Integrated Plan for Chad's Water Development and Management (SDEA) -- (Avril 2003)

AN INTEGRATED STRATEGIC APPROACH TOWARDS MDG

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0NOTEThe names used in this document and thepresentation of the data included therein shall not inany way be construed as a reflection of the position ofthe Secretariat of the United Nations Organisationwith regard to the legal status of the countries,territories, towns or zones, or their authorities, nor inrespect of the outline of their frontiers or limits.Thereproduction of the texts of this document, as well asthe figures, maps or photographs not covered bycopyright, is permitted on condition that the source isclearly defined in a readable manner as follows: From“Integrated Plan for Chad’s Water Development andManagement”, 2003. HCNE-MEE-UNDP-UNDESA.

DESIGN & EDITINGLIN D.A. DURAND [email protected]

TO ACHIEVE THEMILLENNIUMGOALS AND ENSUREINTEGRATED AND PARTICIPATORYMANAGEMENTOF WATER AND ITSINFRASTRUCTURE

INTEGRATED PLAN FOR WATERDEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

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The SDEA, an adaptable document on water policy in Chad,

was validated by the nation andapproved by the Council of Ministers (HCNE)

on 30 April 2003

THE INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATERDEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT (SDEA)

CONSISTS OF EIGHT ADAPTABLE DOCUMENTS�

This main document�

An atlas of maps (GIS)�

Six thematic volumes:Water resources and the environment

Village water supplyUrban and semi-urban water supply

SanitationPastoral water supply

Agricultural water supply

�

Each thematic volume has adopted an integrated approach.The institutional, human, physical, technological and financial constraints and perspectives have been studied in each one. The thematic volumesshould be referred to for detailed information concerning these issues.

This main document includes and summarises the results from these thematic volumes according to the economic, social and environmental dimensions of the water sector, which is vital to sustainable development.This has led to the definition of a policy and a costed action plan.

Chad is striving to overcome the identified constraints, with well-proportioned, gradual external support, in order to achieve the national objectives of the SDEA

and the Millennium Development Goals.

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SUMMARY - CONCLUSIONS

The first Integrated Plan for Chad’s Water Development and Management The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management (SDEA) is a multisectoral and strategicmaster plan providing guidelines for the sustainable development and management of water resources inChad, with a view to meeting the populations’ basic needs and promoting the economic and socialdevelopment of the country while protecting the environment. It complies with the objectives set by theChadian Government to reduce poverty and, in terms of the deadline of 2015, is consistent with theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) as specified and completed during the Johannesburg WorldSummit on Sustainable Development.

The SDEA constitutes an adaptable reference instrument to be used by all internal and externalstakeholders who are, or will be, involved in the Chadian water sector.

It contains:

� a detailed analysis of the current situation in order to learn the lessons of past projects andapproaches;

� Chad’s new water policy;

� the general implementation strategies defined for the sustainable development of each water-relatedsubsector, as well as the general strategies defined for the accompanying measures. These notablyinclude:� the organisation and national capacity-building strategy of the sector ;� the strategy for mobilising internal funds (involving the users and the Chadian government’s policy;

the country will begin exploiting oil in 2004);� the strategy for mobilising external funds (financial aid);� the indicator-based strategy for monitoring the SDEA programmes and their impacts;� a strategy for assessing and updating the SDEA based on a national unit equipped with modern

resources for managing information on the SDEA and its shared data base, including its gradualextension to decentralised levels.

� a costed action plan for each set of physical or accompanying programmes in order to encourage short-term priority actions aimed at reaching the objectives set for 2010 and 2020. This action plan is basedon the fundamental framework of all the projects and programmes which are either in progress or tobe approved for the next five years.

The SDEA integrates the basic human needs, economic options for development, environmental constraintsand water resources into a single overall approach to sustainable development. Therefore, the SDEA is notrestricted to “drinking water and sanitation” issues; its integrated approach encompasses all the othereconomic uses (industrial, agricultural, pastoral, fisheries) and environmental uses of water (rain water,surface water and groundwater), a resource which is vital, unique, shared, limited in quantity and vulnerableto pollution.

The SDEA consists of eight adaptable documents based on an updatable GISThe complete SDEA comprises a main document (the present document) and six thematic volumes (onefor each subsector): village water supply, urban and semi-urban water supply, pastoral water supply,agricultural water supply, water resources and the environment, and sanitation. It also includes an eighthdocument: an atlas of the main adaptable maps (GIS) produced during the project.

The SDEA is the result of a national participatory approachThese documents are the result of a wide national consensus that involved all the stakeholders who areactive in the Chadian water sector. They were discussed in detail by the Intersectoral Technical Committeefor Water (CTIE), a technical and operational consultation mechanism presided by the Directorate ofHydraulic Affairs at the Ministry of the Environment and Water. The entire SDEA has also been validatedin the regions and at national level, with support from another multi-stakeholder consultation mechanism,the National Water Management Committee (CNGE) consisting of general managers, a few elected

members of the National Assembly and a representative of the mayors. The consultation mechanism hasbeen placed by decree under the Prime Minister’s authority, in his capacity as president of the High NationalCouncil for the Environment, the political body that approves the SDEA.

The SDEA documents were drawn up in Chad according to a strategic, integrated approachMore than 30 national consultants were called upon to partitipate in the process of drawing up the SDEA.They were selected and trained in the basic concepts of participatory planning, and made aware of theimpact of water in the fight against poverty through equitable, sustainable access to clean water, sanitationand income-generating activities dependent on water. They were supported when necessary by eightinternational consultants also recruited by UNDESA (United Nations Department of Economic and SocialAffairs). The reports produced by these various consultation teams were discussed by the IntersectoralTechnical Committee for Water (CTIE). Following this first series of reports, each volume was finalised bycarrying out additional studies and work in order to produce comprehensive documents covering each waterand sanitation subsector.

During the second stage, the UNDESA (executing agency) team from the support project (funded by theUNDP) produced an overview of each volume for subsequent analysis and discussion at the subsectorworkshops organised in April and May 2002 in N’Djaména. These workshops, operating under the aegisof the CTIE, brought together the institutional stakeholders and civil society representatives (users, privatesector, associations, etc.) by subsector ; the remarks and observations that they contributed wereincorporated in the final version of each thematic volume.

A general overview of these subsector documents, accompanied by additional studies of macroeconomicaspects, the link between access to water and poverty reduction, the financial aspects (notably the users’contribution to the water service cost and the contribution from the State’s budget during the oil boom era)coupled with a study of sector organisation and the indicator-based monitoring-assessment of the SDEA,were all used to draw up the initial version of the main SDEA document. This initial version was validated,under the aegis of the National Water Management Committee (CNGE), during regional workshops heldin Abéché, Moundou and Mao in late June and the first two weeks of July 2002.

The remarks and recommendations made during the regional validation workshops were included in thesecond version of the main document, which was validated nationally in early November 2002.

The third version includes the recommendations from the national validation workshop and, lastly, the fourthand final version (the present one) includes the recommendations from the High National Council for theEnvironment that were set forth when the Government gave its final political approval to the SDEA on30 April 2003.

The main SDEA document consists of five chaptersChapter 1 gives an assessment-diagnosis of each water and sanitation subsector. The main conclusions ofthis assessment are as follows (see each thematic volume for detailed information):

� Chad has considerable reserves of water. However, this should not hide the major constraints involvedin mobilising water resources, in particular the unequal distribution of rainfall and surface water bothgeographically and in time, and the lack of knowledge about how the main aquifers work. As a generalconclusion, it is clear that water resources are no hindrance to the economic and social developmentof Chad. However, a prerequisite to developing these water resources will be to carry out detailedstudies in order to provide more information on the relations between the main hydrological andhydrogeological systems in the country.

� The drinking water supply rate for the population of Chad as a whole was only 23% in 2001. It wasa mere 17% in rural areas, 25% in towns in the non-concessionary area and 40% in towns in the STEEconcessionary area. Major efforts need to be made in order for the entire population of Chad to haveequitable and widespread access to drinking water and also to achieve the Millennium targets (anoverall access rate of 60%).

� The absence of essential basic data, such as livestock numbers and fodder resources, is a majorconstraint in evaluating water requirements and appropriate facilities in the field of pastoral watersupplies, and in developing the entire stock-rearing sector.

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� The average increase in cereal production has been only 2% per annum over the past 20 years inspite of major investment in the agricultural water supply sector, while the annual population growthrate over the same period has been 2.5%. Current cereal production satisfies only a little over 55% ofrequirements. Significant efforts must be made to increase the productivity of the existing irrigationareas and to develop new schemes in order to maintain and in particular to increase the level ofsatisfaction of cereal requirements for the population as a whole.

� There is practically no basic sanitation infrastructure, in either rural or urban areas. Everything needsto be done in this field. In addition, there are numerous institutional stakeholders involved in sanitation,working with almost no financial resources and too often without being able to coordinate theiractivities and programmes. However, in recent years, initiatives have been taken by neighbourhoodorganisations to make up for the shortcomings of this subsector, but on a very local scale.

� The legal and regulatory framework is very scant. The Water Code is the only law governing water.However, the decrees bringing this law into force had still not been promulgated in 2001. This hampersharmonious development in this area, especially with regard to defining and sharing responsibilitiesamong the various stakeholders and managing the facilities for exploiting water resources.

� There are many stakeholders ranging from private to public. To develop and strengthen the privatesector, it seems essential to encourage partnerships between national and international companies.With regard to the public sector, it seems important to clarify the role and responsibilities of the variousstakeholders in the water sector and to define the legal and regulatory framework in detail.

� National capacity-building in all sectors is a priority and a necessity in order to ensure the sustainabledevelopment of water resources and guarantee socio-economic development for present and futuregenerations.

Chapter 2 is devoted to forecasting the basic needs of each subsector in terms of water, equipment andaccompanying measures. These forecasts of needs are based on the Millennium Declaration, completed inJohannesburg (WSSD-2002), notably with regard to sanitation. This universal declaration now constitutesthe common reference document used by all developing and developed countries. It sets out concrete goalsto be achieved by 2015. The following extracts are related to water:

“... We also resolve to halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the world’s people whose income is lessthan one dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger; and also, by the same date,to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach, or to afford, safe drinking water.”

“... By the same date, to have reduced under-five child mortality by two thirds of current rates”;

“We reaffirm our support for the principles of sustainable development including those set out in Agenda21, agreed upon at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, at Rio de Janeiro inJune 1992… and, as first steps, we resolve to stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources bydeveloping water management strategies at regional, national and local levels, which promote bothequitable access and adequate supplies”.

Taking this declaration as a reference, the drinking water requirements of villages (with populations rangingfrom 300 to 2000) are estimated at 10 300 new water points (hand pump equivalents), which will supply60% of these populations by 2015. In urban areas, in the non-concessionary sector, it is estimated that afurther 488 basic supply units1 (BSU) will be needed to satisfy 62% of the resident population. In the STEEconcessionary area (11 towns), priority must be given to upgrading and extending the existing networks.However, to perpetuate this new infrastructure and guarantee that it will be sustainable, it is essential tocreate a favourable environment for the management and maintenance of the equipment (capacity-building, strengthening of the institutional framework).

1Basic supply unit:drinking water supplysystem consisting of aborehole, pumpingequipment (solar orthermal), a water towerand a small distributionnetwork comprising 3 to5 stand-pipes.

As far as pastoral water supply is concerned, before starting any major water point constructionprogrammes, it is essential to improve the basic knowledge required, such as livestock numbers and fodderproduction capacity. These data can then be used to plan spatial distribution more efficiently, in anenvironmentally-friendly manner and to calculate the number of pastoral water points (currently estimatedat about 4000) more accurately. Capacity-building is another priority for the pastoral water supply sector.

In agricultural water supply, the target to be reached is the development of an additional 100 000 hectaresof land. Other measures to be carried out in parallel include the repair of existing equipment (large andsmall irrigation areas, etc.), as well as increasing productivity and capacity-building.

In sanitation, everything needs to be done. In urban and semi-urban areas, this will involve graduallyimplementing individual sanitation by building latrines geared to the different contexts, setting up wastecollection systems and training the populations in basic sanitation practices. In rural areas, health educationprogrammes will be disseminated among the village populations as well as in schools and health centres. Basicinfrastructure, such as ventilated and improved pit latrines, filtering wells, etc., will be developed in villages.

In terms of water resources and the environment it will be necessary to obtain better knowledge of themechanisms behind the aquifer systems, river systems, aquatic ecosystems and their interactions. Capacity-building will play a key role in this respect, as will the creation of data collection and processing procedures.

Chapter 3 discusses water policy and implementation strategies. Having defined the national objectives,compatible with the Millennium Development Goals and those of the WSSD action plan, Chad’s water policyconsists of twelve major founding principles, which will guide the measures to be carried out to achievesustainable development of water resources and associated services. These principles are listed below.

“Water policy of Chad:Principle 1 Water in the nation’s public domain:

“All water resources within the boundaries of the national territory are in the publicdomain. In this capacity, they form an integral part of the State’s public domain, which isinalienable and imprescriptible” (Article 1,Water Code).

Principle 2 Human health and access to water and sanitation:

The priority that has been defined for the Chadian population’s health requires that theyhave extensive, reliable access to drinking water, hygienic living conditions, sanitation, andsufficient, nutritionally balanced food. Water mobilisation must contribute to this priority,while ensuring that no subsectors, notably sanitation and food production, are neglected.

Principle 3 Integrated management and use of water resources to promote sustainable socio-economic development:

Water is a vital resource for the population, for the country’s socio-economic developmentand for biodiversity. Resources must be identified, protected and managed in an integratedmanner, in terms of both quality and quantity. The State services must continuouslyimprove knowledge, not just of water resources, considered as a whole, but also the mannerin which these resources are used.

Principle 4 Gradual refocusing of the State’s role:

The State’s services must gradually withdraw from construction and maintenanceoperations and refocus on their role as a public utility responsible for monitoring andinspection, as well as for promoting best practices. This must take place gradually, as anational private sector emerges and becomes capable of running these operations on along-term basis. Nevertheless, “regardless of the method used for managing the drinkingwater utility, the State (or the Decentralised Local Authority in the event of delegation) shallguarantee smooth operation” (Article 41,Water Code).

Principle 5 Water governance as close as possible to the user:

An integrated system for managing water as close as possible to the end user shallgradually be set up as decentralisation progresses, notably based on delegation of thepublic drinking water, pastoral water and sanitation service to the Decentralised LocalAuthorities and of the future devolved government structures.

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Principle 6 Institutional framework strengthening:

The functions and obligations of public and private stakeholders as well as operators andassociations concerning local water development measures must be clearly identified in alegislatory and regulatory framework. Any development action involving the control ofwater, whether national or carried out by an external partner, must fall within theinstitutional and regulatory framework of the water sector.

Principle 7 Participation of stakeholders and integration of water subsector policies:

There must be an institutional consultative mechanism at all territorial levels enabling themain stakeholders, and notably the users, to participate in the design, planning andmonitoring of development measures and the management of hydraulic equipment, waterresources and their uses.

Principle 8 A fair, transparent water price:

The water transfer and distribution equipment and the water operation service have a cost,which must be known to the users. The proportion of any subsidies must be transparentand known. The real-cost tariff of the public drinking water service must, as a minimum,cover all operating charges and renewal costs for equipment with a service life of less thantwenty years. Equity must be the rule when fixing the price of the drinking water servicewithin a homogeneous area. Thus, at a lower level of service, the unit cost of the waterservice must not exceed that of a higher level of service.

Principle 9 Collecting and sharing information:

The public manager responsible for water shall be obliged to collect and publishinformation on water resources, all their uses and all discharges into the environment.Information on management data subject to control by the public service for drinkingwater, productive water (for agriculture, pasture-land, industry) and sanitation is collectedin the context of a compulsory declaration system and laid down by law. In this context,the public service responsible for water must ensure that this information is collected,organised and processed to make it accessible, subject to certain conditions, to as manyusers as possible, with help from new technologies.

Principle 10 Water management and environmental protection:

The impacts of economic activity in the area of water, as well as the impacts of developingthe mobilisation and use of water as a natural resource, must be examined and dealt withfrom the perspective of protecting the aquatic ecosystems of Chad and the environmentin general. The polluter-pays principle must be applied.

Principle 11 Strengthening subregional cooperation on shared water:

Water must be a source of regional economic integration. Managing the use of sharedwater resources and protecting their quality must be agreed through subregionalconsultation and carried out in accordance with agreements signed with the existing basinauthorities.

Principle 12 National capacity-building is necessary to promote the sustainable management of water:

Capacity-building at national, regional and local levels is necessary in order to promote thesustainable use of water resources. Each project implemented in one of the subsectorsmust include a significant proportion of capacity-building at national, regional and locallevels. In addition, partnerships between the regional and international training institutesand the Chadian institutes will be encouraged.”

Subsectoral strategies have subsequently been defined. These strategies concern capacity-building,strengthening of the institutional, legal and statutory framework and the type and quantity of physicalinfrastructure to be developed. These subsector strategies are described in detail in section 1.4 of chapter3 and in each thematic volume.

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Chapter 3 also presents a macroeconomic analysis of the water sector. It highlights the fact that the threemain economic activities in Chad (excluding the oil sector), i.e., agriculture, stock-rearing and fisheries,representing over 40% of GDP, are closely dependent on water. Moreover, considering that water is first andforemost a shared, limited and vulnerable resource, essential to all forms of life, it is clear that water is astrategic lever in the economic development of Chad and the reduction of poverty. This analysis alsoemphasises the fact that, in spite of oil revenue, Chad needs its development partners in order to developthe water sector on a sustainable basis and to reach the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as statedand completed in Johannesburg (WSSD). However, given the scale of financial needs, it is important for theGovernment to increase its contribution to the sector over the next few years, since it currently representsonly about 3% of the funds. For this purpose, oil funds should be reallocated rapidly to assist the Chadianwater and sanitation sector.

Chapter 4 proposes an action plan that is related to the subsector strategies defined and also takes accountof the objectives to be reached. In addition, the expected impacts of each project are described. Theseprojects are spread over an initial period from 2000 to 2010, followed by a second period from 2011 to2020.

Moreover, in addition to the construction of physical infrastructure, the proposed projects include capacity-building, strengthening the institutional framework and improving knowledge. The table below summarises,in billions of FCFA, the investments that need to be found in the field of water, according to a balancedscenario and a voluntarist scenario.

Summary of investments to be found in billions of FCFA2

in the field of water (per year)

Subsector 2000-2010 2011-2020

Voluntarist Balanced Voluntarist Balancedscenario scenario scenario scenario

Urban DWS – Concessionary area 5.90 5.90 3.00 3.00

Urban DWS – Non-concess. area 0.50 0.50 1.90 1.90

Urban sanitation 1.50 1.40 7.40 6.70

Agricultural water supply 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

Pastoral water supply 5.20 5.20 3.20 3.20

Village water supply 3.20 3.20 7.10 1.00

Sanitation in rural areas 0.70 0.70 0.90 0.90

Water resources 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73

Total3 23.00 23.00 30.00 23.00

Source: SDEA 2002

In the balanced scenario case, these investments to be found represent:

� 1.5% of GDP in 2003 and 0.6% of GDP in 2011;

� about 16% of public investment throughout the period 2003-2015, i.e., investments compatible withthe country’s major economic equilibria as analysed above.

According to the voluntarist scenario, these investments represent:


� about 22% of public investment throughout the period 2003-2015.

It is certain that these scenarios will have to be rebalanced after the first update of the SDEA, notablybecause of the weighty areas of irrigation and concessionary urban DWS, over which a large amount ofuncertainty still reigns. However, the projects proposed to donors remain relevant in that they represent aguideline integrated plan that will provide a basis for study and more detailed programming.

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2 One billion FCFA =1.52 million euros

3 The annual total ofinvestments for each

period has beenrounded up to the

nearest unit.

Investments are way behind schedule in the following areas:

� sanitation;

� DWS in the concessionary area;

� agricultural water supply to small village irrigation areas;

� accompanying measures.

The issue of accompanying measures is fundamental. These govern the efficiency and local ownership ofmanagement and maintenance structures, and hence the sustainability of the physical investments. Toomany projects do not include sufficient capacity-building to manage installations. Little effort is devoted toproviding support for surface and groundwater management or for integrated water management.

Lastly, chapter 5 discusses the measurable performance of SDEA implementation, the economic and socialjustification of the plan, the indicator-based performance monitoring method and, lastly, methods forcoordinating and updating the SDEA.

In accordance with the Millennium Declaration and the Johannesburg Summit report, implementation of theSDEA will contribute to the fight against poverty and environmental protection by promoting:

� a consensus and national coordination based on a voluntarist but realistic policy of extensive, efficient,fair and affordable access to drinking water and basic sanitation;

� education, training and awareness-raising for public and private groups of stakeholders andassociations, whether national, regional or local, men, women or young people, for sustainable watermanagement;

� basic activities and investments that will have impacts on the sustainable improvement of thepopulations’ health;

� the implementation of strategies for the integrated management of water resources and uses in orderto protect the aquatic ecosystems upon which biodiversity conservation, agricultural production, fisheriesand stock-rearing depend.

Next stagesBeyond producing basic documents to support a water policy and its means of implementation, the SDEAis a dynamic process for constantly accompanying its subsequent development. Water is now consideredon its own as a priority “sector” of national development in order to reduce poverty.

The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management has already helped to redirect aid and drawup international aid programmes which are either in progress or scheduled. The consultation mechanism isfunctioning and will continue after the SDEA document has obtained political approval.

