period by using CNG (in months)- For MPFI vehicle

16

11

6 7

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** Source foe mileage: A study paper available on http://www.gailonline.com/gassummit/feb3-a-k.pdf ( Development of CNG Infrastructure in India )

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How Safe are CNG/LPG Vehicles

• Any motor fuel can be dangerous if handled

improperly. Fuels contain energy which must be

released by burning. Gasoline is a potentially

dangerous fuel, but over time, we have learned to

use it safely. The same is true of CNG/LPG.

CNG/LPG safely generates our electricity, heats

our homes and cooks our meals. But, like

gasoline, CNG/LPG must be understood and

respected to be used safely.

DME as an Alternate Fuel

• Dimethyl ether (DME) is the simplest ether

expressed by the chemical formula, CH3OCH3.

• DME is a colorless liquid which boils at -25.1°C at

atmospheric pressure.

• Its saturated vapor pressure at 25°C is 6.1 atms., low

enough to be easily liquefied under pressure.

• Its properties are similar to those of propane and butanes;

therefore, the storage and handling technologies for LPG

are applicable to DME

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DME Production Although DME can be manufactured from a

wide variety of hydrocarbon feed stocks and by many different methods, Natural gas is most commonly used in commercial production today.

The steps involved in DME production are,

Natural gas desulfurization

Auto thermal reforming

Carbon dioxide adjustment

Combined methanol and DME synthesis

Final DME purification

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Properties of DME

The toxicity of DME is very low, less than

that of methanol and comparable to that of

LPG.

DME decomposes in atmosphere in several

tens of hours; therefore, DME is considered

not to cause the greenhouse effect nor ozone

layer depletion

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Properties of DME

• In comparison, DME may be characterized as

follows:

• Its weight base heating value (kcal/kg) is lower

than those of propane and methane but higher

than that of methanol,

• Its lower explosion limit is higher than that of

propane, indicating higher safety than propane in

case of leakage,

• The color of burning flame is visible blue

(Safety)

• Its cetane number is between 55 and 60

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Properties of DME

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Property DME Propane Methane MethanolDiesel

fuel

Chemical formulaCH3O

CH3 C3H8 CH4 CH3OH N.A

Boiling point, °C -25.1 -42 -161.5 64.6180-

370

Liquid density,

g/cm3 20°C0.67 0.49 N.A 0.79 0.84

Gas specific gravity

relative to air1.59 1.52 0.55 N.A N.A

Saturated vapor

pressure, atm. at 6.1 9.3 246 N.A N.A

Ignition

temperature, °C235 470 650 450 250

Explosion limit, % 3.4-17 2.1-9.4 5-15 5.5-36 0.6-6.5

Cetane number 55-60 5 0 5 40-55

Net heating value,

kcal/Nm314,200 21,800 8,600 - -

Net heating value,

kcal/kg6,900 11,100 12,000 4,800 10,000

Di-Methyl Ether :An alternate fuel for CI engines

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On board Fueling System for DME

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Emissions from DME Fueled Vehicles

Studies show that :

Soot free combustion can achieved at all speeds and loads, even at A/F equivalence ratio below 1 (rich)

Fuel Consumption is lower with DME fuel at any given Nox level

Very low injection pressures can be used with DME(approx. 220 bar)

HC emissions contain mostly unburned DME and Methane

Nox emissions upto 75% less have been observed

CO almost half that of Baseline Diesel has been observed

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Liquefied Gas- Must Maintain Liquid Phase (at around 9 bars)

Very Low Liquid Viscosity

High Leakage

Low System Efficiency

Poor Lubricity-Fuel System Durability is affected. Additives such as Lubrizol 539A are needed (500ppm concentration approx).

DME is non-corrosive, but elastomers need to be carefully selected

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Technical Challenges of DME as an Automotive

Fuel

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Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFV)

Technology Options

• Bi-fuel – Either alternative fuel or conventional fuel,

2 separate fuel tanks & fuel delivery systems.