In 2003 and 2004, the Chadian government will begin setting up the central, regional and local (public,private and association-based) management procedures laid down in the SDEA. These efforts to rationaliseinvestments will be undertaken in close collaboration with the donors and technical organisations in the fieldof water in Chad, and will need to be supported and renewed for many years to come.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

2 Institutional framework for drawing up the integrated plan for water development andmanagement and its consultation domains ................................................................................................................. 14

3 Goals of the integrated plan for Chad’s water development and management and of themillennium declaration ............................................................................................................................................................. 15

CHAPTER 1PRESENT SITUATION OF CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

1 Context and demography ...................................................................................................................................................... 21

2 The need to develop hydraulic infrastructure in Chad and the fight against poverty ................... 26

2.1 Economic diversification ................................................................................................................................................ 26

2.2 The fight against poverty .............................................................................................................................................. 26

2.3 The place of water in the economy of Chad .................................................................................................. 27

2.3.1 Water and people’s well-being ................................................................................................................ 27

2.3.2 Water and economic development...................................................................................................... 27

3 Analysis of the basic hydraulic infrastructure situation in 2000 ................................................................... 28

3.1 The situation regarding village water supply schemes................................................................................. 28

3.1.1 Drinking water supply facilities in villages........................................................................................... 29

3.1.2 Equipment management and maintenance methods ................................................................. 31

3.1.3 Village water supply stakeholders........................................................................................................... 32

3.2 The situation of urban and semi-urban water supplies .............................................................................. 36

3.2.1 Equipment and estimates of drinking water supplies.................................................................. 36

3.2.2 Management of urban facilities................................................................................................................. 36

3.2.3 The cost of water ............................................................................................................................................ 39

3.2.4 The major stakeholders in urban water supplies .......................................................................... 39

3.3 The situation with regard to sanitation ................................................................................................................ 40

3.3.1 Urban sanitation facilities ............................................................................................................................. 41

3.3.2 Stakeholders in the field of sanitation.................................................................................................. 41

3.4 The situation with regard to pastoral water supplies.................................................................................. 42

3.4.1 Pastoral systems ................................................................................................................................................ 42

3.4.2 Livestock and pastoral resources............................................................................................................ 45

3.4.3 Pastoral water supply facilities .................................................................................................................. 45

3.4.4 Management of pastoral water points................................................................................................. 46

3.4.5 Conflicts connected with access to water points ......................................................................... 47

3.4.6 Pastoral water supply stakeholders ....................................................................................................... 48

3.5 The situation with regard to agricultural water supplies ........................................................................... 48

3.5.1 The physical context of agricultural water supplies..................................................................... 48

3.5.2 Agricultural water supply facilities and assessment ...................................................................... 49

3.5.3 Summary of agricultural water consumption .................................................................................. 52

3.5.4 Stakeholders in the field of agricultural water supplies ............................................................. 53

3.6 The situation with regard to fishing........................................................................................................................ 53

3.7 The situation with regard to hydroelectricity ................................................................................................... 53

3.8 The situation with regard to river and lake transport ................................................................................ 54

3.9 The situation with regard to tourism.................................................................................................................... 54

4 Water resources and demand satisfaction.................................................................................................................. 54

4.1 Surface water....................................................................................................................................................................... 55

4.1.1 Rainfall ..................................................................................................................................................................... 55

4.1.2 River systems ...................................................................................................................................................... 55

4.1.3 Summary of surface water uses .............................................................................................................. 59

4.2 Groundwater resources ................................................................................................................................................ 59

4.2.1 The aquifers of Chad..................................................................................................................................... 62

4.2.2 Groundwater uses: total figures ............................................................................................................... 65

4.3 Water resources and use in 2000: total figures .............................................................................................. 66

5 The environment and health of aquatic ecosystems ............................................................................................ 67

5.1 Plant cover, desertification and water points .................................................................................................... 67

5.2 Aquatic ecosystems.......................................................................................................................................................... 67

5.3 Environmental risks and their prevention ........................................................................................................... 68

5.3.1 Risks of natural origin..................................................................................................................................... 68

5.3.2 Risks of human origin..................................................................................................................................... 68

6 Major shared international watercourses .................................................................................................................... 71

6.1 The River Niger.................................................................................................................................................................. 71

6.2 The Lake Chad basin ...................................................................................................................................................... 71

6.3 The Nubian sandstone aquifer .................................................................................................................................. 72

7 Legal and institutional framework..................................................................................................................................... 73

7.1 Existing legislation.............................................................................................................................................................. 73

7.2 Existing regulations ........................................................................................................................................................... 74

7.3 General institutional context of the water sector ......................................................................................... 75

7.4 The consultative mechanism....................................................................................................................................... 77

8 Main conclusions, lessons and constraints to be overcome ............................................................................ 77

2 INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT ■ MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 ■ HCNE ■ MEE ■ UNDESA ■ UNDP2


CHAPTER 2FORECASTING BASIC NEEDS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

1 Development policy in Chad................................................................................................................................................ 89

2 Evaluation of requirements in the different subsectors ..................................................................................... 90

2.1 Village water supply requirements .......................................................................................................................... 90

2.1.1 Evaluation of drinking water point requirements in 2000 ....................................................... 90

2.1.2 Evaluation of village drinking water point requirements for 2020...................................... 93

2.2 Urban and semi-urban water supply requirements ...................................................................................... 94

2.2.1 Equipment requirements for the non-concessionary sector.................................................. 95

2.2.2 Concessionary sector equipment requirements............................................................................ 96

2.3 Sanitation requirements................................................................................................................................................. 97

2.3.1 Sanitation requirements in rural areas................................................................................................. 97

2.3.2 Sanitation requirements in urban and semi-urban environments........................................ 98

2.3.3 Sanitation requirements in industrial areas ....................................................................................... 99

2.4 Pastoral water supply requirements.................................................................................................................... 100

2.4.1 Assessment of pastoral water supply requirements................................................................. 100

2.4.2 Assessment of pastoral water point requirements ................................................................... 100

2.5 Agricultural water supply requirements............................................................................................................ 106

2.5.1 Changes in food needs .............................................................................................................................. 106

2.5.2 Agricultural water and equipment requirements ....................................................................... 107

3 Balance between water requirements and resources and environmental impacts of implementing the SDEA ................................................................................................................................................. 108

3.1 Constraints arising from mobilisation of water resources ..................................................................... 108

3.1.1 Surface water ................................................................................................................................................... 108

3.1.2 Groundwater.................................................................................................................................................... 109

3.2 Summary of water resources by large climatic zone................................................................................ 113

3.3 Conclusions on the water resource and environmental impact assessment.............................. 115

CHAPTER 3WATER POLICY AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

1 Water policy................................................................................................................................................................................. 123

1.1 Objectives ........................................................................................................................................................................... 123

1.2 Principles of the water policy.................................................................................................................................. 123

1.3 Specific objectives........................................................................................................................................................... 125

1.4 Subsectoral strategies................................................................................................................................................... 125

1.4.1 Strategic components of drinking water ......................................................................................... 125

1.4.2 Strategic components of pastoral water supply.......................................................................... 126

1.4.3 Strategic components of agricultural water supply ................................................................... 127

1.4.4 Strategic components in the water resources field .................................................................. 128

1.4.5 Strategic components in sanitation..................................................................................................... 128

2 Macroeconomic analysis and analysis of the water sector development strategy in light of the identified needs ............................................................................................... 129

2.1 Economic forecasts........................................................................................................................................................ 130

2.1.1 Analysis of the long-term performance of the Chadian economy.................................. 130

2.1.2 The oil economy............................................................................................................................................ 131

2.2 Strategy for mobilising funds.................................................................................................................................... 134

2.2.1 Ability of the population to pay the cost of water ................................................................... 134

2.2.2 Mobilising international aid....................................................................................................................... 137

2.3 Water sector funding strategy ................................................................................................................................ 138

2.3.1 Urban water supply...................................................................................................................................... 138

2.3.2 Urban sanitation ............................................................................................................................................. 140

2.3.3 Village water supply...................................................................................................................................... 142

2.3.4 Village sanitation............................................................................................................................................. 144

2.3.5 Pastoral water supply .................................................................................................................................. 145

2.3.6 Agricultural water supply .......................................................................................................................... 145

2.3.7 Water resources ............................................................................................................................................ 146

2.4 Summary of investments to be found in the field of water ................................................................. 147

3 Possible equipment and management scenarios and scenario selected ............................................... 148

3.1 Scenarios of possible future changes in drinking water supply ........................................................... 148

3.2 Sanitation scenario......................................................................................................................................................... 150

3.3 Pastoral water supply scenario............................................................................................................................... 150

3.4 Agricultural water supply scenario....................................................................................................................... 150

4 Organisational framework, decentralisation and the new water governance system ................. 151

4.1 Local level: locally-generated development and local stakeholder structuring with organised support .................................................................................................................... 151

4.2 Intermediary and central levels: participation from public stakeholders and services .......... 151

5 Conclusion..................................................................................................................................................................................... 153

CHAPTER 4ACTION PLAN

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 159

2 Village water supply action plan ...................................................................................................................................... 161

3 Semi-urban and urban water supply action plan .................................................................................................. 168

4 Pastoral water supply action plan .................................................................................................................................. 174

5 Agricultural water supply action plan .......................................................................................................................... 181

6 Water resources action plan ............................................................................................................................................. 185

7 Sanitation action plan ............................................................................................................................................................. 192


CHAPTER 5FUNDING - MONITORING - ASSESSING - UPDATING

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................................. 199

2 Fund mobilisation .................................................................................................................................................................. 200

2.1 Internal fund mobilisation .......................................................................................................................................... 200

2.1.1 The users’ contribution .............................................................................................................................. 200

2.1.2 The State’s public investments (excluding external aid)......................................................... 201

2.2 External fund mobilisation......................................................................................................................................... 201

3 Monitoring of SDEA implementation................................................................................................................... 201

3.1 Indicator-based monitoring of SDEA implementation ............................................................................. 201

3.2 Indicator-based monitoring of SDEA impacts ............................................................................................... 202

3.3 Monitoring of methodological consistency .................................................................................................... 203

3.4 Monitoring the mobilisation of funds ................................................................................................................. 204

3.5 Monitoring the impact of human activities on water resources......................................................... 204

4 Assessing the performance of SDEA implementation .......................................................................... 205

5 Updating the SDEA ............................................................................................................................................................. 205

Appendix 1 : List of participants ............................................................................................................................................ 207

Appendix 2 : Macro-economic context of the PRSP ................................................................................................ 217

Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 223


LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Population distribution according to administrative breakdown............................................ 24

Table 2: Population distribution by geoclimatic zone ...................................................................................... 25

Table 3: Estimated percentage of rural population with access to drinking water in 2000.................................................................................................................................... 33

Table 4: Population growth in concessionary and non-concessionary areas..................................... 36

Table 5: Distribution of modern wells per geoclimatic zone...................................................................... 46

Table 6: Characteristics of agricultural water supply facilities (2000) .................................................... 51

Table 7: Summary of agricultural water abstraction in 2000...................................................................... 52

Table 8: Surface water in Chad: abstraction for each type of use (2000) .......................................... 60

Table 9: Renewable resources (main aquifers).................................................................................................... 62

Table 10: Exploitable reserves (main aquifers)....................................................................................................... 62

Table 11: Main characteristics of hydrogeological units ......................................................................................63

Table 12: Estimated theoretical abstraction from the various aquifers.................................................... 66

Table 13: Total water resources and uses in 2000 .............................................................................................. 66

Table 14: Summary and analysis of strategy documents in the various water subsectors .......... 82

Table 15: Drinking water point requirements (HP equivalent) in village centres in 2000........... 90

Table 16: Summary of drinking water points for 2020..................................................................................... 93

Table 17: Specific water consumption hypotheses .............................................................................................. 94

Table 18: Estimated urban and semi-urban water requirements ................................................................ 95

Table 19: Urban and semi-urban water supply objectives to be met by 2020 .................................. 97

Table 20: Assessment of pastoral water supply requirement per geoclimatic zone..................... 100

Table 21: Estimated number of pastoral water points to be installed .................................................. 105

Table 22: Estimated production in 2001................................................................................................................. 106

Table 23: Estimated change in consumption per inhabitant between 2000 and 2020............... 106

Table 24: Estimate of requirements for various food products between 2000 and 2020 ....... 106

Table 25: Predicted rise in the consumption of dates, milk and meat in the Saharan zone (in tonnes) ........................................................................................................................... 107

Table 26: Changes in agricultural water requirements between 2000 and 2020 .......................... 108

Table 27: Summary of water resources and estimated abstraction by use ....................................... 114

Table 28: Public Investment Programme as a % of the donor and State totals.............................. 132

Table 29: Public Investment Programme in millions of FCFA..................................................................... 132

Table 30: Cost of a basic supply unit ........................................................................................................................ 135

Table 31: Ongoing and proposed urban water supply programmes..................................................... 139

Table 32: Ongoing and proposed urban sanitation projects....................................................................... 141

Table 33: Ongoing and proposed village water supply programmes..................................................... 143

Table 34: Ongoing and proposed rural sanitation programmes............................................................... 144

Table 35: Ongoing and proposed pastoral water supply programmes ................................................ 145

Table 36: Ongoing and proposed agricultural water supply programmes.......................................... 146

Table 37: Ongoing and proposed water resources programmes............................................................ 147

Table 38: Summary of investments to be found in FCFA billion in the field of water (per year)......................................................................................................................................... 147


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Administrative breakdown by prefecture................................................................................................ 23

Figure 2: Administrative breakdown by department............................................................................................ 23

Figure 3: Rural population density in the year 2000............................................................................................. 30

Figure 4: Locations of the main towns of the departments and sub-prefectures ............................. 38

Figure 5: Pastoral systems ..................................................................................................................................................... 43

Figure 6: Agricultural water supply schemes ............................................................................................................. 50

Figure 7: Orohydrography .................................................................................................................................................... 56

Figure 8: Main watercourses in Chad ............................................................................................................................ 56

Figure 9: Long-term rainfall variability ............................................................................................................................ 57

Figure 10: Annual flow rates of the Chari at Lake Chad ...................................................................................... 57

Figure 11: The main hydrogeological units in Chad................................................................................................. 61

Figure 12: Main environmental components ................................................................................................................ 70

Figure 13: Village drinking water point requirements (HP equivalents) in the year 2000 ................ 92

Figure 14: Estimation of pastoral water point requirements in Saharan zone ...................................... 101

Figure 15: Estimation of pastoral water point requirements in Sahelian zone...................................... 102

Figure 16: Estimation of pastoral water point requirements in Sudanian zone .................................... 103

Figure 17: Interpolation of static level depth............................................................................................................. 110

Figure 18: Specific discharge interpolation ................................................................................................................ 110

Figure 19: Conductivity interpolation............................................................................................................................. 111

Figure 20: pH interpolation.................................................................................................................................................. 111

Figure 21: Groundwater accessibility by borehole ................................................................................................. 112

Figure 22: Groundwater exploitability ........................................................................................................................... 112

Figure 23: Resources/Requirements summary........................................................................................................ 117

Figure 24: Overview of water resources in Chad.................................................................................................. 118

Figure 25: Consultative mechanism................................................................................................................................. 154

One billion FCFA = 1.52 million Euros


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSADB: African Development BankAFD: Agence Française de DéveloppementBADEA: Arab Bank for Economic Development in AfricaBELACD: Bureau d’Étude et de Liaison d’Action Caritative et de DéveloppementBET: Borkou-Ennedi-TibestiCNGE: National Water Management CommitteeCTIE: Intersectoral Technical Committee for WaterDGRHA: Directorate of Rural Engineering and Agricultural HydraulicsDH: Directorate of Hydraulic AffairsDLA: Decentralised Local AuthoritiesDREM: Direction des Ressources en Eau et de la MétéorologieDWP: Drinking water pointDWS: Drinking water supplyEDF: European Development FundEU: European UnionFAC: Fonds d’Aide et de CoopérationGDP: Gross domestic product GNP: Gross national productHCNE: High National Council for the EnvironmentHP: Hand pumpIFAD: International Fund for Agricultural Development LCBC: Lake Chad Basin CommissionLRVZF: Farcha Veterinary and Zootechnical Research laboratoryME: Ministry of Stock-RearingMEE: Ministry of the Environment and WaterMDG: Millennium development goalsMISD: Ministry of the Interior, Security and DecentralisationMWP: Modern water point NBA: Niger Basin AuthorityNGO: Non-governmental organisationONDR: National Rural Development OfficePRSP: Poverty Reduction Strategy PaperPWP: Pastoral water pointSDEA: Integrated plan for Chad’s water development and managementSECADEV: Secours Catholique DéveloppementSIA: Small irrigation areaSODELAC: Société de Développement du LacSTEE: Société Tchadienne d’Eau et d’ÉlectricitéSTI: Swiss Tropical InstituteTLU: Tropical livestock unitlUNDESA: United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDP: United Nations Development ProgrammeUNICEF: United Nations Children’s FundUNO: United Nations OrganizationURP: Urban reference planWHO: World Health OrganizationWPMC: Water Point Management Committee

Source: SDEA 2001

INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT ■ MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 ■ HCNE ■ MEE ■ UNDESA ■ UNDP8

11INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT ■ MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 ■ HCNE ■ MEE ■ UNO-DESA ■ UNDP

1 INTRODUCTIONThe Integrated Plan for Chad’s Water Development and Management (SDEA) is a multisectoral andstrategic master plan providing guidelines for sustainable development and management of waterresources in Chad, with a view to meeting the population’s basic needs and guaranteeing theeconomic and social development of the country while protecting the environment.

This document, stemming from a wide national consensus, proposes concrete measures forming partof a long-term vision, and may be viewed as both a process and a product. The multi-stakeholderprocess that was instigated while the SDEA was being drawn up will continue to provide a vital forumfor intersectoral consultation and will gradually infiltrate right down to local management level. It willalso adapt constantly to changes while being guided by the long-term vision of the water sector setout by the SDEA. As a product, following a detailed analysis of each water-using subsector, theIntegrated Plan for Water Development and Management defines a clear and consistent strategicframework for all the tasks to be implemented in order to attain a large number of development goalsset out in the Millennium Declaration1 and the Johannesburg action plan. It also includes aninstitutional and financial framework as well as a detailed, costed programme. For the next fifteenyears, the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management will constitute a major operatinginstrument that will contribute to the fight against poverty and to sustainable development in Chad.

In Chad, the proportion of the population with permanent access to safe water in rural areas was17% in 2000; the proportion implementing environmental health measures was 7%. In townsequipped with a drinking water supply (DWS), only 9.7% of the population have a connection, while27.5% obtain water from a public stand-pipe and 63% have to draw water from (often traditional)wells. On the whole, permanent access to drinking water is limited to 23% of the Chadian population.None of the towns has a functioning wastewater sewerage system and the collection networks aredilapidated. Less than 2% of city-dwellers have sanitary facilities with running water, while latrines arealmost non-existent in rural areas.

The poor are vulnerable to chronic diseases related to poor living conditions and lack of access towater and sanitation. Women and girls from villages without access to a drinking water point devotea great deal of time to fetching water (up to several hours each day in some bedrock areas) which,along with other chores, is often one of the factors depriving them of their right to education (thebasic education-level school-attendance rate among girls in Chad was 35.6% in 1999) and preventingthem from acquiring skills that would enable them to become involved in more productive andrewarding activities.

Two thirds of Chad is desert, and over the past thirty years the country has suffered the consequencesof a persistent drought that has speeded up the desertification process and reduced the surface areaof agropastoral land. Population growth and environmental damage linked to anthropogenic andclimatic pressures have extended pastureland areas southwards to the detriment of agricultural land,which regularly creates conflicts between farmers and stock rearers, while agricultural output perinhabitant and mean consumption in calories are currently decreasing.

From the economic point of view, the agriculture, stock-rearing and fishery sectors, which currentlyrepresent 40% of Chad's GDP, fundamentally depend on decisions made regarding water access levels(quantity and quality), spatial distribution of hydraulic networks within a homogeneous area or basin,national, regional and local water management methods, provision of management training andconservation of healthy basin aquatic ecosystems.

This severe lack of basic infrastructure and the multiple water-related issues prompted theGovernment to draw up a national water policy and integrated management strategies, defined in aplan setting out guidelines and planning investments and the rational use of national water resourcesin order to meet the population's basic needs more effectively. At the Government's request, the firstIntegrated Plan for Chad’s Water Development and Management was drawn up entirely in Chad,under UNDP2 funding and with methodological and technical support from UNDESA3. This referencedocument should contribute to making food crops less vulnerable to climatic variations, while reducingsources of conflict. It will also contribute to protecting the aquatic and basin ecosystems upon whichthe country's main economic sectors and rich biodiversity depend. In light of these needs the SDEAcovers sanitation, a natural extension of any water supply system, as a specific important subsector.

1 Declaration of Headsof State who gatheredat United NationsHeadquarters in NewYork in 2000, whichdefines quantifieddevelopment goals to bereached in all countriesby 2015. Thisdeclaration constitutes ajoint commitment fromthe countries to provideinternational aid, and isuniversally recognisedand referred to for allcooperation projects.It was completed andmade more specific,notably with regard tobasic sanitation, atJohannesburg inSeptember 2002 duringthe World Summit onSustainableDevelopment.

2 UNDP: United NationsDevelopmentProgramme.

3 UNDESA: UnitedNations Department ofEconomic and SocialAffairs (United Nationssecretariat).

The participatory, comprehensive approach (see appendix 1 for the list of participants and thebibliography) which was adopted to draw up the SDEA made it possible simultaneously to considerwater resources, human, institutional and financial resources, technological, ecological and economicaspects, and social and cultural factors, in order to ensure that they are integrated.

This study is being carried out just at the right time since Chad is entering the crude oil era and 72%of its oil revenues will be allocated to expenditure in declared priority sectors4 in Chad, i.e., education,healthcare and water, by virtue of law 001/PR/99 of 11 January 1999.

A great deal of work has been carried out over three years to draw up an inventory and assessmentof the existing situation and predict future needs for infrastructure and local capacity-building in orderto meet the goals that have been set. These efforts have resulted in a water policy, strategies formobilising financial, institutional and human resources and an action plan, covering a ten- and twenty-year period. This participatory approach to planning has also enabled the administrations of varioussectors to reach a consensus on specific strategies for monitoring water resources (both surface andgroundwater) and aquatic ecosystem resources, notably how they are protected and used by fivesubsectors: village water supply, urban and semi-urban water supply, sanitation, pastoral water supplyand agricultural water supply (not forgetting fisheries, hydropower, tourism and natural oranthropogenic risk management).

Throughout the national process of drawing up the Integrated Plan for Water Development andManagement, the recommended strategies and action and development plans were checked forconsistency by continuously comparing them with the Government's general development policy andwith policies governing other water-related sectors. However, the limits of the SDEA must be madequite specific in order to be clearly understood: the factors for developing an economic sector arenot limited to good access to water and the sound management thereof. The aim of the SDEA israther to complement and harmonise the other sectoral plans with the resources available within theframework of the Government's macroeconomic policy. Thus, the SDEA is not intended to replacea master plan, such as the food production master plan, which depends on several other factors.Nevertheless, the SDEA diagnoses the current situation and the past performance of irrigationsystems, and indicates constraints relating to the mobilisation and local management of water, beforeproposing areas for coordinated action at local level. Because of its transverse nature, themanagement of water and basic facilities can, indeed, be a potent factor for integrating local actions.

The SDEA thus responds to a priority for the Chadian Government which, given the lack ofharmonised approaches and the poor coordination of participants observed during the sectoralconsultation on rural development and the environment in 1999, considered it essential to revise thedesign and working methods in order to turn resolutely towards integrating activities within theframework of a comprehensive development approach.

The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management responds to one of the country’s basicneeds, since it presents a coherent policy, strategy and action plan for the water sector in a holisticand integrated manner. The SDEA takes account of the recommendations made at United Nationsconferences, notably Rio de Janeiro in 1992, set out in the “Agenda 21” reference document and, inparticular, those concerning the integrated management of water resources (Harare, 1998) whichundertook to draw up national strategies and costed action plans for development and integratedwater management by the end of 2002. This need was emphatically restated in Johannesburg duringthe World Summit on Sustainable Development (September 2002). The Chad SDEA is, in fact, apioneering document in subsaharan Africa. It has anticipated the recommendations made at thisrecent summit, “to develop integrated water resources management and water efficiency plans by2005, with support to developing countries, through actions at all levels”.

12 INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT ■ MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 ■ HCNE ■ MEE ■ UNDESA ■ UNDP

4 World Summit onSustainable

Development,Johannesburg, 2002.

Chad National Report,May 2002.


The SDEA sets great store by local action. An investment programme spread over twenty years,including an initial phase completed in ten years, is presented for a joint, gradual mobilisation ofinternal resources and aid from the international community. In compliance with the internationalcommunity’s Millennium Declaration (UN-NY-2000), implementation of the SDEA will thus contributeto the fight against poverty and protection of the environment by:

� ensuring a consensus and national coordination based on a deliberate yet realistic policy ofextensive, efficient, fair and affordable access to drinking water and basic sanitation;

� educating, training and increasing the awareness of stakeholder groups, whether public, private,associations, national, regional or local, men, women or young people, in the field of sustainablewater management;

� organising basic activities and investments that will influence the sustainable improvement of thepopulations’ health;

� implementing strategies aimed at the integrated management of water resources and their usesin order to protect the aquatic ecosystems upon which conservation and biodiversity, agriculturalproduction, fisheries and stock-rearing depend.

The final version includes observations from the SDEA political approval meeting that took place on30 April 2003 under the aegis of the HCNE (High National Council for the Environment). It alsoincludes remarks and observations made during the national validation workshop that took place inNovember 2002 and observations from the three regional validation workshops that took place inJuly 2002 under the aegis of the CNGE (National Water Management Committee). It was drawn uptaking account of the results of the six subsectoral validations carried out under the aegis of theIntersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) in April and May 2002. Given the complexity ofthe aspects dealt with, the various technical validations were greatly simplified by the fact that theDirectorate of Hydraulic Affairs, with support from the UNDESA, kept up a constant dialogue withall the administrations concerned (ten ministries) throughout the two years of studies for thesubsector documents.