• Dedicated fuel – Alternative fuel only

• Dual Fuel – Both alternative and conventional fuels,

different fuel tanks and fuel delivery systems

• Flexible fuel – Mix of alcohol and gasoline

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Alternative Fuels - Storage

• Natural Gas:

– CNG: Gaseous storage at 200 bar

– LNG: Liquid storage at -162 ºC & 1 bar abs.

• LPG: – Liquid storage at 8-9 bar

• Methanol/Ethanol: – Liquid storage

• Hydrogen: – Gaseous storage at 300 bar

– Liquid storage at -253 ºC and atm pressure & metal hydrides

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What is Bio-Diesel

• Biodiesel (Methyl Esters) is a diesel replacement fuel made from

Vegetable Oils such as Soya beans, Mustard Seed, Sunflower, Corn,

Palm or Rapeseed. It can also be made from recycled restaurant oils.

• It is renewable, biodegradable, non-hazardous and dissolves in

water faster than sugar making it safer for air, water and soil.

• It is 11% oxygen by weight. Soy biodiesel contains less than 1ppm

sulfur.

• Biodiesel requires no engine modification.

• A chemical process called transesterification is used to transform

the raw vegetable oil into biodiesel and glycerin using Methanol and

lye.

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What is Bio-Diesel?

• Biodiesel Lowers toxic emissions and Particulate Matter

drastically.

• Biodiesel is safe to store, and has a high flash point

• Biodiesel has greater Cetane (50-56)

• Better Lubricity than diesel fuel

In Fact, 1% biodiesel increases lubricity by up to 30%. • Biodiesel is the first and only alternative fuel to have complete evaluation of

emissions results and potential health effects submitted to the US EPA under the

Clean Air Act 211 (b)*

* Source: Graham Noyes, World Energy, USA

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Emission Benefits obtained with

Bio-diesel

Regulated *B100 B20 Total Unburned Hydro Carbons -93% -30%

Carbon Monoxide -50% -20%

Particulate Matter -30% -22%

Nox +13% +2%

Non-regulated Sulfates -100% -20%

PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) -80% -13%

nPah (nitrated PAH) -90% -50%

Ozone Potential of speciated HC -50% -10%

Mutagenicity -80% - 90% -20%

*B:Biodiesel ** source: Graham Noyes, world energy, USA

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Biodiesel Demand and Supply

Year Diesel Demand in million tons

Bio-diesel requirement for blending million tons

@ 5% @ 10% @ 20%

2001-02 39.81 1.99 3.98 7.96

2002-03 42.15 2.16 4.32 8.64

2003-04 44.51 2.28 4.56 9.12

2004-05 46.97 2.35 4.70 9.40

2005-06 49.56 2.48 4.96 9.92

2006-07 52.33 2.62 5.24 10.48

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Safety issues for Hydrogen

– Wide flammability limits(4%-75%)

– Ignition energy is ~1/10 that of gasoline

– Non-toxic,colorless and odorless

– Metal embrittlement • Compatible metals:

Aluminium,stainless steel,copper

• Imcompatible metals: Iron and zinc

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Safety issues for Hydrogen

– Low density/viscosity requires care for leak tight joints

– Propensity to leak : For the same pressure and hole size, hydrogen would leak approx. 2.8 times faster than natural gas and 5.1 times faster than propane.

– Burns with nearly invisible flame. Hydrogen fires are more difficult to detect than Methane or gasoline fires.

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Engine related issues for Hydrogen

– Backfire may occur due to hot spots (valve, spark plug), hot oil ash.

– Low density requires high flow rate injection configuration

- With Port Injection power loss at stoichiometry is comparable to CNG (~15%).

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Emissions from Hydrogen Fuel

– Because it contains no carbon, hydrogen combustion does not produce HC, CO, PM or CO2 emission (other than those which arise from lubricating oil.

- NOx emissions are on the same order as conventional diesel engine (this is the main difference between using hydrogen in IC engines and fuel cells)

- Cooling of air or hydrogen is effective in reducing NOx emission.

- If cryogenic liquid storage is used, the injected hydrogen can significantly cool the charge temperature

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FUEL CELLS

Fuel Cell is a mini power plant that converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy giving off water and heat as byproduct.