Chapter 1 of the main document is devoted to an analysis of the current situation, taking into accountthe economics of water, basic infrastructure and its management (sanitation and village, semi-urban,urban, agricultural and pastoral water supplies), water resources, the environment, water shared withneighbouring countries, and the institutional context. This analysis draws on the lessons learned frompast experience and reveals the constraints to be overcome.

Basic needs are predicted in chapter 2. Thus, the needs for village, urban and semi-urban, pastoral andagricultural water supplies, water resources and sanitation are analysed. The third chapter notablyexamines investment deficits that have either already been recorded or are forecast for various goals.A study of (internal and external) financial capacities and local implementation, management andmaintenance capacities enabled an optimum scenario to be defined for each subsector. Previous studieswere drawn on to define the water policy and to specify all the subsector strategies to be implementedin order to reach the national water policy objectives. These subsector strategies are complementedby a financial mobilisation strategy, a water resources and information strategy and a strategy for humanand institutional capacity-building, all of which are transverse themes that are vital to implementationof the SDEA.

Chapter 4 groups together the action plans for 2000-2010 and 2011-2020. Finally, chapter 5 dealswith measurable performances stemming from SDEA implementation, the economic and socialjustification of the plan, the indicator-based performance monitoring method, and resources forcoordinating and updating the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management.

2 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR DRAWING UP THE INTEGRATED PLANFOR WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT AND ITS CONSULTATIONDOMAINS

The institutional framework for drawing up the Integrated Plan for Water Development andManagement is provided by the ministry responsible for water : the Ministry of the Environment andWater (MEE), through the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs.

The institutional framework of the intersector consultation process has been set up on three levels(see organisation chart below), under the Prime Minister’s supervision:

1 the intersectoral technical level (Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water - CTIE),which rules on the technical aspects of each subsector document;

2 the administrative and strategic level (National Water Management Committee - CNGE -including several elected representatives of civil society), which gives opinions to the HCNE(High National Council for the Environment) on the Integrated Plan for Water Developmentand Management;

3 the political level (HCNE), which is placed under the authority and arbitration of the PrimeMinister, and whose secretariat is provided by the MEE. Finally, the decision-making level,which refers to the Council of Ministers at the HCNE’s request.

The Ministry of the Environment and Water acts as both the permanent secretary of the HCNE andthe president of the CNGE and the CTIE. The Ministry of Economic Promotion and Development(MPAT) acts as vice-president of the HCNE and the CNGE and thus guarantees that the process isintegrated and that the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management is drawn up in amanner which is consistent at all levels with sectoral policies, the objectives of the national economyand with regional development and the environment.

Mechanism for drawing up the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management


PROJECT SUPPORTUNDP/UNDESA

CHD 98 004

UNDP, funding agency.

UNDESA, executingagency.

Chief Technical Advisor

National expert inplanning and watermanagement, technicalcoordinator and CTAcounterpart.

Internationalconsultants.National consultants.

National engineeringconsultants

HCNE16 ministries.

NATIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT

COMMITTEE (CNGE)

DG of 10 ministries.Representatives of electedofficials. Representatives of

users.

INTERSECTORALTECHNICAL COMMITTEE

FOR WATER (CTIE)Intersectoral meetings of

technical Directoratesconcerned by water.

MPAT MPAT

DG/MEEProject

authority.

DH/MEEActing project

authority.

DG/MPAT

PRIME MINISTER

Decree No. 034/PM/MEE/99

This flexible consultation framework, institutionalised by Prime Minister’s decree5, is also intended tobe devolved, at a later date, into smaller subsidiary mechanisms for local and regional intersectoralconsultation. This consultation domain will have to remain in place and deal with all the strategic issuesand projects related to integrated water management, after completion of the support project onpreparation of the SDEA. No parallel structures have been created; preference was given tostrengthening existing institutions and capacity-building.

3 GOALS OF THE INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT ANDMANAGEMENT AND OF THE MILLENNIUM DECLARATION

In addition to providing a unique, updatable national reference frame, as well as policies and guidelinesfor short-, medium- and long-term investments in numerous key sectors in Chad, the Integrated Planfor Water Development and Management is a vital stage on the road to sustainable development andpart of Chad’s response to the reciprocal commitments it has made with the international communityover the past few years.

The specific extracts of the Millennium Declaration concerning water are quoted in the box below.

MILLENNIUM DECLARATION

In September 2000 the heads of State and Government met at the UN in New York, to discussand adopt the “Millennium Declaration”, which now constitutes the common reference documentused by all developing and developed countries. This universal declaration sets out concrete goalsto be achieved by 2015; the following extracts are related to water:

“...We also resolve to halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the world’s people whose incomeis less than one dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger; and also, bythe same date, to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach, or to afford, safedrinking water”;

“... By the same date, to have reduced under-five child mortality by two thirds of current rates”;

“We reaffirm our support for the principles of sustainable development including those set out inAgenda 21, agreed upon at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, atRio de Janeiro in June 1992… and, as first steps we resolve to stop the unsustainable exploitationof water resources by developing water management strategies at the regional, national and locallevels, which promote both equitable access and adequate supplies”.

Source: General Assembly of Heads of State and Government - UN Headquarters – 8 September 2000 - A/RES/55/2

The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management should make a significant contributionto reaching the main goals of the Millennium Declaration through:

� Sustainable access to drinking water: the SDEA defines the means, equipment and managementmethods to be implemented over the next twenty years in order fully to achieve this declaration’sgoal in terms of access to drinking water, and above all to maintain its performance in village areas(effective access rate in 2000: 17%; target rate for 2015: 60%) as in all urban and semi-urban areaswith more than 2000 inhabitants (situation in 2000: 33%; target rate for 2015: 60%). Inaccordance with the recommendations of the SDEA, the total access rate in Chad shouldincrease from 23% in 2000 to over 60% in 2015, thus reaching the goals that have been set.


5 Decree034/PM/MEE/99signed by the PrimeMinister on 3/9/99concerning the creationand organisation of aNational WaterManagementCommittee.

� Food production: at present, according to the national poverty reduction strategy, the level offood poverty, i.e., the proportion of households that cannot meet all their food requirements6, isabout 54% in Chad. This should be reduced to 27% in 2015. Efficient use of water resourcesand land over an additional 100 000 ha, the improvement of productivity and yields broughtabout by training farmers and through income-generating activities should make a largecontribution to reaching the goal of reducing hunger.

� Health: in a country where the main causes of death are related to water-borne diseases7 andhygiene, implementing the SDEA should contribute to speeding up the reduction in the deathrate, which is very high in Chad (maternal mortality: 827/100 000 births over the period 1991-1997; under-5 mortality rate: 198/1000, almost one in five). This contribution (because there arecomplementary policies to be implemented) will be made through strategies and action plansaimed at significantly improving conditions of access to sanitation (currently almost non-existentin all towns) and to drinking and domestic water, associated with increased awareness of hygieneand the need to protect the quality of water as it is conveyed and stored, not forgetting nutritionissues.

� Biodiversity, integrated water resource management and cooperation on shared water: theSDEA defines, among other things, strategies and actions to both promote the sustainableoptimum use of water resources and preserve these resources, the aquatic ecosystems and thebiodiversity upon which most human activities depend (fisheries, pastures, receding-flood farming,etc.), in other words, most of the Chadian economy. Moreover, the SDEA constitutes the firststep towards integrated water resource management as recommended in Agenda 21 (chapter18), and subsequently specified during the international meeting of United Nations experts inHarare (Zimbabwe - 1998), as well as in the context of the recent meetings of the UnitedNations Commission on Sustainable Development (World Summit on Sustainable Development,Johannesburg - September 2002) and major international conferences on water (Paris - 1998,The Hague - 2000, Bonn - 2001, Kyoto - 2003).

Finally, given the issues raised by the SDEA in relation to regional development and the protection ofaquatic ecosystems, this document is a key component in the fight against desertification, theprotection of biodiversity and concerted management of the shared water of the Lake Chad basin(LCBC), the river Niger basin (NBA) and aquifer ecosystems.


6 For Chad, therecommended daily

calorie intake(FAO,1985)

is 2095 calories inurban areas and 2175calories in rural areas.

7 For deaths occurringbetween 1 and

59 months, the mainidentified cause is seen

to be diarrhoeal diseases(44% of identified

causes and 3.5 timesmore than from acute

malnutrition).Source: EDST 96-97 -

DSEED/DHS).


1 CONTEXT AND DEMOGRAPHY

With 7.8 million inhabitants in 2002, spread over an area of 1 284 000 km2, Chad is the 25th largestcountry in Africa in terms of population and the 5th in terms of total surface area. Chad is one ofthe poorest countries in the world, with a GNP/inh/year of USD 2200 and 54% of the populationliving below the world poverty threshold1. Chad was ranked 155th out of 162 countries in 2001according to the UNDP human development index.

The mean life expectancy at birth is 45.2 years. For 1000 live births, the infant mortality rate is 118and that for children under 5, 198. In spite of a difficult situation, the trend in these three healthindicators appears to have been improving slightly over the past 30 years (in 1970-1975, they wererespectively 39 years, 149/1000 and 252/1000)2.

In contrast, with an annual population growth rate of nearly 2.5% and insufficient growth in agriculturalproduction, the trend in terms of nutrition (both quantitatively and qualitatively) has been a constantconcern. It was believed that 38% of the population suffered from malnutrition in 1996. Only 13countries of sub-Saharan Africa have a higher rate.

The net primary school attendance rate is 52.1%; however, only 38.8% of girls attended school in1997-1998.

According to the Human Development Report (HDR), it was estimated that only 27% of thepopulation had access to a developed water point. The detailed studies carried out in the context ofthe integrated plan for Chad’s Water Development and Management (SDEA)3 show that the overallrate of access to drinking water guaranteed throughout the year was in fact only 23% for thepopulation of Chad as a whole in 2000.

Chad is a land-locked country with three major geoclimatic zones (Saharan, Sahelian and Sudanian)from north to south, in which the very different distribution of natural water resources, cultivable landand biomass has always determined the spatial distribution of the population. Regional planning in theSDEA is based on this breakdown for the following reasons: 1) This breakdown is consistent in termsof both natural and socio-economic regions; 2) These large zones are quite consistent from the pointof view of hydraulic development and their method of management; 3) The breakdown is compatiblewith a large-basin approach as, according to the breakdown adopted for the SDEA, the “Sudanianzone” covers practically all of the only major active basin in the country, that of the Chari-Logone,limited downstream by N’Djaména; 4) Lastly, as far as possible, and for obvious planning reasons, thecontours of these zones are based on the major administrative entities. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate thespatial distribution of the major geoclimatic zones, the administrative breakdown per prefecture anddepartment. Main towns are also shown.

The Saharan zone, covering 780 000 km2, concerns the entire northern part of Chad. The frontierwith the Sahelian zone corresponds more or less to the 250 mm isohyet. From the climatic point ofview, therefore, it corresponds to the Saharan and Saharo-Sahelian climate, the main characteristics ofwhich, in addition to low rainfall, are the almost permanent occurrence of dry winds, the low humidity(<50%) and high day-time temperatures, all of which contribute to producing intense evaporation.

From the administrative standpoint, the zone covers the entire prefecture of Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti(BET), most of the prefecture of Kanem, about half that of Batha and the western third of Biltineprefecture.

From the physical standpoint, there are four major entities:

� in the centre, a vast depression, the centre of which corresponds to the greatest extent of LakeChad. It is filled with Continental Terminal formations (sand, sandstone and clay) buried undersoft Quaternary sediments (sand and clay) of varying thickness. The altitude is below 500 m;

� to the east, the Ennedi range, a vast Paleozoic sandstone plateau culminating at 1450 m;

� to the north-east, the Erdi plateaux, a succession of low sandstone tablelands dating from theSecondary era, cut by sand-filled depressions;

� to the north-east, the lofty Tibesti range (maximum altitude: 3415 m), formed from a chain ofvolcanoes and basalt plateaux covering the Paleozoic sandstones and Precambrian granites.

1 ECOSI survey, 95-96.“Human poverty index”:proportion of householdsthat cannot financiallymeet their own needs interms of essential foodand other commodities.This is in fact rather a“monetary povertyindex” as in reality basichydraulic infrastructurefor drinking water (anunquestionably essentialrequirement) is stillinsufficient for 77% ofthe population of Chad.

2 Population and HealthSurvey (EDS), 96-97.

3 17% of the populationof Chad living in villagesof less than 200inhabitants have accessto a hydraulic structurecapable of guaranteeingpermanent supplies ofsafe drinking water.Thisproportion is nearly 35%in urban and semi-urbanareas with more than2000 inhabitants -source: SDEA 2002.

The Sahelian zone, covering 374 000 km2, corresponds to the portion of Chad located between theSaharan zone and the Chari-Logone catchment area situated between N’Djaména and Bongor. Meanannual rainfall is between 300 and 650 mm. From the climatic standpoint, the Sahelian zonecorresponds to the Sahelian climate in the strict sense.

From the administrative standpoint, the Sahelian zone includes the Lac prefecture. It covers thesouthern parts of the prefectures of Kanem and Batha and most of the prefectures of Biltine, Guéra,Ouaddaï and Chari-Baguirmi.

From the physical point of view, the Sahelian zone is divided into two contrasting units:

� a vast plain that extends the Saharan depression southwards; this is filled with essentially loosesedimentary formations (sand and clay). The altitude is below 500 m;

� a rocky region with broken relief, consisting of the Ouaddaï range to the east and the Guéramountains to the south, forming a sort of belt around the above plain.

The Sudanian zone, covering 130 000 km2 corresponds to that portion of the catchment area of theChari and its main tributary the Logone lying within Chad. It covers the entire southern region of thecountry as far as a boundary situated between Bongor and N’Djaména. Mean annual rainfall isbetween 650 and 1000 mm. From the climatic standpoint, it therefore covers the Sudanian zone,bounded by the 800 mm isohyet, the Sudano-Sahelian zone, with rainfall averaging between 650 and800 mm, and the Sahelian zone in the strict sense, characterising the small downstream area belowBongor.

From the physical standpoint, it corresponds to a vast sedimentary basin rising at the edges on theborders of Sudan and Cameroon. This vast plain nevertheless has a slight meso-relief marked by twocontrasting situations during high-water periods: areas that are above water, underlain by sandyformations where most of the housing and rainfed agriculture is concentrated, and inundated areascovered by heavy soils and characterised by multiple activities centred on flood-recession agriculture,migratory stock-rearing and fishing, the rhythm of which is dictated by the naturally occurring cyclesof rains and flooding.

From the administrative standpoint, the zone includes the prefectures of Logone Oriental, LogoneOccidental, Moyen-Chari, Tandjilé, Mayo-Kebbi, the southern parts of the prefectures of Ouaddaï,Chari-Baguirmi and Guéra and the northern part of Salamat.

It should be noted that the main area of oil drilling in Chad is at Doba, in the Sudanian zone. Oildrilling, which began at Doba in 2004 for a period expected to run to 2015 (one billion barrels ofcrude), represents a real opportunity but also a challenge to development in this region and for thecountry as a whole.

Demography

Table 1 shows the population distribution in Chad according to the administrative breakdown and alsoits expected growth over the period 2000-2020. These data are taken from an SDEA studyconcerning the population and based on 1993 census figures.

The demographic forecasts were processed using the DEMPROJ software. Three assumptions weremade with regard to fertility rates:

� A low-case hypothesis for the period from 1993 to 2000, to take into account the low rate ofcontraceptive use in the country as a whole and also the Chadians desire to have children. Overthis period, it is assumed that the fertility rate would remain constant.

� A medium hypothesis for the period from 2000 to 2015, during which it is assumed that thefertility rate will gradually fall, taking into account the various measures taken by the Governmentand development partners aimed at controlling population growth via a reduction in the fertilityrate. This reduction is estimated at 0.5 children for each 5-year period, corresponding to areduction of 1.5 children per woman for the 2000-2015 period.


Republic of ChadFigure 1:Administrative breakdown by prefecture

Republic of ChadFigure 2:Administrative breakdown by department

(unofficial breakdown)

LibyaLibya

LegendLegend

Department chief town

Saharan Zone

Sahelian Zone

Sudanian Zone

1980-2000 isohyet

Prefecture chief town

Saharan Zone

Sahelian Zone

Sudanian Zone

1980-2000 isohyet

Niger Niger

SudanSudan

Nigeria

NigeriaC

amer

oun

Cam

erou

n

Integrated Plan for Water Development and ManagementChad 2002 - Govt of Chad - with UNDP funding

and technical support of UNDESA



Légende:

Estim

é de

la p

opul

atio

n

Population 2000 Population 2010 Population 2020

Répartition des populations selon le découpage administratif

200 000

400 000

600 000

800 000

1 000 000

1 200 000

Sala

mat

Tan

djilé

Est

Tan

djilé

Oue

st

N'D

jam

éna

Sila

Oua

ddaï

Ass

ongh

a

Man

doul

Barh

Kho

Lac

Iro

May

o D

ala

Kab

ia

May

o Bo

neye

Mon

ts d

e La

m

Logo

ne o

rien

tal

Logo

ne o

ccid

enta

l

Lac

Barh

El G

azal

Kan

em

Gué

raHad

jer

Lam

is

Dab

ada

Bagu

irm

i

Bilti

ne

Tib

esti

Enne

di

Bork

ou

Bath

a O

uest

Bath

a Es

t

Département0

Table 1: Population distribution according to administrative breakdown

Estimated population in 2000 Estimated population in 2010 Estimated population in 2020

Villages Towns of Total Villages Towns of Total Villages Towns of Totalless than 2000 inhab. population less than 2000 inhab. population less than 2000 inhab. population

Prefecture Department 2000 inhab. and over 2000 inhab. and over 2000 inhab. and over

Batha Batha Est 143 455 14 508 157 963 175 852 19 969 195 821 212 667 24 529 237 196Batha Ouest 195 753 31 118 226 871 239 960 43 191 283 151 290 201 57 978 348 179

BET Borkou 43 553 10 405 53 958 53 661 11 034 64 695 64 678 11 678 76 356Ennedi 33 163 3 816 36 979 40 860 7 583 48 443 49 250 15 381 64 631Tibesti 10 865 0 10 865 13 388 0 13 388 16 134 0 16 134

Biltine Biltine 211 964 23 665 235 629 275 956 30 678 306 634 343 535 45 580 389 115

Chari-Baguirmi Baguirmi 268 677 47 793 316 470 333 657 72 102 405 759 409 805 92 490 502 295Dabada 149 079 29 715 178 794 185 132 37 545 222 677 227 400 47 041 274 441Hadjer Lamis 375 300 64 401 439 701 466 063 106 083 572 146 572 465 126 757 699 222

Guéra Guéra 309 866 68 073 377 939 373 075 106 230 479 305 442 974 141 829 584 803

Kanem Kanem 221 902 17 822 239 724 255 632 20 262 275 894 284 910 21 783 306 693Barh El Gazal 81 309 19 130 100 439 93 669 23 285 116 954 104 396 26 618 131 014

Lac Lac 288 545 22 345 310 890 347 744 39 343 387 087 409 789 54 169 463 958

Logone occidental Logone occidental 438 415 154 053 592 468 562 620 230 309 792 929 706 222 343 435 1 049 657

Logone oriental Logone oriental 237 375 48 283 285 658 297 370 84 535 381 905 366 146 125 606 491 752Monts de Lam 146 700 20 208 166 908 183 773 23 405 207 178 226 180 28 161 254 341

Mayo-Kebbi Mayo Boneye 201 020 37 474 238 494 248 633 53 293 301 926 300 950 63 106 364 056Kabia 367 541 48 801 416 342 444 367 82 354 526 721 537 869 149 406 687 275Mayo Dala 296 409 73 758 370 167 358 363 147 231 505 594 433 772 243 495 677 267

Moyen-Chari Lac Iro 109 773 16 773 126 546 135 726 28 693 164 419 164 610 54 895 219 505Barh Kho 217 833 113 058 330 891 269 332 162 379 431 711 326 648 211 698 538 346Mandoul 411 138 81 444 492 582 508 334 129 408 637 742 616 510 200 679 817 189

Ouaddaï Assongha 135 797 9 689 145 486 161 711 14 494 176 205 187 218 19 251 206 469Ouaddaï 244 522 75 364 319 886 291 217 92 111 383 328 337 150 123 143 460 293Sila 177 663 8 065 185 728 211 565 11 949 223 514 244 939 15 365 260 304

Salamat Salamat 183 080 45 768 228 848 221 640 72 879 294 519 262 170 93 614 355 784

Tandjilé Tandjilé Est 185 735 35 778 221 513 229 838 56 941 286 779 281 749 76 711 358 460Tandjilé Ouest 286 700 65 809 352 509 354 785 97 200 451 985 434 918 136 593 571 511

N'Djaména N'Djaména 0 639 000 639 000 0 818 600 818 600 0 1 024 000 1 024 000

Total 5 973 132 1 826 116 7 799 248 7 333 922 2 623 086 9 957 008 8 855 255 3 574 991 12 430 246

Source: SDEA 2001

Source: SDEA 2001

Population distribution according to administrative breakdown

Est

imat

ed p

opu

lati

on

LegendDepartment

Population 2000 Population 2020Population 2010


� A high-case hypothesis for the period from 2015 to 2020. During this period, it is assumed thatthe aim of controlling the birth rate would be reached by 2015 and that the level obtained wouldbe satisfactory. Consequently, the fertility rate would be stabilised at the level achieved in 2015.

With regard to mortality, an analysis of the various indicators revealed a distinct tendency for the rateto fall. However, over the past few years, given the effects of the AIDS pandemic, there is no doubtthat these indicators will rise once again. On the basis of these considerations, the followingassumptions were made:

� A low-case hypothesis for the period from 1993 to 2010. Life expectancy at birth will fall by0.5 years for each 5-year period, giving a fall in life expectancy at birth of 1.5 years. This hypothesisis based on contraceptive use of less than 10% and chronic poverty that prevents certain peoplefrom obtaining suitable medication.

� A medium hypothesis for the period from 2010 to 2015, during which life expectancy will fallrelatively little in comparison with the preceding period. The fall is estimated at 0.3 years.

� A high-case hypothesis for the 2015-2020 period, during which life expectancy at birth willremain constant at the level achieved in 2015. This hypothesis is based on the fact that from 2015onwards, sexually transmitted diseases will be largely under control.

Table 1 separates people living in villages of less than 2000 inhabitants (using village water supplysystems) and those in towns of 2000 and more (using urban and semi-urban water supply systems),while table 2 shows the population distribution in the main geoclimatic zones. Thus, in 2000, 76.6%of the people of Chad lived in villages of less than 2000 inhabitants. This figure will fall to less than70% by 2020.

Table 2: Population distribution by geoclimatic zone

Geoclimatic Population in 2000 Population in 2010 Population in 2020zone Population % Population % Population %

Saharan 219 480 2.81 276 218 2,77 338 122 2.72

Sahelian 2 694 760 34.55 3 403 196 34,18 4 189 378 33.70

Sudanian 4 246 008 54.44 5 458 994 54,83 6 878 746 55.34

N'Djaména 639 000 8.19 818 600 8,22 1 024 000 8.24

Total 7 799 248 100.00 9 957 008 100,00 12 430 246 100.00

Source: SDEA 2001. N.B. the city of N’Djaména lies within the Sahelian zone.

The mean population growth rate applied to the estimated population of Chad is of the order of2.5%. However, it should be pointed out that certain recent studies speak of a population growthrate of the order of 3.1%.

In table 2, which does not take into account movements from one department to another, it can beseen that the Sudanian zone accounts for more than 50% of the total population and the Saharanzone less than 3%.

2 THE NEED TO DEVELOP HYDRAULIC INFRASTRUCTURE IN CHAD AND THEFIGHT AGAINST POVERTY

2.1 Economic diversification

Chad’s medium-term development strategy is characterised by the aim of entering the post-oil boomera so that the non-oil sector can take over from the oil sector. Indeed, sustainable economic growthstimulated during the oil boom era (a decade) will only be possible in future decades if there is greaterdiversification in the economy, which in Chad is essentially agricultural and rural.

The main sectors of activity in the country at present are:

� agriculture;

� stock-rearing;

� fishing.

These sectors (accounting for 40% of GDP) involve 80% of the active population and provide morethan 59% of the average income4 of households in rural areas, along with 80% of exported products.They govern economic growth and constitute the essential source of foreign currency for the countryand the main source of food for its inhabitants.

Diversification can only marginally affect development in the industrial sector. If it succeeds, it willconcern essentially agriculture, stock-rearing, fishing and services (the consumption of businessservices in fact follows business development).

The three main diversification activities outside the oil sector, namely, agriculture, stock-rearing andfishing, are highly dependent on water and hydraulic infrastructure.

Controlling water is at the centre of the diversification sought. Investing in hydraulic infrastructure andits management is therefore a strategic economic choice.

2.2 The fight against poverty

This sustainable, planned and necessary economic growth will eventually help to improve health,education and people’s incomes. However, this growth is not sufficient because economicdevelopment can only be fully and safely achieved if the human capital is strengthened at the sametime. This must be done, in particular, via better public health and acceptable living conditions. It isnecessary to invest, first and foremost, in basic infrastructure geared towards the essential needs ofthe population, wider and reliable access to drinking water and sanitation, and of course, educationand access to knowledge5, as poverty cannot be seen merely in economic and monetary terms.

Indeed, the lack of access6 to safe and sufficient drinking water supplies and the lack of sanitation aredirectly or indirectly linked to most of the causes of the various aspects of poverty:

� Health - scarce access to safe water and an environment with little or no sanitation are often thecauses of the major pathologies: malaria, diarrhoea (which accounts for 44% of the cases ofmortality in children under 5), schistosomiasis, meningitis, cholera, etc. These factors result in adrop in productivity and number of days worked (and hence in income-earning potential) inpeople affected, together with a significant shortening of life expectancy.

� Income and consumption - the absence of reliable drinking water supplies means that:� a large proportion of the household budget is spent on medical treatment or in buying and

treating water at a higher cost, reducing the net household income in proportion,

� much time is wasted in looking for, collecting and transporting water, thus reducing thepossibility of generating income and the chances of economic and social integration,especially for women.

� Education - the lack of hygiene and adequate sanitation increases the number of days taken upby sickness and fetching water, which also helps to reduce school attendance, in particular amonggirls.


4 ECOSIT, 95-96 (including non-monetary

income)

5 Education concerningenvironmental health via

operations focused onwater points is of

fundamentalimportance.

6 In terms of basicmodern hydraulic

facilities, for which initialinvestment cannot

usually be completelycovered by poor people

with little moneyavailable.

If one adds to this the fact that water is a shared, vital, limited and vulnerable resource, plus the factthat it is an essential contributor to economic diversification as seen above, two conclusions cannotbe avoided: water is clearly a strategic sector of diversified development and poverty reduction,and it is de facto a sector in its own right in the Government’s priorities.

2.3 The place of water in the economy of Chad

The question of water in the economy of Chad arises in several respects:

� the well-being of the population,

� its effects on economic growth;

� as an economic activity.

These various points of view are not independent. For example, greater availability of drinking waterimproves people’s health, which has an effect on both well-being and growth.

2.3.1 Water and people’s well-being

At the time of preparing the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), enquiries were conducted inDecember 2000 and January 2001 among people living in the 14 prefectures of Chad’s 7 regions.These enquiries asked participants to rank a number of themes or aspects (around 20 in all) in orderof importance for them. Drinking water was ranked third in terms of people’s expectations.

If one adds to this the fact that health, ranked second, depends to a great extent on water and thatreliable food supplies and agricultural development also depend to a great extent on water, it is clearthat the question of water is a priority for the population as a whole.

Naturally, water has a cost. More specifically, given the major groundwater reserves in Chad, mobilisingwater has a cost. When it is a question of improving people’s well-being, expenditure cannot beevaluated in terms of profitability but rather in terms of political choice. Nevertheless, the politicaldecision must be taken in view of the costs of the various possible solutions. It is therefore importantto back such a decision with complete information.

2.3.2 Water and economic development

Before being a factor of economic development, water is a vital resource without which there is nolife. Towns and villages are created around water points. The availability of water has always been anunavoidable requirement for regional development.

Water is involved in economic development in several ways, either as an input for productionprocesses, or as an element in the overall capacity of the economy. It thus combines the two rolesof consumer good and infrastructure. Perhaps more fundamentally, water is a commodity whosemultiple uses mean that it has to be analysed as an aquatic system. Indeed the same resource, e.g., ariver, can:

� supply the population with drinking water,

� enable fish to live and fishing to take place,

� irrigate and/or flood cultivated land,

� serve as a means of communication for local and international transport and as a factor ofregional integration.

Any decision concerning the use of water, for example the creation of a flood-spreading dam intendedfor agriculture, must take into account this characteristic of water of being a multiple-use system.

Water is also a permanent feature of a country’s economic life, whereas oil is a very temporaryresource. Sustainable management is of fundamental importance.


Water as an input to production processes

Water is an input to many production processes, notably:

� agriculture;

� stock-rearing;

� many types of industrial production.

Plant production, animal production and fishing depend largely on the extent and health of aquaticecosystems (wetlands, rivers, large flood plains and lakes). Their operation depends on waterresources (in terms of distribution and variability) but also on choices regarding hydraulicdevelopment schemes, on the management and protection of water. Production may therefore beincreased by means of various types of investment.

In contrast to the improvement of well-being, investments in productive sectors raise the issue ofprofitability. This is often difficult to measure, but certain types of information may be of use inreaching decisions. For example, the per-hectare cost of agricultural development is a good indicator.In many cases it is preferable to lay emphasis on schemes with a low per-hectare cost.

The price billed to the user is linked to the cost of producing water.

Water as an element in the overall capacity of the economy

A number of types of physical and abstract infrastructure cannot be analysed as inputs to theproduction system but as elements of the economic environment in which economic agents operate,such as:

� road infrastructure;

� courts;

� administrative services.

From this point of view, water is an indirect element of the overall capacity of the economy via thewell-being of the people, and in particular their state of health.

Lastly, water production, like any other economic activity, generates added value and thus contributesto the GDP. The water industry uses items of intermediate consumption, employs labour, invests,makes profits and pays taxes.

3 ANALYSIS OF THE BASIC HYDRAULIC INFRASTRUCTURE SITUATION IN 2000

3.1 The situation regarding village water supply schemes

Village water supply schemes aim to give access to water to people living in villages of less than 2000inhabitants. In addition to increasing the supply rate, the Government’s policy in this area involves inparticular encouraging local initiatives in order to increase the development of private organisationsfor maintaining equipment, on one hand, and to involve users in the management and payment ofequipment maintenance and renewal costs on the other.

In the villages, the current (2001) standards for allocating water points defined by the Governmentare as follows:

� the population must be over 300,

� villagers must accept the conditions of participation, i.e., the creation of a management committeeand the setting up of a water fund.

In 2000, the number of people in Chad living in villages was estimated at around 6 million, i.e., 77% ofthe total population of the country. This figure will rise to 7 350 000 by 2010 and 8 855 000 by 2020(see table 1).


These people live in nearly 28 500 villages of less than 2000 inhabitants. Thus, in 2000, 35% of thepopulation lived in villages of less than 300 inhabitants, 53% in villages of between 300 and 1200 and12% in villages of between 1200 and 2000. According to the current criteria for allocating drinkingwater points, 35% of the rural population of Chad is therefore ineligible to benefit from any of themajor hydraulic infrastructure construction programmes.

The village population is also unequally distributed over the country. The Sudanian zone, coveringaround 12% of the total surface area of the country, accounts for 62% of the rural population. TheSahelian zone (28% of the country) is home to 35% of the population and the Saharan zone (60%)has only 3% of the population. Figure 3 illustrates the rural population density. It is clear that the villagepopulation is concentrated in the south-western departments of the country.

3.1.1 Drinking water supply facilities in villages

Village water supply facilities include traditional water points and modern water points (MWP). In all,6871 MWPs have been inventoried, comprising 3467 wells and 3404 boreholes. However, it shouldbe noted that nearly 74% of households draw drinking water from traditional water points, which areoften vectors of illnesses such as diarrhoea and cholera.

Modern reinforced concrete wells are generally built according to standard codes of practice.However, they are not closed and mechanised means are not used for drawing the water. Traditionalmethods (using buckets and ropes) are used. In addition, these wells are often used for two purposes:supplying water to the villagers, on one hand, and watering cattle and other livestock (goats, sheep),on the other.

Because of the way in which these wells are operated, the type of equipment used to draw waterand the well construction method (open well), the water is often of dubious quality. The wells maybe listed as sustainable, permanent modern water points but, unless regular treatment is provided (i.e.,disinfection by various processes), they cannot guarantee permanent supplies of safe drinking water,and because of this their impact on villagers’ health is limited and sometimes negative. For thesereasons, these structures cannot be considered as drinking water points.

The drinking water supply rate7 is evaluated by taking into account only hydraulic structures thatalways guarantee safe water. These structures include 2580 boreholes equipped with a hand pump(HP), 44 equipped with a solar-powered pumping station and 6 equipped with a thermal pumpingstation. These facilities are all located in villages with populations of 2000 or less.

Table 3 shows the percentage of the village population that has access to a drinking water point ineach department. It can be seen from the table that:

� only 17% of the rural population in Chad has access to a hydraulic structure capable ofguaranteeing safe drinking water on a permanent basis,

� generally speaking, villages with 300-2000 inhabitants are the ones best supplied with drinkingwater (22% of the population in this group of villages) whereas only 7% of those with less than300 inhabitants have supplies of this kind. This confirms the fact that the current standard forawarding drinking water points in the village water supply programmes is being applied;

� certain departments are better provided with water points than others. For example, morethan 30% of the inhabitants in the departments of Hadjer Lamis, Lac, Logone Oriental, Montsde Lam, Mayo Boneye, Bahr Kho and Tandjilé Est have access to drinking water points. Incontrast, more than 95% of the population in 15 departments (Salamat, Assongha, Guéra, etc.)have no access to this type of water point.

It should be pointed out that the departments in which the drinking water supply rate is relatively highare those in which the major hydraulic infrastructure construction programmes have beenimplemented. Three main reasons may partly explain the low drinking water supply rate in certaindepartments. These are:

� drinking water points have been created, but without setting up an environment in which theycan be maintained (absence of spare parts for pumps, few if any trained stand-pipe managers,etc.), which has led the villagers to abandon them;


7Supply rate: thepercentage of thepopulation that issupplied or has accessto a hydraulicinfrastructure defined assuch in terms oftechnical characteristicsof the structure usedand recognisedconsumption standards.




Inhabitants/km2

More than 2010 to 205 to 102.5 to 5Less than 2.5

Cameroon

Sudan

Libya

Republic of ChadFigure 3: Rural population density in the year 2000

� departments with high concentrations of villages of under 300 people, which therefore do notmeet the standards for being eligible for modern drinking water points;

� departments which, for various reasons, including certainly insufficient planning/scheduling ofstructures, have never benefited from programmes to construct drinking water supply systems.Often, the construction of new hydraulic structures is undertaken in accordance with availablefunding in departments selected by the funding agencies as a function of their preferences,without necessarily taking into account the priority drinking water requirements of the variousregions.

A major conclusion emerges from this analysis: considerable efforts need to be made to increase thedrinking water supply rate in village areas in an equitable manner. Future programmes to constructhydraulic infrastructure must be geared towards departments that have few if any such structures.

3.1.2 Equipment management and maintenance methods

In line with Government policy, which aims to empower users, the system for managing andmaintaining modern water points equipped with hand pumps (HP) is based on the followingcomponents:Water Point Management Committees (WPMC), the network of pump repairmen, thespare parts marketing network and the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs.

Responsibility for managing boreholes equipped with hand pumps lies with the WPMC, an entity thathas no legal status and comprising 5-7 voluntary members. Their main duties are to make sure theequipment operates correctly, manage the funds obtained by selling pumped water and ensuring thatthe water point is kept clean and hygienic. Solar and thermal equipment is also managed by theWPMC.

The main observations arising from an assessment of the management and maintenance of thevarious types of pumping equipment (solar, thermal, HP) are the following:

� To ensure efficient maintenance, the design and type of pumping equipment to be installed in avillage must correspond to the village’s real water requirements, to the planned uses of the waterpoint and the people’s ability to take responsibility for it (from the financial, organisational andtechnical standpoints).

� Creating a WPMC and taking on responsibility for maintenance are the commitments requiredof villagers by the DH and funding agencies before a drinking water point is created in a village.In 2002, the operation of the WPMC relied primarily on the goodwill of a few local leaders andin many cases on the supervision provided by the projects. Thus, in sectors that had benefitedfrom regular support from the main projects and where a suitable maintenance environment hadbeen created (with available spare parts, repairmen, maintenance companies, etc.), the fieldenquiries showed that more than 90% of the pumping equipment was operational. In contrast,in sectors where such support had not been available, less than 10% of the pumping equipmentwas operational, a situation which had led people to abandon most of the water points. In orderto guarantee the working life and sustainability of the equipment, it therefore appears essentialto promote a local water point management organisation that is legally recognised, functional,aimed at the long term and for which the users feel responsible, and also to set up well-organisedmaintenance networks that are suited to specific regional features.

� The spatial distribution of water points must be taken into account right from the beginning ofprogramme definition and during the implementation stage so that they are sufficientlyconcentrated to ensure the technical and financial viability of the equipment maintenancenetwork.



� Project implementation methods, notably with regard to coordination and the creation of asuitable environment for structure maintenance, have a major impact on equipment managementand maintenance and on the working life of the infrastructure, yet these methods are not alwaysmutually consistent and vary depending on the funding agencies, NGOs and those responsiblefor their implementation. Hence it is of paramount importance to improve cooperation betweenthe various ministries, funding agencies and project managers in order to harmonisemethodologies for implementing hydraulic infrastructure development schemes at national levelwhile at the same time taking into account specific local features.

3.1.3 Village water supply stakeholders

The various stakeholders involved in village water supplies may be grouped under several headings,namely institutions, funding agencies, local people, NGOs and charitable organisations, the privatesector and the craftsman or informal sector.

The Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs (DH) of the Ministry of Environment and Water is the maininstitutional stakeholder. It comprises a central level, the Water Office, a Design and Planning Division,an Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Division, a Village and Pastoral Water Supply Division and aMaintenance and Equipment Division. The DH also includes an Administrative and EquipmentDepartment. It is theoretically represented by a delegation in each prefecture and by a head ofdepartment but it should be pointed out that this type of representation was not effective in 2001.The system should therefore be introduced as part of the state decentralisation process currentlyunderway.

Most of the funds allocated to the village water supply subsector (FCFA 96 billion) are provided bythe major bilateral and multilateral funding agencies. The main provider from 1985 to 2000 wasFrance, via the Agence Française de Développement (AFD) and Fonds d’Aide et de Coopération(FAC). The European Union (EU), via the European Development Fund (EDF), was in second place.However, from 2002 onwards, the EU will become the main funding agency in the field via the 8thand 9th EDF projects that provide for the construction of more than 5000 drinking water points invillage areas.

Local people are both partners and users, acting as the Government’s main correspondent during theproject. After the hydraulic infrastructure has been completed, they become both users andmanagers. They must take responsibility for repairs and maintenance and must participate financiallyin any renewal operations. They thus have a vital role to play in ensuring the working life andsustainability of modern hydraulic infrastructure.

Twelve NGOs and charitable organisations have been identified working in the village water supplysubsector. They provided a total of FCFA 3502 million in funds for various operations, including theconstruction of 2138 hydraulic structures (mainly wells) over the 1973-2000 period. The two majorplayers in terms of both number of structures built and funding are the BELACD and SECADEV.

The private sector consists of national and international companies working on design studies,supervision and implementation of works. Companies specialising in the distribution of spare parts forpumping equipment are also active in the subsector.

According to the enquiry conducted among these national companies, all expressed the need for stafftraining and company management. It should be noted that they have difficulty obtaining money fromthe major international funding agencies.

The “craftsman” sector includes small companies, craftsmen’s associations and cooperatives involved indigging wells and boreholes manually or using augers (boreholes) and in making local pumping facilities,in particular small hand pumps for boreholes and various pumping systems for wells (wheels, drums,buckets, etc.).

Département

Pour

cent

age

d'ac

cès

à l'e

au p

otab

le

Bat

ha E

st

Bat

ha O

uest

Bo

rko

u

Enn

edi T

ibes

ti

Bilt

ine

Bag

uirm

i

Dab

ada

Had

jer

Lam

is

Gué

ra

Kan

em

Bar

h E

l Gaz

al

Lac

Lo

gone

occ

iden

tal

Lo

gone

ori

enta

l

Mo

nts

de L

am

May

o B

one

ye

Kab

ia

May

o D

ala

Lac

Iro

Bar

h K

ho

Man

doul

Ass

ong

ha

Oua

ddaï

Sila

Sal

amat

Tan

djilé

Est

Tan

djilé

Oue

st

0,00

10,00

20,00

30,00

40,00

50,00

60,00

Table 3: Estimated percentage of rural population with access to drinking water in 2000 (part 1)

Source: SDEA 2001

Perc

enta

ge a

cces

s to

dri

nkin

g w

ater

Department



Batha Batha Est 863 0 0 0 61 456 0.00 101 3 3 1 200

Batha Ouest 1 042 0 0 0 83 830 0.00 170 2 2 800

BET Borkou 142 0 0 0 12 324 0.00 53 2 2 800

Ennedi 79 0 0 0 6 909 0.00 34 2 2 800

Tibesti 64 0 0 0 6 073 0.00 17 2 2 800

Biltine Biltine 1 428 0 0 0 102 483 0.00 187 14 14 5 600

Chari-Baguirmi Baguirmi 1 406 53 53 13 250 152 729 8.68 223 38 79 31 600

Dabada 366 7 7 1 750 57 145 3.06 180 12 12 4 800

Hadjer Lamis 2 038 140 140 35 000 229 288 15.26 300 150 207 94 800

Guéra Guéra 932 0 0 0 101 613 0.00 287 17 17 6 800

Kanem Kanem 2 435 0 0 0 156 949 0.00 180 23 23 9 200

Barh El Gazal 800 0 0 0 50 173 0.00 67 4 4 1 600

Lac Lac 2 118 14 14 3 500 132 288 2.65 250 200 245 98 000

Logone occidental Logone occidental 697 35 35 8 750 78 996 11.08 506 140 166 66 400

Logone oriental Logone oriental 677 39 39 9 750 34 223 28.49 330 91 121 48 400

Monts de Lam 723 32 32 8 000 41 492 19.28 256 73 97 38 800

Mayo-Kebbi Mayo Boneye 533 48 48 12 000 55 187 21.74 149 73 98 39 200

Kabia 236 28 28 7 000 32 138 21.78 333 42 57 22 800

Mayo Dala 156 10 10 2 500 23 493 10.64 266 14 19 7 600

Moyen-Chari Lac Iro 195 0 0 0 36 744 0.00 110 0 0 0

Barh Kho 651 58 58 14 500 69 717 20.80 233 115 208 83 200

Mandoul 749 45 45 11 250 95 807 11.74 392 92 164 65 600

Ouaddaï Assongha 836 0 0 0 91 205 0.00 115 0 0 0

Ouaddaï 925 0 0 0 108 067 0.00 201 17 17 6 800

Sila 792 0 0 0 87 617 0.00 139 3 3 1 200

Salamat Salamat 320 0 0 0 54 500 0.00 150 2 2 800

Tandjilé Tandjilé Est 378 35 35 8 750 41 384 21.14 230 74 97 38 800

Tandjilé Ouest 583 30 30 7 500 63 893 11.74 355 65 85 34 000

Total 22 164 574 574 143 500 2 067 723 6.94 5 814 1 270 1 746 710 400

Source : SDEA 2001

Table 3: Estimated percentage of rural population with access to drinking water in 2000 (cont.)

Section 1: villages with a population of under 300

Section 2: villages with a population of between

300 and 1200

Prefectures Departments No.

of v

illag

esw

ith p

opul

atio

nun

der

300

No.

of v

illag

esw

ith a

bor

ehol

e

No.

of b

oreh

oles

Popu

latio

n w

ithdr

inki

ng w

ater

supp

lies

Tota

l pop

ulat

ion

% p

opul

atio

n w

ithac

cess

to

drin

king

wat

er

No.

of v

illag

esw

ith p

opul

atio

n 30

0 to

120

0

No.

of v

illag

esw

ith a

bor

ehol

e

No.

of b

oreh

oles

Popu

latio

n w

ithdr

inki

ng w

ater

supp

lies


74 286 1.62 5 0 0 0 7 713 0.00 969 3 3 1 200 143 455 0.84

101 402 0.79 9 0 0 0 10 521 0.00 1 221 2 2 800 195 753 0.41

25 038 3.20 5 0 0 0 6 191 0.00 200 2 2 800 43 553 1.84

20 543 3.89 3 0 0 0 5 711 0.00 116 2 2 800 33 163 2.41

4 792 16.69 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 81 2 2 800 10 865 7.36

97 016 5.77 8 0 0 0 12 465 0.00 1 623 14 14 5 600 211 964 2.64

99 752 31.68 10 8 8 12 800 16 196 79.03 1 639 99 140 57 650 268 677 21.46

76 352 6.29 9 0 0 0 15 582 0.00 555 19 19 6 550 149 079 4.39

124 543 76.12 13 11 22 17 600 21 469 81.98 2 351 301 369 147 400 375 300 39.28

173 840 3.91 23 0 0 0 34 413 0.00 1 242 17 17 6 800 309 866 2.19

52 803 17.42 8 1 1 400 12 150 3.29 2 623 24 24 9 600 221 902 4.33

26 174 6.11 4 0 0 0 4 962 0.00 871 4 4 1 600 81 309 1.97

120 704 81.19 23 7 46 20 800 35 553 58.50 2 391 221 305 122 300 288 545 42.39

300 734 22.08 39 23 34 13 600 58 685 23.17 1 242 198 235 88 750 438 415 20.24

141 791 34.13 47 24 31 12 400 61 361 20.21 1 054 154 191 70 550 237 375 29.72

101 256 38.32 3 2 7 2 800 3 952 70.85 982 107 136 49 600 146 700 33.81

117 728 33.30 20 8 15 8 400 28 105 29.89 702 129 161 59 600 201 020 29.65

234 966 9.70 60 5 10 4 000 100 437 3.98 629 75 95 33 800 367 541 9.20

176 988 4.29 55 3 3 1 200 95 928 1.25 477 27 32 11 300 296 409 3.81

59 564 0.00 8 0 0 0 13 465 0.00 313 0 0 0 109 773 0.00

128 706 64.64 16 11 28 11 200 19 410 57.70 900 184 294 108 900 217 833 49.99

252 429 25.99 37 8 22 8 800 62 902 13.99 1 178 145 231 85 650 411 138 20.83

40 737 0.00 3 0 0 0 3 855 0.00 954 0 0 0 135 797 0.00

120 961 5.62 10 0 0 0 15 494 0.00 1 136 17 17 6 800 244 522 2.78

87 348 1.37 2 0 0 0 2 698 0.00 933 3 3 1 200 177 663 0.68

107 480 0.74 13 0 0 0 21 100 0.00 483 2 2 800 183 080 0.44

117 418 33.04 20 12 18 10 400 26 933 38.61 628 121 150 57 950 185 735 31.20

181 226 18.76 30 11 16 11 200 41 581 26.94 968 106 131 52 700 286 700 18.38

3 166 577 22.43 483 134 261 135 600 738 832 18.35 28 461 1 978 2 581 989 500 5 973 132 16.57

Tableau 3: Estimation du pourcentage de la population rurale ayant accès à l'eau drinking en 2000. (Suite)

Section 2:villages with apopulation of

between 300 and 1200

Section 3: villages with a population of between1201 and 2000 Total

Tota

l pop

ulat

ion

% p

opul

atio

n w

ithac

cess

to

drin

king

wat

er

No.

of v

illag

esw

ith p

opul

atio

n 12

01 t

o 20

00 h

ab.