Hydrogen can be produced from renewable solar, wind, hydro or geothermal energy by electrolysis of water

Hydrogen can also be extracted from Natural gas, hydrocarbons, ethanol, methanol.

Each Fuel Cell provides a very small voltage, hence individual cells are arranges in stacks to provide required power to the application.

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A Typical Fuel Cell

Hydrogen gas is piped into the fuel cell unit. Encouraged by a catalyst,

hydrogen atoms are split, giving off a stream of electrons (2e-) for

electricity, and positively charged hydrogen atoms (2H+). The electrons

pass through an anode and cathode creating an electrical current. Oxygen

(O2) is piped into the other end of the fuel cell and combines with the

charged hydrogen atoms (2H+) to form water.

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Major barrier is the need to provide H2 to fuel cell as the storage of H2 on board is not practical.

Solution to this problem is to use a fuel processor that converts HC to H2 rich reformate or storage of metal Hydrides

Fuel reformers have two main reaction components

Primary reformer:involves conversion of HC, methanol to Syngas(Mixture of CO,CO2, H2 and H2O

CO conversion: involves reaction of CO with water to produce CO2

Efficiencies for HC and Methanol reformers are now typically in 75-90 %+ range, with overall system efficiencies around 40%

FUEL CELLS

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Comparison of Energy Storage Technologies to

Store the Same Amount of Energy

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Gasoline

Diesel

Methanol

Ethanol

Propane (Liquid)

Methane (liquid)

Methane (300bar)

Hydrogen (liquid)

Hydrogen(300bar)

Metal Hydride(FeTi)

Equivalent Volume (liters)

Equivalent Mass (kg)

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Fuel Cell Emission Benefits

Regulated air pollutants such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and unburned hydrocarbons are nearly absent.

The Department of Energy (DOE) has estimated that more than 1 million tons of these pollutants would be avoided each year with only a 10 percent penetration of fuel cells into the car and light truck market.

*Fuel cells emit 40 percent to 60 percent less carbon dioxide than conventional power generation systems when hydrogen is derived from carbon-based fuels.

Carbon dioxide emissions can be completely eliminated when hydrogen is produced using solar or wind power.

*Source: US DOE

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FUEL CELLS -

Green House Gas Emissions

0 50 100 150 200 250

Petrol ICE

Petrol FC

MeOH FC

Comp H2 FC

Petrol Hybrid

Diesel Hybrid

Chain CO2 emissions [g/km]

Shell

Texaco

BP Amoco

Exxon

Major CO2

reductions

through

onboard

reforming

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CONCLUSION

• Alternative fuels prove to be promising alternate energy source from the point of view of

– emission reduction

– economics of operation

• Selection of appropriate technology of conversion will be the key issue.

• Introduction of bi-fuel vehicles and subsequent change over to dedicated version.

• Good potential to retrofitment of conversion kits on in-use vehicles.

• Formulation of standard conforming to global requirement.

• Development of adequate infrastructure for dispensing

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• Refilling stations to be located at strategic points.

• Future work - fuel injection for flexible and gaseous fuels for Indian vehicles.

-Fuel Cell Development, Ethanol/Methanol usage.

• Public awareness, Govt. and manufacturer’s support.

• Hydrogen is a promising alternate energy source from the point of view of

– emission reduction

– economics of operation

• Selection of appropriate technology of storage of hydrogen will be the key issue.

CONCLUSION

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CONCLUSION

• Retro fitment of hydrogen fueled engines on in-use vehicles to be ascertained.

• Formulation of safety code of practice/standard for fuel specification/ component/Vehicle testing conforming to global requirement .

• Development of adequate infrastructure for production, storage,distribution and dispensing

• Apart from technical & economic issues, issues of public perception for H2 as auto fuel is important

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• Fuel cells offer a technology which can dramatically reduce air pollutants.

• Cost of fuel cell is still a major issue with regard to marketing of fuel cells ,as they are composed of expensive materials.

• Recent break through have reduced the amount of platinum that fuel cell will require,however improving energy density of cells will be another important challenge for researchers over the next decade.

CONCLUSION (contd.)

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