No.

of v

illag

esw

ith a

bor

ehol

e

No.

of b

oreh

oles

Popu

latio

n w

ithdr

inki

ng w

ater

supp

lies

% p

opul

atio

n w

ithac

cess

to

drin

king

wat

er

Tota

l pop

ulat

ion

Tota

l num

ber

of v

illag

es

No.

of v

illag

esw

ith b

oreh

ole

No.

of b

oreh

oles

Popu

latio

n w

ithdr

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ng w

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supp

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Tota

l pop

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ion

% p

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n w

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cess

to

drin

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wat

er

3.2 The situation of urban and semi-urban water supplies

Urban and semi-urban drinking water supply systems concern towns of 2000 inhabitants and more.The Société Tchadienne d’Eau et d’Electricité (STEE) works in 11 centres (concessionary area) whilethe Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs is responsible for providing drinking water supply systems in otherurban and semi-urban areas (non-concessionary area) that include both the main towns of theDecentralised Local Authorities (DLA) and villages with more than 2000 inhabitants.

Table 4 shows the population growth in the concessionary and non-concessionary areas.

Table 4: Population growth in concessionary and non-concessionary areas

Areas 2000 2010 2020

Population of concessionary area excl. N'Djaména 404 061 503 426 601 900

Population of N'Djaména 639 000 818 600 1 024 000

Total population of concessionary area 1 043 061 1 322 026 1 625 900

Population of non-concessionary area 783 055 1 301 060 1 949 091

Total population in urban/semi-urban areas 1 826 116 2 623 086 3 574 991

Source: SDEA 2001

In addition, in 2000 there were 175 urban areas with populations of over 2000. There will be 289of them by 2010 and 462 by 2020.

At national level, administrative organisation is the responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior, Securityand Decentralisation (MISD), whose duties are defined by decree 399/PR/MISD/97 of 10 September1997. The institutional provisions are currently being modified after adoption on 16 February 2000of law 002/PR/2000 concerning the status of Decentralised Local Authorities (DLA). Because of this,the term DLA now covers the regions, departments, a few communes that are to benefit from the“moyen exercice” and rural communities. Figure 4 shows the main towns of the “DLA” departmentsand sub-prefectures.

3.2.1 Equipment and estimates of drinking water supplies

The only urban drinking water supply (DWS) networks in 2002 were those operated by STEE servingthe cities/towns of N’Djaména, Abéché, Sarh, Moundou, Bongor, Doba, Faya, Fianga, Kélo, Mao andMoussoro. All these urban centres have a developed distribution system consisting of public stand-pipes and individual connections. In all other cases, it is more a question of embryonic networks,based on the design of a village water supply system. These generally include a tapping structure, asolar or thermal pumping station, a water tower, a distribution network running for a few kilometresand 3-5 public stand-pipes. In certain cases, there are individual connections.

In addition to existing in the 11 urban concessionary centres operated by the STEE, facilities arespread over 85 of the 175 urban areas of over 2000 inhabitants. The field enquiries also showed thatno more than 40% of the population in each urban area use or have access to water distributed viathese systems. On this basis, about 417 000 people were supplied in 2000 by a DWS system in theconcessionary area, while 204 000 people had access to an embryonic network in the non-concessionary area. In 2001, it was estimated that the water supply rate for the entire populationof Chad in towns of more than 2000 people was nearly 35%.

3.2.2 Management of urban facilities

At present, there are two main types of DWS system management in Chad. The Société Tchadienned’Eau et d’Electricité manages and operates 11 centres in the concessionary area; all the other centreswith a DWS system in DLA and other areas are managed by a management committee.


3.2.2.1 STEE management

The STEE is currently undergoing thorough reorganisation. The following were signed on 28 February2000:

� first, a public service concession agreement for producing, conveying and distributing water andelectricity between:

1 the “public authority”, the Republic of Chad, represented by the Ministry of Industry,Tradeand Crafts, the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Oil, the Ministry of the Environment and Water,and the Ministry of Finance;

2 the “concessionary operator”, the STEE, represented by the Ministry of Mines, Energy andOil.

� second, as part of the privatisation of water supply and sanitation services in Chad, a generalSTEE licensing and management contract between:

1 the “State”, the Republic of Chad, represented by the Ministry of Industry,Trade and Crafts,the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Oil, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of theEnvironment and Water,

2 the “contractor”, the STEE, represented by the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Oil,

3 and the “manager” the Vivendi/Dietsman consortium.

The Republic of Chad stated that it wished eventually to withdraw from the capital of the STEE andin this respect invited tenders from international companies with a view to selecting a consortium totake its place. This would involve two phases:

� The first phase would consist of private management, without any involvement by the consortiumin the STEE’s capital. The aim was to hand over part of the management of its operations to athird party without losing control of the conceded services. This phase in turn included twostages:� a “general management concession” signed the same day. This stage was to be completed

with the commissioning of Farcha thermal power plant associated with the oil refinery forthe Sédigui field “or any other means for reducing fuel costs on a lasting basis”,

� all operating risks would then be transferred to a company via an “operating contract” forwhich the contractual provisions (essentially management at its own risk) were defined in anannex (annex no. 21).

� A second phase in which the consortium would take a majority shareholding in the registeredcapital of the concessionaire, the STEE.

In the present situation, it is difficult to assess the planned new management system and the chancesof all these stages being implemented. However, a watchdog committee to monitor the newcompany would be a guarantee that the mutual commitments of the concessionaire (STEE SA) andmanager (Vivendi/Dietsman) were met, in particular with regard to the results and extensionsexpected of the service. Monitoring must be carried out effectively in return for the STEE’s newlyautonomous management. Independent, high-level back-up for the watchdog committee appears tobe a prerequisite if monitoring is to be successful, minimising what is usually referred to as the“information dissymmetry” between that which is directly accessible to the private manager (andfuture concessionaire) and that which is actually controlled by the public authority. In addition, itwould seem essential to clarify the legal framework for carrying out such monitoring, as provided forin the Water Code, in order to maintain consistency between the overall mechanism for monitoringsector performance levels and to anticipate the shortcomings that are always possible with sucharrangements, in the interest of the Chadian consumer and in particular the poorest sectors of thepopulation.

In contrast, the control maintained by the State over STEE tariffs may be a source of conflict whenassessing the targets fixed in the introduction to the agreement.





Type of town

Cameroon

Sudan

Libya

Republic of ChadFigure 4: Locations of the main towns of the departments and

sub-prefectures (Decree No. 354 dated 01/09/99)

Capital

DepartmentSub-prefecture

Department limitGeoclimatic limitMain road

3.2.2.2 Management committees

The management system is of the community type, drawn from the experience of the Directorate ofHydraulic Affairs. Water management committees consist of 7-10 members who are responsible forthe various management functions. They are assisted by a technical team responsible for maintainingthe equipment.

The main conclusion with regard to DWPs run by a management committee is usually that themanagement systems set up recently are not functioning properly. Operating, regular managementand monitoring functions are not clearly dissociated. All village chiefs and dignitaries are directlyinvolved in a manner which is inconsistent with their position and institutional role as arbiters. Inaddition, there is a regrettable absence of regular technical reporting, recording of elementaryindicators and precise accounting.

Under-billing also occurs, as the price of water is fixed without taking into account real running costs.Free and unrestricted delivery of water to dignitaries and public services is all too common. There islittle or no maintenance, with servicing being limited to oil changes and lubrication.

3.2.3 The cost of water

The basic prices of water and connections differ from one system to another. The managementcommittees sometimes charge STEE rates when new connections, repairs or upgrades are carriedout, in the absence of any real calculation of local cost prices and customer market studies. Generally,the price of water is broken down into three levels. The price of the first, so-called “social” level(15 m3/month) is fixed at FCFA 105. The price of the second level (15 m3/month to 100 m3/month)varies from one town to another; it is FCFA 230/m3 for towns covered by the STEE and may reachas much as FCFA 490/m3 (at Pala). Lastly, the price of the third level is FCFA 110/m3.

Generally speaking, the prices charged do not reflect the real costs borne by the owners. STEE priceshave remained unchanged since 1984. Many towns are content to apply these rates, having no seriouseconomic analyses that they can use as a reference. When they do not apply them, the prices theycharge do not take into consideration the cost of replacement and major overhauls.

However, whereas prices are fixed when it comes to the basic producers (the STEE and managementcommittees), this is not the case with resale prices. The least privileged sections of society may paydealers 15-25 times more than subscribers who have an individual connection. This situation is amajor obstacle to achieving extensive, equitable access to drinking water for people in urban areas inthe concessionary area.

3.2.4 The major stakeholders in urban water supplies

The various stakeholders involved in urban and semi-urban water supply can be grouped underseveral headings. These include institutions, producers, funding agencies, craftsmen and associations,the private sector and users.

In 2001, the main institutional stakeholders in the field of urban water supplies were the Ministry ofthe Environment and Water via the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, which works in the non-concessionary area, and the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Oil, which is responsible for the STEE thatoperates exclusively in the concessionary area.

The main producers were the Water Point Management Committees in towns with thermal or solarDWSs (in the non-concessionary area) and the STEE (in the concessionary area).

The main funding agencies involved in urban and semi-urban water supply systems over the past 25years have been China/Taiwan (FCFA 15 346 billion), Germany (FCFA 10 756.6 billion), the EIB(FCFA 1486.8 billion), the EDF (FCFA 1395.3 billion), France (FCFA 985.8 million), Italy (FCFA 835.2million), the IDB (FCFA 105 million) and the World Bank (FCFA 54 million). There are no NGOsworking in the field of urban and semi-urban water supplies.


Craftsmen and associations include stand-pipe vendors and managers, who often act as intermediaries(in a way as “wholesalers”) between network owners and water carriers (“retailers”) or consumerswho have no subscription.

The private sector consists of national and international companies involved in design studies,monitoring and implementation of works. Companies distributing spare parts for pumping equipmentare also active in this subsector. Just as in the field of village water supplies, these companies haveexpressed the need for training and back-up.

Citizens are still the main consumers of water in urban and semi-urban areas. With 300 companiesformally registered in Chad, there is little abstraction for industrial needs, but no accurate survey hasbeen carried out so far in this respect. However, it should be noted that water used in industry is notrecycled and wastewater is generally discharged into the environment with no prior treatment.

3.3 The situation with regard to sanitation

In village areas, leaving aside isolated efforts by a few projects, very few villages are equipped withimproved traditional latrines or ventilated pit latrines or solid waste and wastewater collectionsystems. 10.6% of households use a rudimentary latrine, 0.6% use an improved traditional latrine and88.5% defecate in open areas. There is no waste collection in the villages and household animals areleft free to wander. Lastly, 65-70% of rural households draw water from traditional wells while only17% of the rural population have access to a drinking water point. One notable feature of Chad isthat past and present major village water supply projects are not always accompanied by a “villagesanitation” component, which is not expensive but calls for specific local coordination and mobilisationprogrammes. The health situation is characterised by very high infant and maternal morbidity andmortality rates. They are among the highest in sub-Saharan Africa and indeed in the world.

Health statistics for Chad show that the lack of drinking water and the unsuitable hygiene conditionsare the main causes of mortality and sickness within the population. The main illnesses that representpublic health problems are malaria (49% of children), schistosomiasis, diarrhoea (44% of children),meningitis, tetanus, measles, etc. Cholera epidemics often occur. It is clear, therefore, that certainillnesses are directly related to the lack of a basic health infrastructure, which leads people to adopthabits and behaviour patterns that are contrary to hygienic, healthy living.

None of the towns has a functioning wastewater disposal system. The collection networks areoutdated. Fewer than 2% of townspeople have sanitary installations with running water. There areno systems for removing excreta and household waste or for treating solid waste, and no systems (orvery few) for disposing of rain water. Water stagnating in pools encourages the proliferation ofmosquitoes, which are vectors of malaria, yellow fever and encephalitis. Flooded latrines and pits, aswell as abandoned litter, increase the risks of infectious diseases spreading. In the centres and suburbsof urban areas, this situation may lead to serious problems of sanitation and pollution of the aquifersthat are traditionally used for domestic needs (including, in certain cases, drinking water).Consequently, there is a high rate of diarrhoeal diseases and serious risks of epidemics, includingcholera.

Only the cities of N’Djaména, Moundou, Sarh and Abéché drew up Urban Reference Plans (URP) inFebruary 1997. These plans locate housing construction areas, define major road layouts and set outthe main options for stormwater drainage.

The infrastructure (incinerators, treatment plants, etc.) operated by hospitals and health centres is farfrom being in perfect working order and these centres do not have well-defined procedures fortreating and eliminating biomedical waste. Often, such waste can be found in the streets where it canbe picked up by children or anyone who wishes to “collect” it. Wastewater from health establishmentsis rarely treated and is discharged into the environment, often into natural watercourses. In certaincases, these are reused for various purposes (watering small market gardens, etc.). All wastewaterfrom N’Djaména hospital, containing microbes, bacteria, chemicals, etc., is released into the riverwithout any prior treatment. This practice poses an obvious risk for human health and for theenvironment in general.


As far as industrial sanitation is concerned, there were no regulations in 2000 and no standardsregarding industrial waste, especially liquid effluent. Chad has no developed industrial estates. Inaddition, it was noted that most industries discharged their effluent without any treatment into themain rivers such as the Chari and Logone.

3.3.1 Urban sanitation facilities

Only the four main cities (N’Djaména, Moundou, Sarh and Abéché) have a more or less organisedsecondary network of open channels for removing rain water. These channels are rarely in goodcondition. Often, they do not appear to have been built within the framework of an overall rain waterdisposal plan. Waste collection systems can be found, but they all appear to be hardly operational. Inthe other main towns of Chad, there are no working sanitation facilities in good condition. Everythingneeds to be done in this area.

From the industrial standpoint, no document referring to national policy refers to industrial pollutioncontrol as a priority or major concern. Chad has few industries. They are concentrated in Moundou,Sahr and N’Djaména. Wastewater is treated without any form of control. As stated above, all theseindustries discharge their wastewater into the Chari and Logone.

3.3.2 Stakeholders in the field of sanitation

The institutional framework with regard to urban sanitation in 2001 was more complex than that ofthe other subsectors, as several institutional stakeholders have a role to play. The main organisationinvolved is the Ministry of Public Health, which is responsible in particular for promotingenvironmental health, sanitation and the quality of water for consumption, and for drawing uplegislation and regulations concerning hygiene and sanitation.

The Ministry of Public Works, Transport, Housing and Urban Planning is responsible for regulationsconcerning development, planning and construction and for defining levels of service accessdepending on type of neighbourhood.

The Ministry of the Environment and Water is responsible for coordinating and managing all activitiesconnected with urban water supplies and sanitation, in particular identifying, designing andimplementing sanitation programmes (wastewater, stormwater, solid waste, excreta) in collaborationwith the other departments involved in this sector and with those responsible for health awarenessand education campaigns directed at the population.

The Ministry of the Interior, Security and Decentralisation, via the sanitation department, is responsiblefor exterminating insects and rats and disinfecting homes, for intervening in the event of disasters(epidemics, floods, etc.) and for removing solid and liquid waste and excreta from towns and citiesusing hygienic processes.

The towns also play a role in the sanitation sequence, as do the townspeople; in certain places theyhave organised Sanitation Committees that work to maintain and lay stormwater drainage pipes,collect waste and repair streets after the rainy season.

In 2000, few NGOs were involved specifically in the field of sanitation. The main ones included theInstitut Tropicale Suisse (ITS), CARE, BELACD and SECADEV. CARE provides assistance in particularfor the Sanitation Committees in N’Djaména. The private sector is very small and funding for thesanitation subsector is almost always a component of projects where the main aim is to build hydraulicinfrastructure. However, it should be noted that UNICEF stresses sanitation aspects in all itsoperations in the field of drinking water supply; in fact, these two operations are closely linked.

There are thus a great many institutional stakeholders involved in the field of sanitation, usuallyworking with virtually no funding and often unable to coordinate their work and programmes. Inrecent years, initiatives by neighbourhood organisations have attempted to make up on a very smallscale for the shortcomings of this subsector, where nearly everything remains to be done in rural,urban and semi-urban areas alike. Theoretically, the risk of epidemics breaking out is greater in thelast two areas.


3.4 The situation with regard to pastoral water supplies

The pastoral areas of Chad in fact include all land below an altitude of 1000 m, above which the herdsof goats never go (except in the case of a few water points in the Tibesti mountains) and excludesflood-prone areas. This part of the country corresponds to the edges of the Saharan, Sahelian andSudanian zones that are the permanent or seasonal home of stock-rearers and farmer-herders, andto the southern regions that they cross on their way to winter pastures (linked to rains and floods)in accordance with the distribution of water points in these regions. Water is therefore a decisivefactor in the movement of pastoralists. Consequently, decisions concerning the location of newpastoral water points are essential in combating desertification, preventing conflicts and promotingregional development as a whole. If the exceptional movements triggered by climatic disasters suchas droughts are taken into account, there is scarcely any area of Chad that is not crossed by seasonalmigrations.

3.4.1 Pastoral systems

In order to have an operational ranking suited to the aims of an integrated plan for waterdevelopment, the pastoral systems were distinguished according to the preferred type of access towater resources, taking into account the geoclimatic breakdown. Adopting this classification principlegives a total of 12 pastoral systems spread over the three main zones. Figure 5 summarises andillustrates the main pastoral systems.

Saharan zone

Two pastoral systems were distinguished in the Saharan zone. These are the piedmont type,connected with water resources concentrated near relief and in the immediate vicinity of piedmontareas, and the western Kanem type, in which stock-rearers limit their movements to the wadis thatthey exploit and where they cultivate rainfed cereals and sometimes keep gardens.

Sahelian zone

These pastoral systems become increasingly extensive the nearer they approach the border withSudan. Movements range from a few kilometres a year in the case of herds in the large wadis of southKanem to several hundred kilometres in the eastern part of Chad. Six pastoral systems coexist inthe Sahel. They are often differentiated by regional flow patterns and the annual distribution ofpastoral resources. These systems are as follows:

The lake sector pastoral system: around Lake Chad, cattle rearers exploit the hundreds of flood-recession grazing areas left on the islands and archipelagos that emerge as the lake water levelfalls.

The eastern Kanem pastoral system: rearers’ movements within this system can be likened toannual oscillations along the Bahr-El-Ghazal route. At the end of the dry season, they movesouthwards to the Massakory road at Ati and wait till the rainfall front overtakes them. Whenthey feel that there are sufficient ponds in the Saharan rangeland, they move back up to theseareas following the surface water that concentrates in the Bahr-El-Ghazal valley.

The western Batha pastoral system: the rearers spend at least nine months of the year at LakeFitri, where their herds graze on bourgou grass, complying with the traditional rules of thesedentary population.

The eastern Batha pastoral system: depending on the year, rearers spend 9-10 months awayfrom their administrative main town, Oum-Hadjer, travelling south to avoid having to draw waterfrom the wells in their own prefecture, as they possess very large herds. Depending on theirstarting position, they reach the lakes and large ponds of the Salamat by travelling east or westaround the Guéra. They return quickly at the start of the winter season in order to avoid thefloods on the main wadis, which would prevent them from reaching the grazing land furthernorth.





Republic of ChadFigure 5: Pastoral systems

CAM

ERO

ON

SUDAN

LIBYA

Legend

Geoclimatic zones

Saharan ZoneSahelian ZoneSudanian Zone

Normal Lake Chad before 1973

Lake Chad “Petit Tchad 1999”

Seasonal migr. & transhumance

Seasonal migration & salt cure

Peuls (Chari-Baguirmi)

Foreigners

Western Kanem

Western Batha

Lake

River

Piedmont

Eastern Chad

Eastern Batha

Eastern Kanem

The eastern Chad pastoral system: the migration distances are as great as those of thepreceding systems. When rearers begin to move southwards, they often abandon hardlyexploited grazing land because the wells in these regions, which are dug into hard and badlyfaulted formations, quickly dry out.

Lastly, the seasonal migration and transhumance pastoral system: in all villages with a sedentarypopulation, there are stock-rearers who often possess large herds of zebus and small ruminants.During the dry season, they travel away from the villages searching for pasture. During the rainyseason, the owners entrust their livestock to migratory rearers for the summer migration period,so that they can devote themselves to agrarian activities.

Sudanian zone

This part of the country is dedicated mainly to cotton growing, which is predominant in all the regionssituated west of the river Chari. However, four pastoral systems are found there simultaneously.These are:

A generalised system of village stock-rearing and farming using animal-drawn equipment,(seasonal migration and transhumance). The closer one gets to the main provincial towns, themore one finds small herds raised for speculative purposes. These agro-pastoral situations arelimited by the volume of locally available water resources.

The river pastoral system occurring along the main rivers and consisting of large zebu herds, asthe animals are able to drink all year round from the permanent rivers. Very often during therains, rearers migrate short distances. The main reason is to move the animals away from thecrops and this cannot therefore really be called rainy season migration.

The Peul pastoral system, which is specific to the Chari-Baguirmi region. This follows regionaldry-season movements but includes migrations to the bourgou grass areas around Lake Chadbefore the start of the rainy season. The longer the dry season, the earlier the migration begins.

Foreign pastoral systems, originating in Cameroon and the Central African Republic andinvolving sheep rearers and Peul cattle rearers. These pass through the southern sub-prefectures,entering Chad as soon as the first rains occur, and then head up to the Sahelian zone and evento the edges of the Saharan zone during rainy years. This “foreign” transhumance was reckonedin 1988 to represent one third of the animals in western Chad, but they do not use hydraulicinfrastructure as they advance in accordance with the rainy season ponds.

The systems described above are a summary of the main types of movement by pastoralists in eachmajor region. They do not reflect the true complexity of seasonal movements in each sub-prefectureand canton, but rather a regional overview. As an example, it would be possible to define a “camel-rearers” sub-group in each of the Sahelian pastoral systems described above. Such a sub-group wouldhave its own types of movement in terms of time and direction, even though in most cases the routewould be virtually the same as that taken by cattle-rearers. The herds would simply move less furthersouth and return earlier.

In addition, before the first drought in 1969-1974, it was rare for rearers to move further south thanthe 13th parallel during the rainy season migration. Only those of eastern Batha and the prefecturesof Ouaddaï and Biltine would go further south, as the places where they watered their herds driedout in November. After the dry season, the modification in the vegetation meant that all journeysshifted to different latitudes. Whereas previously most camps moved their herds in order to exploitthree ecosystems (edges of the Sahara, Sahel and Sahelo-Sudanian regions), from 1975 onwards withthe lack of grazing land, most camps stayed within the Sahel and Sudanian regions where they spentmost of the time, preferring to make the most of their journey south to strike various types ofcontract with the villagers that they met at the end of the dry season.

At the present time, the Dourbali parallel appears to be the southernmost limit of “normal” seasonaljourneys. A similar type of shift has occurred in movements in the Saharan zone, where the herds ofdromedaries in turn spend more time in the Sahelian zone.


3.4.2 Livestock and pastoral resources

There is currently little information on livestock numbers and fodder resources, which is a seriouslimitation in developing the subsector and accurately evaluating water requirements and the hydraulicstructures that need to be built. Thus, in 2000, the total livestock numbers varied from 9 million to16 million tropical livestock units (TLU). In addition, the available data concerning fodder resourcesgive between 600 and 1200 kg of dry matter/ha/year for the Sudanian zone, 400-900 kg of drymatter/ha/year for the Sahelian zone and 200-300 kg of dry matter/ha/year for the Saharan zone

Unfortunately, these values were determined on the basis of surveys carried out before the lastdrought in 1984-1985 and therefore need to be revised. Also, they concern only part of Chad up tothe 17th parallel, and therefore give a very incomplete view of the Saharan zone.

Several authors of recent works estimate that in numerous regions the situation has hardly worsenedsince the last climatic disaster, even if there are signs of over-grazing in certain areas. The most recentforecasting documents concerning the management of pastoral resources in Chad consider thatfodder resources may still support an increase in livestock of between 2.4 and 4.7 million TLU, i.e.,increases of 40% and 78% respectively.

3.4.3 Pastoral water supply facilities

Depending on the season, rearers use two types of facility to water their herds: fixed water pointswith varying levels of equipment, and catch pits and ponds that appear after the first rains, some ofthem remaining for several months. However, one important point should be stressed straight away:whatever artificial structure they use, even when it is a pumping station where they have to make noeffort to water their herds, as soon as they can gain access to surface water, they immediately do so,however small the ponds created by the first rains. By doing this, they shorten the exhausting pumpingwork that they have been obliged to carry out during the dry season.

The water points where herders water their animals are grouped into three categories depending onthe level to which they are developed, namely traditional water points consisting of traditional wells,saniés and oglats, on one hand, and modern water points (MWP) including modern cemented wells,boreholes equipped with pumping stations and developed ponds on the other. Lastly, there are alsoundeveloped water points, namely natural ponds, lakes and permanent rivers and streams.

There is no inventory or data base concerning traditional water points. However, this type ofstructure appears to be the water point most commonly used by rearers, with groundwaterabstraction. There is also no inventory concerning temporary or permanent ponds in the country.The surveys indicate that in many regions stock-rearers water their herds at ponds and marigots forperiods ranging from 3 to 10 months. However, these reserves of water are so variable from oneyear to the next, rainfall so erratic and the differences in topography so great in Chad that it ispointless to imagine obtaining an exhaustive document covering these natural reserves of water.

However, an empirical method of evaluating the quantity of surface water used for livestock is tomultiply the quantity of water consumed each day by the number of livestock. Using this calculationmethod, the estimated consumption of surface water by livestock in Chad is of the order of57 milllion m3 per annum, which satisfied about 25% to 30% of livestock water requirements in 2000.It should be noted that a small proportion of livestock in Chad drinks every day from the permanentrivers, the Logone and Chari. In the calculation carried out above, no account was taken of this aspect.

In all, 23 pumping stations used for pastoral water supply purposes were inventoried. These stationsare located for the most part in the Sahelian zone to the north and east of N’Djaména. An enquirycarried out in 1999 showed that only four stations were still operating, while the others had beenabandoned or were completely out of use. Another study showed that 17 of these pumping stationscould be rehabilitated and brought back into operation. In 2001, no rehabilitation work had beenundertaken.

The number of modern wells (cemented, reinforced concrete wells) throughout Chad is estimated at3485. The distribution of these structures per geoclimatic zone and per use is shown in table 5 below.



Table 5: Distribution of modern wells per geoclimatic zone

Prefecture Pastoral use Village use Mixed use Total

Saharan 96 15 23 134

Sahelian 525 697 478 1 700

Sudanian 73 1 416 162 1 651

Total 694 2 128 663 3 485

Source: SDEA 2000

It can be seen from this table that 694 wells are used essentially for pastoral purposes. Combiningwells used for pastoral purposes and those used for mixed purposes, 1357 modern water pointsdistributed throughout Chad were used to water livestock in 2000.

These wells are centred mainly in the western part of the Sahelian and Sudanian zones. At present,the distribution of pastoral water points is very poor and does not correspond to the real needs ofthe subsector. The west is over-equipped and the east, where most major migration routes are found,is under-equipped.

3.4.4 Management of pastoral water points

Generally speaking the traditional wells do not pose any problem in terms of use and managementas their usage is determined by the stock-rearer or group of users that ordered or built it. Similarly,the saniés, which are several centuries old, do not give rise to any significant conflicts. Usually, themanner in which they are used has been fixed by custom for centuries. However, the drawback ofthe saniés is that they require large amounts of wood for their lining, which unnecessarily harms anenvironment made fragile by drought.

The use of cemented wells is carefully codified by usage and local custom. Often, the people living inone or more cantons share water turns according to the number of “chibés” available.

Surface water and rainy period ponds pose no particular problems in terms of use or managementas in general, and especially in the Sahelian zone, they are used on a “first come, first served” basis,particularly when they are small. If they are larger, sufficient numbers of herders are accustomed tocamping there each year for customary usage to have been established and respected.

In 2002, there were three “major” types of modern pastoral water point management. The procedurerecommended by the Directorate for the Development of Animal Production and Pastoralisminvolves operating in an organised environment in such a way as to transfer the management andmaintenance of the structure to users organised in groups. The fact that the group is now responsiblefor the structure does not, however, exclude other users who are required to comply with the rulesof access.

In eastern Chad, the management of pastoral water supply structures is based on discussion andnegotiation between stakeholders rather than ownership of water points by a group or association.The pastoral water supply structures that exist (wells and ponds) are common property owned byall rearers whether they are sedentary or migratory. Two levels of management have been created:at water point level, a “joint management committee” involving sedentary and migratory rearers,which has enabled rules for using the structures (wells or ponds) and surrounding resources to bedefined, and at sub-prefecture level a “joint committee” consisting of traditional chiefs (of bothsedentary and migratory communities) and local government representatives. The aim of the latteris to solve conflicts between sedentary and migratory rearers and to define and mark out migrationroutes in the field.

A third type of management is currently being tried out in western Chad. Starting with the realisationthat rearers in Kanem are already well-organised, the system for managing pastoral water supplystructures provided within the framework of the Kanem Pastoral Water Supply Programme (PHPK)is based on the traditional system of pastoral well management. Each well has an owner or manager,who decides on its use and “opening it up” to migratory rearers. This type of management is alsofound in the geographical Ouaddaï.

These three experiments in pastoral water point management are relatively recent. Lessons shouldbe learned from them for setting up future management systems which, while respecting customs andspecific regional and local features, will guarantee the permanence of the structures and access towater for rearers and livestock.

3.4.5 Conflicts connected with access to water points

Generally speaking, and traditionally, users in a given region share access to water resources accordingto various combinations of criteria that through long usage have come to satisfy all native users. Incertain regions, drinking time is allocated according to the canton from which the herders come, andin others according to the users’ types of activity, while other communities of agropastoralists preferto opt for time-sharing.

If conflicts should break out, they affect only small groups limited to a few families. They are generallyvery localised and short-lived. Most serious conflicts arise when the spatial distribution of grazingand/or cropping activities is hampered or upset by new arrivals or passing rearers who, because oftheir numbers, try and impose themselves by creating faits accomplis. Although such conflicts aresometimes violent and last several years, they are usually completely controlled by customarylawgivers, who have all the necessary means for settling such matters.

In contrast, conflicts that originate in clashes between two different strategies followed by groups thathave decided to increase or shift their grazing areas are more difficult to solve, as long as theunderlying motives of those involved is not clearly apparent. The main reason for such clashes is notalways the water point(s), even if it is at such places that they break out.

Sometimes, one or more groups may start a conflict that serves their interest in one way or another,depending on how they see the situation. Such conflicts generally occur between rearers when thegrazing land of one group has been reduced following repeated droughts or fires (which may be litdeliberately). When a serious conflict breaks out over a well, the matter is brought to justice.However, whatever the settlement, the group that is “foreign” to local usage, but a party to the conflict,is almost always granted access to the water point. This is why some cantons have developedextremely aggressive strategies for “occupying” certain wells to which they had no right of accessthrough either usage or custom.

Equally intentional clashes also occur between sedentary farmers and rearers when the rearersconsider that the farmers’ fields enclose the water points. Fields and gardens become sointerconnected that they gradually form tight mazes through which it is quite impossible to lead evena small herd. When such practices spread, rearers always try provocation, driving their animals intothe fields of crops when they have the least opportunity. For their part, farmers intentionally blockoff certain paths and areas of land that they know to be unproductive but which would allow herdsto pass through easily.

The only ponds over which conflicts arise are those in Mortcha. Here, it is not the ponds themselvesthat are at stake but the grazing land to which they give access. As they are used only once every 6-7 years, there is no clearly defined usage. So, when early heavy showers fall, making it possible toexploit a given sector, those benefiting from this brief advantage take the opportunity to spill over onto land that they do not usually graze. However, once the rains have filled all the ponds, rearers whohave been affected last by the rains hastily try to redefine the boundaries of the grazing areas as theysee fit. The result depends to a great extent on the balance of power existing between them.


3.4.6 Pastoral water supply stakeholders

The main institutional stakeholders in the pastoral water supply subsector are the Ministry of Stock-Rearing via the Directorate for the Development of Animal Production and Pastoralism, which is inparticular responsible for defining and organising local joint management policies for pastoralresources including hydraulic infrastructure, in liaison with the parties concerned, and the Ministry ofthe Environment and Water via the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, which is responsible for planningand scheduling urban, village and pastoral water supply activities and sanitation.

There is also a para-public stakeholder involved in pastoral water supplies, the Farcha Veterinary andZootechnical Research Laboratory (LRVZF). This is a public establishment of an industrial andcommercial nature, with its own legal status and financial autonomy, supervised by the Ministry ofStock-Rearing. The LRVZF carries out scientific and technical research required to preserve, developand improve the country’s livestock and develop its by-products.

With regard to the donors, the main stakeholder in the field of pastoral water supply is France via theAgence Française de Développement (AFD) and Fonds d’Aide et de Coopération (FAC), followed bythe Saudi and Kuwait Funds. Between 1985 and 2000, a total of FCFA 53.60 billion was invested inthis subsector.

The main organisations in pastoral areas are health protection associations, pastoral interest groupsand joint management committees. Few NGOs are directly involved in pastoral water supplies, whilethe private sector consists of national and international companies involved in studies, monitoring andconstruction work on water points.

3.5 The situation with regard to agricultural water supplies

3.5.1 The physical context of agricultural water supplies

The Saharan zone

The Saharan zone covers the entire northern part of Chad, representing some 60% of the country’sarea. From the climate point of view, it therefore corresponds to the Saharan climate in the strictsense, and to the Saharo-Sahelian climate. Because of its climatic characteristics, the Saharan zone isof limited agricultural potential in comparison with the Sahelian and Sudanian zones. By definition, itis the area in which date palms grow.

The Sahelian zone

From the agricultural point of view, the economy of the Sahel is based traditionally on cereals (millet)and oilseeds (groundnuts). Nevertheless, the long dry period that the region has experienced overthe past three decades has led to a severe regression of groundnuts with a corresponding expansionof millet, without there being any apparent increase in yields. On the contrary, the frequent shortagesof rainfall and impoverishment of the soil related to the abandonment of groundnut cultivation, notto mention the influx of cattle from the north, quickly put pay to any gains in production expectedfrom the increase in cultivated land. But in any event, there is no avoiding the two main limiting factorsfor agriculture inherent in the climatic characteristics of the Sahelian zone, namely that the range ofrainfed crops is and will always remain limited, and no significant intensification in production canbe expected without irrigation.

The Sudanian zone

There is intense and varied agricultural activity in the Sudanian zone. The area cultivated each year withrainfed crops is of the order of 1.2 million ha, while flood-recession crops cover about 100 000 ha. Themain crops, outside irrigated areas, are:

� cotton: covering more than 200 000 ha, this is the main cash crop and consequently the mainsource of foreign currency for the country. Nevertheless, it should be noted that cotton growingis one of the major factors contributing to the country’s chronic food insecurity, owing to theincreasing areas devoted to this crop and the deterioration of the soils resulting from its repetitivecharacter ;



� oilseed and legume crops, including groundnuts, cowpeas, sesame, earth peas and more recentlysoya, covering an area that fluctuates between 200 000 and more than 300 000 ha;

� cereals, the staple food of the country; annual production is subject to the whims of nature andis generally well below requirements. The area of land devoted to cereals covers between450 000 ha and 800 000 ha;

� root vegetables (manioc, sweet potatoes, yams, taro), which are essential additional foodstuffs,occupy several thousand hectares;

� market garden crops.

3.5.2 Agricultural water supply facilities and assessment

Water is used for agricultural purposes in many different ways, depending on the environmentalcontext. Most are traditional, possibly combining the use of surface water and groundwater. However,there are also areas that are quite modern in design and others that might be termed improvedinsofar as they feature limited innovations in comparison with traditional systems. Figure 6 illustratesthe distribution of these various facilities throughout Chad. With reference to the classification criteriain use in Chad, i.e., the size of the area, the level of water control and the type of crops, the followingseven irrigation systems will be adopted: flood-recession agriculture, depression rice-growing,traditional small-scale irrigation with complete water control, modern small-scale irrigation withcomplete water control, large irrigation areas with partial water control, large irrigation areas withcomplete water control and oasis systems.

Table 6 summarises the characteristics of the various types of irrigation facilities found in Chad.Leaving aside traditional schemes which, it should be remembered, nonetheless represent most of theirrigated land, Chad currently has only four modern irrigation schemes that are soon (2002) to beimproved by the flooding of Mamdi polder (1600 ha). However, it should be noted that these largemodern irrigation areas all have a serious drawback: the cost price is high (over FCFA 14 million/ha)which is difficult to justify from the economic standpoint. In principle, the State’s withdrawal fromproduction activities should put an end to this type of public investment, which has given rise to moredisappointment than satisfaction, though this does not rule out the possibility of private investorstaking its place.

The State may also take pride in the construction of four large irrigation areas with partial watercontrol along the Logone, covering a total of about 4600 ha, and an improved traditional polder of600 ha to the north-east of Lake Chad. Even so, the difficulties encountered in supplying water andmanaging the areas along the Logone suggest caution with regard to subsequent renewal of this typeof scheme. In contrast, the low cost of the development works needed to transform a classicaltraditional polder into an improved traditional one (of the order of FCFA 1 million/ha) has led theGovernment to launch a huge project of this kind covering more than 8000 ha, with work scheduledto start in the coming months.

In addition to these State-initiated schemes that are important for institutional development, some ofwhich (the polders) are still under its authority, there has been enormous public investment in thedevelopment of small communal water supply schemes of which little remains, unfortunately. Most ofthe 70 schemes implemented over the past three decades have in fact disappeared or are in such astate of dilapidation that they cannot be used rationally. Only about ten of the most recent, totallingsome 350 ha, can still justifiably be termed small irrigation areas (SIA).

One positive aspect of the subsector is the success of small private irrigation schemes in theN’Djaména region, although these areas are of marginal importance and it remains to be seenwhether they can be reproduced.


Republic of ChadFigure 6: Agricultural water supply schemes

Main town

Main road

Department

Watercourse

Cam

eroo

n

Sudan

Libya

Legend



Traditional irrigation with totalcontrol of water

Traditional polders

Scattered private irrigation areas

Flood-recession agriculture

Palm grove



Large irrigation area w/ total control

Small irrigation area w/ total control

Large irrigation area with partialcontrol

Type of irrigation Name or type of scheme Area (ha) Crop area(ha)

Type of produce Production (t/year) Waterconsumption

(m3/year)

Comments

Flood-recessionagriculture

Extensive agriculture in riveroverflow areas

1 700 000(estimate)

125 000 Berbéré, maize 110 000 4000 m3/ha or600 millionm3/year

Water consumption notabstraction, as it wouldevaporate

Rice-growing indepressions

Depressions submerged byfloods and runoff

A few thousand tonnes Unknown Cannot be determined inpresent conditions

Small-scale traditionalirrigation withcomplete watercontrol

15 000 Vegetables, fruitand sometimescereals

Vegetables: 165 000;Fruit: 10 000

150 million Irrigation using chadouf,or bucket from springsand surface water

Small-scale modernirrigation withcomplete watercontrol

2000 Rice, vegetables,fruit,condiments

Rice: 3500.Vegetables: 6550.Fruit: 2900

24 million Chari-Logone water

Large-scale irrigationwith partial watercontrol

Satégui-Déressia

Section “A”

Section “B”

Traditional polders

Improved traditional polders

2100

2000

300

1800

600

1500

200

300

Unknown

Unknown

Rice

Rice

Rice

Wheat, maize

Wheat, maize

3000

700

Wheat: 950/Maize: 2650

Maize: 750

13.5 million

2.7 million

17 million

3.5 million

Logone water

Logone water

Lake Chad water

Lake Chad water

Large-scale irrigationwith complete watercontrol

Banda sugar-growing area

Section “B”

Modern polders at Bol

3700

500

3700

420

2500

Sugar cane

Rice

Wheat, maize

330 000

2500

Wheat: 3500/

Maize: 3 500

40 million

8 million

26 million

Chari water

Logone water

Lake Chad water

Oasis systems Essentially in Saharan zone 5900 Date palm,vegetables,cereals, fruit

Dates: 15 000 Vegetables: 1000Cereals: 300

96 million Water abstracted fromaquifers

Table 6: Characteristics of agricultural water supply facilities (2000)

Source: SDEA 2000



3.5.3 Summary of agricultural water consumption

Table 7 summarises the volumes of water abstracted to meet agricultural water requirements in 2000,for each geoclimatic zone and each origin.

Table 7: Summary of agricultural water abstraction in 2000

Geoclimatic zone Surface water Groundwater Total(million m3/year) (million m3/year) (million m3/year)

Saharan zone 127 127

Sahelian zone 117 63 180

Sudanian zone 683 20 703

Total 800 210 1010

Source: SDEA 2001

Agricultural water consumption in 2001 was estimated at a little over 1 billion cubic metres. About80% of this consisted of surface water. Agricultural water requirements in the Saharan zone are metentirely by groundwater, whereas in the Sahelian zone 35% of requirements are met by groundwaterand 65% by surface water. Lastly, almost 100% of agricultural water requirements in the Sudanian zoneare met by surface water.

3.5.4 Stakeholders in the field of agricultural water supplies

The Directorate of Rural Engineering and Agricultural Hydraulics (DGRHA) of the Ministry ofAgriculture is responsible, among other things, for planning, programming, coordinating and managingstudies and development works relating to irrigation schemes in the public and parapublic sectors, andfor studying and carrying out (or supervising implementation of) agricultural water use programmes,including works carried out by the Soil Protection and Rehabilitation service.

Its duties, which in principle cover the entire spectrum of agricultural water supply operations, arenonetheless highly theoretical, as the DGRHA has neither the staff nor the financial resources toperform them in full. The nine regional subdivisions are those of Chari-Baguirmi, Guéra-Batha,Ouaddaï-Biltine, BET, Lac-Kanem, Salamat, Logone occidental and Logone oriental, Mayo-Kebbi-Tandjilé, and Moyen-Chari; (the subdivisions in bold italics were not operational in 2001).

There are also two major stakeholders in the field of agricultural water supply, namely the NationalRural Development Office (ONDR), responsible for implementing agricultural developmentprogrammes, and the Société de Développement du Lac (SODELAC), responsible for overalldevelopment of the Lac prefecture.

The African Development Bank (ADB), European Development Fund (EDF),Arab Bank for EconomicDevelopment in Africa (BADEA) and International Fund for Agricultural Development are the majordonors in the field of agricultural development in Chad. More than 90% of the sums invested in theagricultural sector (FCFA 102.5 billion between 1985 and 2000) came from loans.

There are various types of peasant organisation. The main ones are village cooperatives. Their aim isto promote economic and social development in each village through the development and self-managed operation of each irrigation area. A second type of organisation is the Village Association(VA), which acts a go-between between members of the group and the Management Committee. Athird form of organisation is the Economic Interest Group (EIG), the aim of which is to promoteactivities that have a general interest for the village, such as small businesses, cereal banks, exploitationof wadis. There is no type of formal organisation of farmers in private irrigation areas. However, thethree types of organisation described below may be found: direct operation, where the owner investshis own resources, farms his plot and harvests his produce, share-cropping, where the owner rentshis plot to a farmer who cultivates it, with the produce being shared equally between the owner andthe farmer, and tenant farming, where the owner provides inputs and hires local labour; the harvestis then shared on the basis of the net produce, with the owner deducting the quantity correspondingto his investment and the rest being shared equally among the labourers and the owner.

3.6 The situation with regard to fishing

Fishing is also an activity that requires water. The figure normally taken for the production potentialof Chad is 80 000 tonnes per year. A recent report concerning Chad quoted this figure,acknowledging that fishing is a dynamic sector but that reliable statistics are lacking. It ranks 4th in theeconomic activities of the primary sector, after cotton, stock-rearing and gum arabic, with an annualproduction of the order of 40 000 tonnes worth FCFA 20 billion and employing 250 000 peopledirectly or indirectly.

Fish reproduction is linked essentially to the annual level of flooding and water quality. Flooding in thelarge flood plains is virtually uncontrolled at present, as there are almost no storage structuresupstream and the effect of local diking is quite limited. There is considerable variation in flows andhence in major flooding, from one year to the next. In the long term, this is seen in the alternation ofdry and wet pseudo-cycles, and over the past 20 years by the persistence of a long series of dry years.

Existing flow conditions in Chad are naturally favourable to fishing activities, which represent both animportant economic activity and a major source of food for the country’s inhabitants. Fish resourcesare often essential in the means of subsistence of the poorest people, especially those in the Chari-Logone and Lake regions.

3.7 The situation with regard to hydroelectricity

Early on, the Chadian part of the Mayo-Kebbi attracted attention, partly because of the suggestion ofan offtake from the Logone via the Mayo Kébi river and partly because of the existence of the 45 mhigh Gauthiot Falls, that were suited to hydropower production.

The annual mean discharge at Mbourao just upstream of the falls was estimated at around 10 m3/sfor the 1964-1986 period. There are considerable seasonal variations in spite of the existenceupstream of the Toubouri lakes, with discharge falling to less than 2 m3/s for nearly half the year. Thehydropower that could be produced by a plant would be less than 3.2 MW on average, with less than1 MW during dry periods if the river was not regulated by a dam.

Furthermore, the valleys of the upper Logone are deep and narrow, cutting into steeply sloping graniteformations, and therefore suited to the construction of hydropower dams. A project was put forwardaround 1968-1970 with the twofold aim of regulating the Logone in order to provide water forirrigation during dry-weather flow periods and also to produce electricity.

Two dams were suggested:

� Koumban, on the Vina upstream of the confluence with the Mbéré in Cameroon; this dam wouldbe 57 m high, 2100 m long and have a capacity of 5 billion m3;

� Goré, on the Pendé about 20 km after its point of entry into Chad; this dam would be 31 m high,3400 m long and have a capacity of 2.8 billion m3.

The volume of these dams represents about the annual discharges of their tributaries. Total electricityproduction would be about 100 million kWh/year and the discharge of the Logone at Laï would be:

� 150 m3/s during dry-weather flows and 2600 m3/s during flood peaks with a dam built atKoumban;

� 250 m3/s during dry-weather flows and 1500 m3/s during floods with both dams built.

These evaluations were based on hydraulic conditions during the wet period. In the presentsituation, the estimated hydropower production and flood and dry-weather flows would need to belowered. The annual mean volume of flow of the Pendé at Goré was 4.6 km3 between 1956 and1972, and only 2.4 km3 between 1972 and 1999.

In Chad, as in the upstream part of the Chari-Logone basin in the Central African Republic andCameroon, water resources are not exploited for hydropower production. However, it should benoted that a master plan for the electricity subsector was drawn up for Chad in June 1996.


3.8 The situation with regard to river and lake transport

River traffic is essentially limited to floating firewood on the Chari upstream of N’Djaména8. In spiteof its informal character, this activity is organised. The traffic is spread among several groups inaccordance with rules based on customary law.

There is more traffic on Lake Chad than on the rivers owing to its special geographical position, butit remains informal.

There is no river transport industry worthy of the name or any Government department responsiblefor shipping, even partial or seasonal, on the two main rivers or on Lake Chad.

3.9 The situation with regard to tourism

Tourism covers “activities carried out by people during their travel and while staying in places otherthan their normal place of residence for more than 24 hours and less than 4 months for leisure,business or other purposes”9.

Chad has several tourist attractions. More specifically with regard to water, the lakes of the BET regionand the Lake Chad area with its floating islands, aquatic and terrestrial fauna that can easily be reachedfrom Douguia tourist centre are worthy of mention. Lake Fitri is a wetland of internationalimportance, designated a biosphere reserve. The various types of natural areas such as national parksand wildlife reserves feature ecosystems that are also tourist attractions.

However, the lack of hotel infrastructure, coupled with ill-trained staff, high prices and the oftendefective state of the facilities, hinder the development of the tourist industry in Chad. The authoritieshave given no significant support to this activity. Development has been sporadic and isolated.

4 WATER RESOURCES AND DEMAND SATISFACTION

Chad covers the Saharan, Sahelian and Sudanian climate zones. Rainfall therefore varies considerablyboth geographically, with a steep latitudinal gradient, and in time, with strong seasonal fluctuations andvery significant differences from one year to another.

Accessible surface water is concentrated mainly in the southern part of the country (see figures 7 and8), particularly in the Chari-Logone basin, where there are extensive flood-prone areas. However,following the drop in rainfall, mean inflows on the Chari at N’Djaména fell from 39 billion cubic metresa year during the 1950-1970 period to 21.8 billion cubic metres between 1972 and 2000. In addition,following successive years of drought, Lake Chad has split into two separate hydrological units,shrinking in area from 19 000 km2 at the end of the 1960s to a mean flooded area that is currentlyestimated at 7500 km2.

Chad has significant groundwater resources spread throughout the country. These are located incontinuous aquifers covering about 75% of the country and discontinuous ones formed by thebedrock, particularly in the east of the country with small fractions in the south. Renewablegroundwater resources are evaluated at nearly 20 billion m3 a year, whereas exploitable resources inthe major aquifers are estimated at between 260 billion m3 and 540 billion m3. However, it should beemphasised that based on the current state of knowledge concerning the hydrogeological systems, itis only possible to discuss the operation of the aquifers in broad outline (in particular with regard torecharge levels) and describe their approximate characteristics.

Water resources have many functions and uses. While surface water is essential in preservingbiodiversity, it also plays a major role in agriculture, fishing and stock-rearing, key components of foodsecurity and also major segments of the country’s economy. Groundwater is just as important, as inaddition to making a significant contribution to stock-rearing and agriculture, it is used by nearly 90%of Chadians as drinking water.


8 Extract from theGeneva-IV Round Table

document. Sectoralmeeting on transport,

housing and urbanplanning. Assessment

and developmentstrategies for the

transport sector in Chad:N’Djaména, November

1999

9 National Action Planfor the Environment.Cahier du PNAE du

Tchad No. 9 Transport and Tourism; September

2002.

4.1 Surface water4.1.1 Rainfall

Rainfall is the origin of running or stagnant surface water. The distribution and movement of isohyetsare shown on figure 9. Three periods are analysed: 1950-1970, 1971-1980 and 1981-2000. There isa clear southwards shift in the isohyets of the order of 120-150 km, corresponding to a decrease of100-130 mm throughout the country south of the 14th parallel. This applies to the averageinterannual rainfall intensity values and would have little meaning for a given year in a specific spot,in view of the spatio-temporal variability in rainfall distribution.

Lake Chad may be considered to give a good indication of the climatic changes that have occurred inthe basin, closely reflecting the changes in the regional rainfall indices used up to 1990. The variationsin the lake level and inflow from the Chari therefore give a good idea of the climatic variations thathave occurred in the recent period. After a very low point in 1984-1985, there was an increasingtrend that was confirmed in 1998 and 1999 (see figure 10).

With regard to surface water, the general consensus is that a period of relative drought has occurredthroughout the basin since 1972-1973, reaching a low point in 1984. In comparison with the previousrelatively wet period, there has thus been a general trend towards more arid conditions. However,there has been no clear trend over the past 30 years.

4.1.2 River systems

The main hydrographic units fall within the Chad basin, which is bounded by a series of mountainranges: the Tibesti, Ennedi and Ouaddaï to the north and east, the Central African ridge to the southand the Adamaoua mountains to the south-west (see figures 7 and 8). These comprise the basin ofthe Chari and Logone, with their flood plains and Lake Chad, the Batha basin with Lake Fitri, the MayoKébi basin with the Toubouri lakes and the basins of temporary rivers in the desert to sub-desertregions north of the 14th parallel.

In addition to these major units are smaller but sometimes numerous and locally important bodies ofwater : the wadis of Kanem and Ouaddaï, natural and artificial ponds, a few artificial reservoirs and theoases and lakes in the BET.

4.1.2.1 The Chari-Logone basin

The rivers

At the point where it enters Chad, the Chari is formed by the combination of the Bamingui, Gribinguiand Bangoran, which drain an 80 000 km2 basin situated in the Central African Republic (CAR). It isjoined on the right bank by the Bahr Aouk, which forms the boundary between Chad and the CAR,and drains a very gently sloping basin covering 100 000 km2 that floods over large areas. From theconfluence with the Bahr Aouk as far as Lake Chad, the mean gradient of the river is 0.10 m/km, whichresults in pronounced degradation of the river bed, with flood plains and effluents.

The Logone is also formed by the combination of two rivers flowing down from the Adamaoua rangein Cameroon: the Vina and the Mbéré, which join at the frontier between the two countries. TheLogone is joined on the right bank by the Lim (4500 km2) downstream of Baïbokoum. Furtherdownstream, the Logone is joined on the left bank by the Nya (3000 km2) and again on the right bankby the much larger Pendé (15 000 km2). The Continental Terminal flood plains then begin, with a highlydegraded river bed and an average gradient of 0.25 m/km at Laï and 0.14 m/km between Laï andN’Djaména.

The mean annual volume of flow of the Chari at N’Djaména was respectively 39.1 billion m3 for the1950-1971 period and 21 billion m3 from 1972 to 2000. There is therefore significant long-term andinterannual variability in discharge. At N’Djaména there has been a tendency for flows to decreasesince around the early 1960s, with a low point being reached in 1984-1985. Recently, however, it isworth noting that the trend has been for maximum and minimum levels and discharges to increase.



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Republic of ChadFigure 8: Main watercourses in Chad

Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Chad 2002 – Govt of Chad – with UNDP funding


Flood-prone zonesSecondary riversMain rivers and lakes

Normal Lake Chad before 1973Lake Chad “Petit Tchad 1999”


Figure 10: Débits annuels du Chari et niveau du Lac Tchad

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1906-1

907

1909-1

910

1912-1

913

1915-1

916

1918-1

919

1921-1

922

1924-1

925

1927-1

928

1930-1

931

1933-1

934

1936-1

937

1939-1

940

1942-1

943

1945-1

946

1948-1

949

1951-1

952

1954-1

955

1957-1

958

1960-1

961

1963-1

964

1966-1

967

1969-1

970

1972-1

973

1975-1

976

1978-1

979

1981-1

982

1984-1

985

1987-1

988

1990-1

991

1993-1

994

1996-1

997

Années

Co

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max

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cm

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Déb

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Cote maximale du Lac Débit annuel du Chari

Republic of ChadFigure 9: Long-term rainfall variability

1950-1970 average 1971-1980 average 1981-2000 average

Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management Chad 2002 – Govt of Chad – with UNDP funding

with the support of UNDESA

Source: DREM, November 2001

Figure 10:Annual flow rates of the Chari at Lake Chad

Maximum lake level Annnual flow rate of the Chari

Ann

nual

flo

w r

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in m

3 /s

Max

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leve

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m

Year

The flood plains

A feature of the Chadian basin is the extraordinary extent of the flood plains, resulting from thecombination of tropical river flow conditions, with heavy annual floods, and the very gentle relief ofthe Chadian plain. The total floodable area is estimated at 95 000 km2, including 50 000 km2 for theSalamat basin. These data were valid for the rather wet period of the 1960s and need to be updated,but they give an idea of the order of magnitude involved. The data do not include the Grand Yaéréof northern Cameroon, which covers about12 000 km2 and forms part of the same Chari-Logoneunit.

Lake Chad

Because of the endoreic situation of Lake Chad, its water level depends to a great extent on theclimate and rainfall over its catchment area. The “Normal Lake Chad” that existed at the end of the1960s covered 19 000 km2 with a water level at 281.5 m, and formed a single body of water.

Following successive years of drought in the Chari and Logone basins, the lake has split into sectionswith different types of hydrological behaviour and shallow areas drying out in the Grande Barrièrebetween Baga Kawa and Baga Sola and between the open water in the south-east and thearchipelagos in the east and south-east. This situation has been termed the “Little Lake Chad”.

The current landscape in the Little Lake Chad area is the result of the topography and its recenthistory:

� the open water areas in the southern basin correspond to its deepest parts, which did not dryout at the beginning of the drought period. The average flooded area in the basin is 7500 km2.It consists of three main bodies of water : one to the south-east upstream of the Chari delta, oneto the south, in the south-west part of the basin and one to the south-west, between Baga Solaand Baga Kawa, on the southern side of the Grande Barrière;

� areas covered with marshy vegetation, which are flooded seasonally or permanently and areasthat are flooded in a very irregular manner in the northern basin depending on season and year,and have a very different appearance: marsh vegetation, cultivated land or semi-desert steppe.The annual maximum area of water in the northern basin therefore ranges depending on yearfrom 0 (in1985, 1987 and 1988) and 7000 km2 (in 1979, 1989 and 2000).

In addition, the areas uncovered during the annual cycle of Little Lake Chad and potentially accessiblefor grazing and flood-recession crops amount to 4000 km2 for the southern basin and between 0 and6000 km2 depending on year for the northern basin, including about 2000 km2 for the Chadian partof this basin. These values should be compared with those of Normal Lake Chad, where the seasonalvariations are less pronounced (about 1 m), corresponding to uncovered areas of 2500 km2 for theentire lake at its mean level of between 280 and 282 m.

4.1.2.2 The Mayo Kébi basin

The Mayo Kébi is a right-bank tributary of the Benue and forms part of the Niger basin (see figure8). It is at present the only link between the Chad and Niger basins. Its water supplies come mainlyfrom left-bank flood overflows of the lower Logone, in particular around Eré, which spread over largeareas. This water is drained by the rivers Kabia and Loka towards the lakes in the Toubouri depression(Fianga,Tikem, N’Gara). Depending on the quantity of rainfall and the volumes of water spilling over,flow between lakes Tikem and Fianga make take place in either direction. The Toubouri lakes, asuccession of marshes and shallow lakes, give rise to the Mayo Kébi, a river with a wide bed flowingwestwards. At M’Bourao, the river crosses a rocky area through a series of falls, the main one, theGauthiot Falls, drops about 45 m. It then flows through lakes Tréné and Léré before reaching itsconfluence with the Benue.

4.1.2.3 The Batha and Lake Fitri basin

The upper Batha basin is situated in the east of the country, in the Ouaddaï range. Its boundary issituated approximately along the Guéréda-Adré line and its downstream point is Lake Fitri. It coversabout 46 000 km2 (see figure 8).



The Batha is an important temporary river that flows for about three months a year, from August toOctober, and carries a volume of around 1-2 km3 into Lake Fitri. This quantity varies considerably onan interannual basis.

Lake Fitri is an endoreic lake supplied essentially by the Batha. It also receives significant inflows fromthe wadis running from the Aboutelfan. With an average surface area of 800 km2, surface inflows mustbe at least a billion cubic metres. The lake operates in a similar way to Lake Chad. The considerableseasonal variations in inflows lead to seasonal variations in water level of the order of 2 m, giving riseto extensive recession areas that are used for grazing and cultivation. The same is true of the flood-spreading areas of the lake’s main tributaries, both east, upstream of the dunes, and west.

4.1.2.4 Basins with temporary flows in desert and sub-desert areas north of the 14th parallel

Given the very irregular rainfall in this region, data concerning the recent period are insufficient todetect any significant variation in climate since the beginning of the 1970s. Discharges depend on thegeological nature of the substratum, the relief of the basin and the degree of hydrographicdegradation, which usually increase the surface area.

Two rivers (enneris) divide the Tibesti into the eastern and western sections. The Enneri Yebbigueruns northwards and is lost in a fossil plain. Major oases and gueltas are located on this river, namely:Yebbi Bou,Yebbi Souma and Omchi, the biology and ecology of which are still largely unknown. Themain river running south is the Enneri Miski, which is joined from the east by the enneris draining thewestern side of the Emi Koussi, and from the west by the enneris Korom and Aouéi. It infiltrates inthe Guérégé depression and then supplies the ponds and springs of the Borkou area.

The vast Ennedi plateau is mostly bare and desert, which contrasts with the numerous deep valleysresulting from collapses and from ancient and recent erosion, and which have lush vegetation. Thereare two main series of lakes. Archéi, 50 km south-east of Fada, is a deep valley. Its aquatic systemconsists of six main gueltas and strips of marsh. Permanent springs are situated at the head of thevalley. 110 km south-east of Fada is Beskéré, a 2 km long gorge with a sandy mouth covered with aforest of doum palms. At the head of the valley are some 30 springs that supply one of the largestgueltas in the Ennedi, which has a system of permanent ponds and marshes. Discharges have beenestimated at 600 m3/day at Archéi and 1000 m3/day at Beskéré. These systems are still poorlyunderstood and even though humans have been there for a considerable time, at present there areonly temporary camps of stock-rearers.

The altitude of the Borkou sandstone plateau drops progressively from 600 m in the north to 250 min the south (at the Angamma). When rainfall occurs, it is mainly in August and the result ofmonsoons. Totally dry years are not exceptional. These local rains are not sufficient to supply themany ponds and springs in the Borkou.

4.1.3 Summary of surface water uses

The uses of surface water are not limited to abstraction. They may also be extended to the benefitsprovided by aquatic ecosystems and even to uses for activities such as navigation and energyproduction.

Table 8 summarises the quantities of surface water abstracted for the various types of use.


Table 8: Surface water in Chad: abstraction for each type of use (2000)

Surface water abstraction(million m3/year)

Use Surface water abstraction Indicative forecasts(million m3/year) in 2000 Year 2020

Village water supply 1 0

Urban water supply 1 0

Industrial water supply 2 3,5

Pastoral water supply 57 120

Agricultural water supply 800 1 727

TOTAL 861 1 850

Source: SDEA 2001

However, it should be noted that the figures given in the above table do not take into accountabstraction in neighbouring countries, Central African Republic, Nigeria and Cameroon, which alsoexploit surface water flowing into Chad upstream or in Lake Chad.

Lastly, these figures do not take into account in situ consumption of rain water for traditional rainfedcrops, which is included in the operation of the various river systems observed and is not likely tochange in any significant way.

4.2 Groundwater resources

Chad possesses major groundwater reserves. There are vast regions consisting of sedimentaryformations (sand and sandstone), containing continuous aquifers of various forms: unconfined aquifers(often referred to as “water tables”), deep confined or semi-confined and artesian aquifers in certainhydraulic and topographical conditions.

Continuous aquifers represent almost three-quarters of the total surface area of the country. Theyare distributed over the three main geoclimatic zones but are found mainly in the north, west andsouth of Chad. They include in particular the aquifers of the Continental Terminal, PaleozoicSandstones, Nubian Sandstones and Plio-Quaternary water-bearing system of the Chad basin(Pliocene, Ogolian Sands, Pleistocene, Modji Series). Figure 11 shows the locations of the mainhydrogeological units in Chad.

Other regions are less fortunate as their substratum consists of eruptive and/or metamorphic rocksoften dating from the Precambrian, where groundwater can only be found in weathered areas andfracture systems affecting the bedrock (discontinuous bedrock aquifers). The area concerned by thistype of aquifer represents 340 000 km2, i.e., about a quarter of the total area of Chad. These aquifersare found mainly in the Tibesti range, the central range (Guéra) and Ouaddaï; they are also found inthe south of the country.


Republic of ChadFigure 11:The main hydrogeological units in Chad

Libya

Sudan

Cam

eroo

nMain hydrogeological units

Marine CarboniferousNorthern Continental TerminalSouthern Continental TerminalNubian sandstonesPaleozoic sandstonesEastern PleistoceneWestern PleistocenePlioceneOgolian sandsModji seriesEastern basementSW basementTibesti basementTibesti volcanic formation



4.2.1 The aquifers of Chad

Tables 9 and 10 summarise the potential of the main aquifers in terms of renewable resources andexploitable reserves. Table 11 summarises their main characteristics.

Table 9: Renewable resources (main aquifers)

EquivalentRenewable resources Volume renewable theoretical mean

Water-bearing (extreme values) Area resources depth of infiltrationformations (mm/year) (km2) (billion m3/year) (mm/year)

Plio-quaternary 0 - 100 235 000 3 500 15

Southern CT 25 - 150 145 000 12 000 83

Northern CT 0 - 25 130 000 0 00

Nubian sandstones 0 - 10 73 000 0 00

Marine Carboniferous 0 - 10 19 000 0 00

Paleozoic sandstones 0 - 10 115 000 0 00

Crystalline basement 3 700 14 (N); 55 (S)

Total 19 200

Source: BRGM 1987

Table 10: Exploitable reserves (main aquifers)

ExploitableStorage reserves Exploitable

Water-bearing coefficient Drawdown (billion Area volumeformations (x10-2) (m) m3/km2) (km2) (billion m3)

Plio-quaternaryQuaternary, unconfined 1 - 10 1/3 satur. thickness 0.28 - 0.6 235 400 66 000 – 141000

Lr Pliocene, confined 0.2 - 0.8 100 m/soil 0.2 - 0.5 130 000 26 000 – 65 000

Southern CT 5 - 10 10 0.5 - 1.0 145 000 72 500 – 145 000

Nubian sandstones 5 - 10 10 0.5 - 1.0 73 000 36 500 – 73 000

Marine Carboniferous 2 - 5 05 0.1 - 0.25 19 000 1 900 – 4 750

Paleozoic sandstones 5 - 10 10 0.5 - 1.0 115 000 57 500 – 115 000

Total 260 400 – 543 750

Source: BRGM 1987

The following observations may be made from these tables and figures:

� Annually renewable resources are estimated at nearly 20 billion m3. Only the Plio-quaternaryand southern Continental Terminal aquifers are recharged. The aquifers in the Sahelian zone andnorthern Continental Terminal are not recharged or at least if there is any recharge it is minimalconsidering the existing climatic conditions.

� Exploitable reserves are considerable, amounting to between 260 billion and 550 billion m3 ofwater with relatively little drawdown of the piezometric surface.


Aquifer Area (km2) Lithology Thickness (m) Type of aquifer Hydraulic parameters Hydrochemistry Piezometry Recharge Discharge Observations

NUBIANSANDSTONE

73 000(Erdis plateau)

Heterogeneousalternatingsandstone and clay

700-1500 Unconfined toconfined

Qs: 0.5-6 m3/h/m Springs RS: 300 mg/l calcium-sodium-bicarbonated

Flow: SW Little (rainfall:<100 mm/year)

Springs; toPaleozoicsandstones

PALEOZOICSANDSTONE

115 000(outcrop)

Essentiallysandstone

800-1200 Regional aquifer ;permeability dueto fissuring;unconfined toconfined*

T: ~200 m2/day;Qs: 3-30 m3/h/m;porosity (unconfined):~5 to 10 %

RS< 0.3 g/l calcium-sodium-bicarbpH ~6; sometimesexcess iron

Artesianism(Faya);Flow: SW

Little (rainfall:<100 mm/year);from Nubiansandstones

Springs;to low-lyingareas

TIBESTI AQUIFERS(basement andvolcanic)

50 000 (smalldiscontinuousaquifers)

Eruptive,metamorphic,volcanic rock,alluvium

Alluvium10-20

Alluvium:unconfinedBasement:confined

RS: probable 0.3 - 0.5 g/l,calcium-sodium-bicarbonated

Little (rainfall: 20- 50 mm/year),flood infilt.

Springs; toPaleozoicsandstones

Weathered andfissured basementdrained byalluvium

EASTERNBASEMENT (fissured Ouaddaiand Guéra aquifer)

140 000(discontinuousaquifers)

Regolith alluviumFissured granite

Alluvium 9-33 mAlterites 0-50

Alluvium:unconfinedGranites: confined

AlluviumQs: 2-10 m3/h/mGranites:Qs: 0.5-2 m3/h/m

RS: 0.1-0.5 g/l calcium-sodium-bicarbonated,NO3 contentsometimes excessive

Limited (rainfall: 100-1000 mm/year)

Springs;evaporationexploitation

OGOLIANSANDS

40 000 Eolian sands 20-60 Unconfined Permeability high T: 300-1000 m2/dayQs: 10 m3/h/m

RS: < 0.4 g/l,calcium-sodium-bicarbonated

10-15 mm/year on piezometricdomes

To north-eastand south

Regularpiezometricmonitoringrecommended

Table 11: Main characteristics of hydrogeological units

Source: SDEA 2000


Aquifer Area (km2) Lithology Thickness (m) Type of aquifer Hydraulic parameters Hydrochemistry Piezometry Recharge Discharge Observations

MODJI SERIES 20 00 Limestones, marls,sandstones (lateralvariability)

10-20 Semi-confinedto unconfined

Low permeability RS: often 5 g/l, maysometimes reach 8 g/l,sodium sulphated

Limited Little informationon aquifer

PLEISTOCENE(east and west)

235 000 River sand andclayey bands

30-70 Unconfined to semi-confined

T: 100-600 m2/dayQs: 2-8 m3/h/m

RS: 0.3-05 g/l Rainfall andinfiltration ofsurface water

Evaporationexploitation

Piezometricmonitoringrecommended

PLIOCENE 130 000 River sandinterbedded withclay

30-70;70-200 to north-west ofLake

Unconfined atsides and confinedin centre

T: 60-450 m2/day;Qs: 2-9 m3/h/m

RS: 0.4-1.6 g/lSodium-bicarbonated/suphated

Flow: to low-lying areas,artesianism

Infiltration Evaporationexploitation

CONTINENTALTERMINALNORTH

80 000 Sand lensesbetween clay

Batha:Lenses 6-15

Semi-confined Low permeabilityQs: <1-3 m3/h/m,Exceptional.jq 5-16 m3/h/m

Low-lying areas: RS:0.2-3 g/lMortcha, Batha:RS: low. calcium-sodium-bicarbonated

Limited to verylimited;Low-lying areas:from south ofPaleozoicsandstones

Low-lyingareas:evaporation

CONTINENTALTERMINALSOUTH

145 000 (i) water table,sand lens,heterogeneous;(ii) depth massivesands

(i) 70-260(ii) Doba,Salamat:150-900Bousso: 50-300

(i) unconfined to semi-confined(ii) confined

(i) Qs: 4m3/h/m(jq. 25)(ii) T, porosity probablyhigh

(i) RS: < 0.1 g/lcalcium bicarbonatedto calcium-sodium-bicarbon; sometimesexcessive iron, pH 6

Flow: towardsrivers and north(ii) artesianism

Rainfall;flood spreading

Rivers Chariand Logone

(ii) insufficientknowledge ofgeometry andhydraulicconditions

SW BASEMENT 10 000 Alluvium, regolith,Fractured granites

Alluvium10-25

Alluvium:unconfinedBasement:confined

Qs alluvium :1-8 m3/h/mQs granites :0.1-1 m3/h/m

RS : < 0.3 g/l Infiltration (rainfall900-1 300mm/year)Infiltration offloods

To CT,springs,exploitation

Weathered andfissured basementdrained byalluvium

Table 11: Main characteristics of hydrogeological units (cont.)

Source: SDEA 2000


However, these observations should not hide the fact that current hydrogeological and hydrodynamicinformation concerning the aquifers of Chad is insufficient to do more than give the main regionaloutlines of aquifer recharge conditions and the potential for mobilising water resources.

There are few and only isolated quantitative data concerning estimated rainfall infiltration into theaquifers, which is often the main source of recharge. However, generally speaking, it is considered thatsouth of the 500 mm isohyet, which in Chad includes the Sudanian zone and the southern third ofthe Sahelian zone, the balance between rainfall and evapotranspiration is usually positive so thataquifer recharge occurs through the infiltration of rainfall. One study in fact evaluates the fraction ofrainfall infiltrating into the southern Continental Terminal aquifer at between 50 and 150 mm/year, i.e.,5-13% of rainfall.

North of the 500 mm isohyet, in the semi-arid Sahelian zone, the balance between rainfall andevapotranspiration on predominantly clayey soils is usually negative, which means that the rains do notinfiltrate. Water losses through evaporation from the water table appear to be between 0 and2 mm/year in these areas, which can be explained by the strong capillary forces in clayey materials.

In predominantly sandy areas, such as the Ogolian Sands aquifer, where rainfall is of the order of 150-350 mm/year, infiltration may be of the order of 10-15 mm/year.

In the Sahelian zone, renewable resources in the regional aquifers (Plio-quaternary, discontinuousbedrock aquifers) by infiltration of rainfall are generally limited to the southern part, between the 10thand 12th parallels. They are estimated at 3.5 billion m3/year in the case of the Plio-quaternary aquiferswith infiltration of 15 mm/year. In the crystalline basement area (north), infiltration is estimated at14 mm/year. In the Saharan zone, with annual rains amounting to less than 200 mm and a severelynegative balance, it may be assumed that there is no aquifer recharge by infiltration of rainfall.

4.2.2 Groundwater uses: total figures

Table 12 gives figures for groundwater abstraction for each aquifer and type of use. Abstraction isestimated indirectly, by estimating the water requirements of each of the subsectors concerned andidentifying the origin of the water supplies.

An annual quantity of nearly 409 million m3 of water is abstracted from groundwater resources tomeet the various types of requirement. The Paleozoic Sandstones aquifer (non-renewable resources)is the one with the highest abstraction rate, the water being used mainly for agricultural purposes. ThePleistocene and Continental Terminal aquifers are also used, but mainly to help satisfy human andpastoral water supply requirements. The water currently abstracted from aquifers in Chadrepresents only about 2.1% of renewable groundwater resources. However, it should be noted thatthe above abstraction figures do not take into account the quantities removed in neighbouringcountries (Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger and Libya), which also exploit these various aquifers.



Table 12: Estimated theoretical abstraction from the various aquifers (million m3 in 2000)

Aquifers Village Urban Industrial Agricultural Pastoralwater supply water supply water supply water supply water supply Total

Ogolian sands 2.90 0.36 0.00 28.3 14.4 45.96

Modji 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.8 0.88

Pleistocene 8.60 22.20 0.7 0.8 30.9 63.20

Pliocene 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.3 5.5 6.2

Northern CT 0.63 0.03 0.00 0.0 3.5 4.16

Southern CT 20.00 8.50 0.60 0.0 19.8 48.90

Nubian sandst. 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.07

Paleozoic sandst. 0.10 0.19 0.00 133 1.6 134.89

Southern basement 2.90 0.85 0.00 0.0 1.3 5.05

Eastern basement 7.90 2.60 0.00 33.6 36.7 80.80

Tibesti basement 0.03 0.01 0.00 14.0 4.5 18.54

Total 43.61 34.74 1.30 210.0 119.0 408.65

Source: SDEA 2001

4.3 Water resources and use in 2000: total figures

Table 13 gives the total figures for surface water and groundwater uses in 2000.

Table 13: Total water resources and uses in 2000

Village Urban Industrial Pastoral Agricultural Renewable % renewableType of water supply water supply water supply water supply water supply Total used resources resourcesresource (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (billion m3/an) used (2000)

Surfacewater 1 1 2 57 800 861.00 26 700.00 3.22

Ground-water 43.6 34.7 1.3 119 210 408.60 19 200.00 2.13

Total 44.6 35.7 3.3 176 1 010 1 269.60 45 900.00 2.77

Source: SDEA 2001

Total current abstraction10 of all water resources to satisfy the various types of use, without takinginto account the requirements of aquatic ecosystems, was estimated at 1.269 billion m3 in 2000.Of this quantity, 408 million m3 of water was abstracted from the various aquifers and 861 millionm3 was obtained from surface water. This represents only about 2.8% of the average renewablewater resources estimated over the past series of 20 dry years. In overall terms, therefore, Chadhas considerable renewable water resources in comparison with its needs. However, these resourcesare distributed over the entire country and are extremely variable and fragile. The aquatic ecosystems,particularly the large natural flood plains and peripheral areas around the different lakes, requirenatural annual flooding by the rivers that supply them in order to guarantee their correspondingecological, economic and social functions.

10 These figures are anupper limit for real

consumption, as theamounts for drinkingwater and domestic

consumption inparticular were

calculated on the basisof theoretical per capitaallocations, and pumpedor diverted water that is

not consumed and isreturned to the river

systems was not takeninto account.

5 THE ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

5.1 Plant cover, desertification and water points

The plant and forest cover in Chad is estimated at 21 million hectares, i.e., 18% of the nationalterritory. In the absence of affordable alternative energy resources, rural and also often urban dwellersuse firewood as their main source of energy. This has major consequences in terms of degradationof vegetation, soil quality and its ability to withstand wind and rain erosion. Combined with naturalcauses (droughts), the rate of deforestation has reached 2000 km2 per year, i.e., less than 0.9% peryear. If this rate of deforestation were doubled and in the absence of any impact of the measuresalready begun to combat desertification (in particular those aimed at poverty reduction), it would intheory take about 60 years before the country’s entire shrub and forest cover disappeared.Concentrations of people and livestock have a decisive impact on the health of the fragile plant cover.In Chad, such concentrations of rural activities, including sedentary and nomadic extensive agriculturalpractices, are highly dependent on the distribution of water points. It must be recognised that, in thepresent situation, decisions relating to the locations of water points are generally taken in the contextof fragmented projects without there being any overall vision or policies for positioning and regulatingwater points.

5.2 Aquatic ecosystems

The surface aquatic systems of Chad, most of which are still in their natural state, provide society withmany services, of which fishing is the most obvious example. Their operation is controlled for themost part by hydrological conditions and by seasonal rhythms. The seasonal and interannual variabilityof environmental conditions, which is a drawback in terms of usage, should be considered as a factorof biodiversity. Plant and animal populations in the various regions of Chad are the product of theirenvironment and its variability.

With regard to aquatic biocoenosis, which is largely regulated by hydrological conditions, less seasonaland interannual variability would enable some species to dominate the populations while otherswould disappear. The reproductive cycle of many species of fish is regulated by river floods and thegrowth of their young is guaranteed by the flood plains. When floods are insufficient to inundate theplains, stock renewal is severely reduced. Fish reproduction depends on the existence of the rivermore than on that of the lake, to the extent that, from the ecological standpoint, Lake Chad is morelike the flood plains of the tropical rivers than a true lake. The river-lake system (Lake Chad, Chari-Logone) should therefore be considered as the spatial unit for fish stocks.

In the climatic conditions existing in Chad, a mean value for production in the flood plains is of theorder of 50 kg/ha per year (this figure concerns the flood plains directly linked with a river system).For a total flooded area of 20 000 km2, connected with the rivers during the current period of relativedrought, potential annual fish production from flooded areas in Chad would be of the order of100 000 tonnes. Similarly, variations in the extent of flooding in the northern Lake Chad basin,between 0 km2 in a dry year and about 5000 km2 in a wet year, may result in variations in fishproduction of 0-25 thousand tonnes. These indicative values depend on the good health of theecosystems (absence of pollution), their correct hydrological operation and the degree to which theyare connected.

Significant regulation of the river, as in the case of the lower Senegal valley, would seriously disturb thefish population. There would be a decrease in biomass and in the diversity of the population. Thediversity of the aquatic species therefore depends on ensuring that the natural operation of the riversystems is maintained, and this is regulated primarily by the hydrological cycle.

The aquatic systems also help to preserve the terrestrial wildlife living in large numbers in thesebiotopes, which provide ample grazing. Many birds, especially waders, reproduce in the flood plains.In the Saharan zone, the presence of water on or near the surface supports plant and animal speciesthat are far from their normal range and are sometimes endemic. The Sahelian zone is particularlyrich in species reliant on aquatic environments, with Lake Chad (about 160 species of fish) and the LakeFitri Biosphere Reserve, which is covered by the Ramsar Convention, hosting migratory aquatic birds.


5.3 Environmental risks and their prevention

Figure 12 shows the main environmental components of Chad: protected areas, wildlife reserves, theriver system, the flood plains and the major components that are likely to have an impact on theiroperation (oil pipelines, current or likely future mining operations, etc.).

Two main types of risk have been identified: those of natural origin and those of human origin.

5.3.1 Risks of natural origin

Natural risks are due essentially to climate variations. Several time and space scales should beconsidered, as follows:

Climate change

The longest scale is that of climate change. The persistence and modification of the climate are decisivefactors in the use of water resources. Human activities are modified in accordance with the climateand water resources, and they in turn affect it and the associated natural resources via the continuationof activities or the adoption of new practices using other resources. These medium-term climaticchanges and their effect on water resources are in the present case natural risks that must be takeninto account in a food security and development strategy.

Interannual variations in rainfall distribution

Interannual variations in overall rainfall through the country result in river floods of varying size, andlarge variations in the areas flooded and lake levels, in particular in Lake Chad. While such variabilityhelps to maintain plant biodiversity by preventing a small number of species from taking over, rainfedagriculture is also very much affected by it, especially in the Sahelian zone. At smaller time and spacescales, rainfall distribution over a single season may result in local inequalities within areas that areconsidered to be homogeneous from the climate point of view. Rural people partly protectthemselves against this type of variability by diversifying their practices and moving (at last part of thefamily) to areas where conditions are better.

Protection against floods and intense rains

The damage caused by water in towns is often due to heavy rains that cannot be disposed of bysuitable stormwater relief structures, especially when housing is put up on land not suitable forbuilding. As in the case of river floods, this risk is caused less by nature than by man. In normalconditions, the floods on the Chari and Logone are damped by spreading over the surrounding floodplains. These plains therefore have an important hydraulic role if flood levels are to remain compatiblewith the current state of urban development. This damping function must be at least maintained forN’Djaména and the possibility of increasing it in the case of severe floods should be investigated. Anincrease of this kind could be achieved by excavating sills that would enable flood waters to overflowinto adjoining plains, if the topography is suitable. In the event of exceptional floods such as those thatoccurred in the 1960s, solutions of this kind provide no security and emergency plans need to beintroduced.

5.3.2 Risks of human origin

The question of urban, domestic and industrial wastewater and stormwater is only considered hereas a chronic pollution factor affecting the natural aquatic systems or flood-prone depressions.

Urban wastewater

The WHO considers that there is a direct relation between access to good-quality water and infantsurvival, and more generally public health. The development of drinking water supplies in villages andurban communities, including the poorest that pay the most for water, is a priority in this respect.

Wastewater sanitation in villages can be separated from the supply of drinking water because of thelow local population density. The same is not true of larger towns, where domestic wastewater andstormwater stagnate in certain places, leading to risks of malaria, cholera, parasitic diseases anddiarrhoea when this water is used.


Industrial wastewater

In towns with industrial establishments, wastewater is discharged either directly into the rivers, whichhas a possible impact on the natural environment and the inhabitants who frequent it, or on to theground, which may pollute the aquifer used for drinking water supplies.

Pollution from mining

Leaving aside oil, there is little mining activity in Chad. The main activities are diamond mining nearthe frontier with the Central African Republic and gold washing in the Tandjilé and Mayo Kébi regions.The search for diamonds increases the sediment load in rivers in places, and this could affect themigration or reproduction of fish in the temporary rivers in south-eastern Chad.

Recently, gold-mining has begun at two sites (see figure 12). Depending on the extraction processesused (leaching), this activity may potentially contaminate surface water and groundwater resourcesvery seriously if appropriate and effective measures are not taken to treat the effluent and attenuatethe corresponding impacts. Another type of risk that may be considered as industrial and/or miningpollution concerns the extraction of sediment and aggregates from rivers, in particular the Chari andLogone. In addition to disrupting aquatic life and significantly increasing the suspended particle loadin the water, this activity contributes to bank erosion.

Contamination risks attributable to oil accidents

Figure 12 shows the routes of the oil pipelines. The first runs along Lake Chad as far as N’Djaména;the second concerns the Doba-Kribi section in the southern part of Chad and northern part ofCameroon.

Detailed environmental impact studies have been carried out for the oil exploitation projects, leadingto the preparation of specifications for operations on site and conveyance via the pipeline. At Doba,the impacts identified as representing a risk for the aquatic environments are linked mainly witherosion caused by surface levelling and work to lay the pipeline, domestic and industrial wastewaterfrom the site, process water and works to carry the pipeline across rivers.

Measures are planned to provide protection against erosion and to retain particles before they enterthe rivers. The Doba site is to be provided with a domestic wastewater protection installation,perhaps the only one in Chad. Settling tanks are planned to separate the oil contained in industrialwater. Residual water with the highest pollutant load is reinjected with the process water. Lastly,pipelines are buried under river beds to avoid disrupting their course.

Where oil pollution is concerned, zero risk does not exist, as can be seen regularly in many places inthe world. The risk of massive accidental oil pollution in the rivers and in Lake Chad, due for exampleto a pipeline burst, needs to be considered and emergency plans drawn up in partnership with theoil companies and civil defence organisations.



Republic of ChadFigure 12: Main environmental components



Protected area

Proposed protected area

Reserved natural forest

Wild animal reserveBiosphere reserve

Flood-prone area

Oil pipeline

Mineralisation index

Uranium

Titanium

Salt

Oil

Gold

Natron

Kaolin

Tin/Tungsten

Diatomites

Diamonds

Copper, Lead & Silver



SITES CURRENTLY

EXPLOITED

December 2001

Agricultural pollution

The cultivated land in Chad is relatively flat, except in the east of the country, which considerably limitsthe risks of erosion and transport of particles by water (this is not true of wind erosion in dryregions).

In contrast, a significant proportion of fertilisers and phytosanitary products used in the various typesof industrial and other cultivation systems is carried by water. It may be washed through the soil into the aquifers and rivers, where it is a cause of long-term pollution or eutrophication.

The existing state of pollution by metals and pesticides

Hitherto, the degree of pollution of surface water in Chad due to metals and pesticides was unknown.In the framework of the SDEA, UNDESA therefore took the initiative to carry out a limited surveyto determine whether there were indications of pollution by pesticides or by mercury in the waterof Lake Chad opposite the Chari delta. A fish sampling campaign was carried out in November 2000.The results obtained from this survey represent the baseline situation with which later analyses maybe compared.

In terms of practical conclusions, the following points should be borne in mind:

� mercury concentrations are very low, increasing slightly according to level in the food chain.None of the fish analysed came anywhere near the limits indicated by the WHO;

� chlorinated organic pesticide concentrations in the two species analysed were also low. No riskfor human health was identified in the event of normal or even heavy consumption of these fish.

6 MAJOR SHARED INTERNATIONAL WATERCOURSES

6.1 The River Niger

The Niger Basin Authority (NBA), based in Niamey, is represented by a focal point at the Directorateof Water Resources and Meteorology. The NBA works in the basin of the Mayo Kébi, a tributary ofthe Benue, which forms part of the Niger basin.

6.2 The Lake Chad basin

Lake Chad basin covers part of the territory of six countries: in first position Chad (1 046 196 km2),followed by Niger (691 473 km2), Central African Republic (219 410 km2), Nigeria (179 282 km2),Sudan (101 048 km2), Algeria (93 461 km2) and finally Cameroon (50 775 km2).

The Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC), created in 1964, currently includes the member statesconcerned by the various active hydrological sub-basins: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Niger,Nigeria and Chad. A Strategic Action Plan (SAP) was adopted by the member states in 1988 (seebox on next page).

With the SDEA and its national consultative mechanism, Chad is probably the first LCBC memberstate to implement at national level the recommendations of the SAP with regard to integratedmanagement and water policy applied in each national sub-basin.

In addition, there is also the Cameroon-Chad Joint Committee. The main aim of this institution is tofacilitate discussions between the two countries regarding the use of water resources in the RiverLogone, which form part of the resources of the Lake Chad basin. The Commission meetsperiodically. Recently, the two parties recommended actively engaging development of the Logonebasin, and creating an expert technical committee to study, among other things, the feasibility ofFoumbang dam in Cameroon and Goré dam in Chad.


STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN OF THELAKE CHAD BASIN COMMISSION (LCBC)

Lake Chad, situated in the east of the African Sahel region and at the southern edge of theSahara, is a vast expanse of fresh water shared between Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria and Chad.Lake Chad, the fourth largest lake in Africa and the third largest endoreic lake in the world,occupies a closed, shallow basin. It therefore has little depth, a relatively small volume andan area that changes considerably with each year’s rainfall. It is supplied by a huge catchmentarea covering 2 381 635 km2, which itself comprises numerous wetlands and vast flood plainsof economic and environmental importance.

Given the exceptional importance of protecting the lake’s environment, as well as that of therivers and aquifers in its basin, and the need for concrete action in this field, the preparationof a Strategic Action Plan (SAP) was initiated in May 1996 following a request for assistancefrom the Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) to the UNDP-GEF. The SAP was drawn upand validated during national and regional workshops with back-up from LCBC specialistsand UNDESA support. The SAP in fact provides support for the LCBC’s first target, whichis “to exploit water in the Lake Chad basin for the well-being of the people concerned”. Theaim of the SAP is to define a regional framework for environmental protection andsustainable development of the various resources throughout the Lake Chad basin. Thisframework includes preventive and curative measures. The SAP aims to set up and at thesame time organise a permanent process for reaching regional agreement on environmentalchanges, on real threats and on priorities to be considered at regional level. The SAP wasadopted by the Council of Ministers of the LCBC in May 1998 and thus constitutes thereference document for LCBC member states’ strategy regarding the protection ofgroundwater and surface water in the Lake Chad basin. A project to assist with theimplementation of the first stages of the SAP was to be funded by the GEF at the requestof the member states.

Assessment of the various cross-border problems led to the definition of a long-termstrategic plan:

AIM OF THE SAP: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAKE CHAD BASIN

Main objective:

Lake Chad is protected in the long term by concerted and integrated management of theresources in its basin, ensured by getting all stakeholders in the basin to take responsibilityand cooperate.

Objective 1: Concerted management of shared international watercourses, relying on regionalcooperation and harmonised national policies applied in each sub-basin.

Objective 2: Integrated management of the use of the finite, vulnerable resources of the basin’secosystem, based on better knowledge of these resources.

Objective 3: Stakeholders in the basin assume responsibility for protecting their sharedheritage.

6.3 The Nubian sandstone aquifer

The sedimentary formation of the Nubian sandstones consists of essentially sandy and clayeycontinental deposits. This formation extends over a considerable geographical area. It covers the eastand south of Libya, most of Egypt, the north and north-west of Sudan and the extreme north-east ofChad.

Although it is composed of alternating clay and sandstone horizons, the Nubian sandstone aquiferforms a considerable reservoir of water. In the present state of knowledge and owing to the extremelyarid conditions that reign in these regions, the aquifer is said to be fossil, i.e., it is not recharged.


An aquifer of this size that provides good-quality water in such arid areas is of strategic interest forthe socio-economic development of these regions. Aware of these challenges, the countries thatshare this resource have decided to combine their efforts in order to draw up a programme formonitoring and exploiting the aquifer.

Thus Libya, Sudan, Egypt and Chad have set up a joint committee with its head office in Tripoli. Its aimis to put in place the necessary instruments for ensuring sustainable operation of the aquifer’sresources. The “Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System” project (NSAS) currently in progress is carryingout activities in this respect.

7 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

7.1 Existing legislation

There was little regulation of the water sector in general until the National Assembly passed lawno. 016/PR/99 concerning the Water Code in 1999. This code is characterised by a determination toregulate the sector in the context of the decentralisation process, including widespread involvementof the private sector and associations via the principle of public service delegation. However, it shouldbe noted that the delay in drawing up a land tenure code seriously affects the legislative framework.

WATER CODELaw 016/PR/99 setting up the Water Code was promulgated on 18 August 1999, after beingdiscussed and adopted by the National Assembly on 2 July 1999. The law was prepared andadopted in the context of delegation of the public drinking water service so that servicespreviously provided by the STEE could thenceforth be provided by a private consortiumworking within an appropriate legal framework. This explains why the Water Code in itspresent form is much more detailed with regard to drinking water services in urban areas.

The Water Code deals with all questions relating to state ownership, restriction on privateownership, particular conditions relating to the abstraction, treatment, storage and supply ofdrinking water and sanitation, conditions for using water, protection of water quality, the useof water and water-related problems, the national water fund, procedures for approvinghydraulics works contractors, infringements and sanctions. With regard specifically todrinking water and sanitation, the Code defines: the procedures for operating the publicwater service and public service obligations, public service monitoring and the regulatorybody, the supply of drinking water and tariffs, public service delegation contracts, the legalconditions relating to structures, monitoring of the operator’s activities, the drinking waterand sanitation development fund and prerogatives and easements.

The main laws governing the sector are the following:

� Law no. 4 of 1 October 1959 outlining regulations concerning nomadism in the territory of theRepublic of Chad.

� Law no. 23 of 22 July 1967 concerning the status of state-owned property. This law stipulatesthat national land comprises all property belonging to the State, public land and private land.

� Law no. 25 of 22 July 1967 concerning the limitation of land ownership rights. This law definesexpropriation procedures and defines the principle of compensation fixed by mutual agreement.

� Law 14/PR/99 of 17 August 1998 defining the general principles of environmental protection; thisdeals with all aspects of the environment and cultural property.


� Law 016/PR/99 of 18 August 1999 concerning the Water Code. This law stipulates that all waterresources are communal property and that their exploitation is subject to declaration orauthorisation, in the framework of the law and compliance with customary law.

� The laws of 16 February 2000, namely no. 2 concerning the status of Decentralised LocalAuthorities and no. 3 concerning the electoral procedures relating to Decentralised LocalAuthorities.

� Order no. 23 of 22 September 1975 concerning the status of the commune of N’Djaména.

� Order no.17/PR/85 of 24 July 1985 outlining the organisation of “communes de moyen exercice”.

� Order no. 025/PR/92 outlining the general status of i) professional groups; ii) cooperative-typeprofessional groups; and iii) cooperatives in the Republic of Chad.

7.2 Existing regulations

The political decision for the State to withdraw from the water and electricity sector helped to speedup the adoption of the Water Code, but it did prove to be an opportunity for widespreadconsultation with the main stakeholders in the sector, in keeping with its importance. It is thereforeregrettable that there are a number of oversights in a text that was drawn up essentially in the contextof privatisation of the drinking water supply systems managed by the STEE. The Water Codetherefore concentrated on dealing more exhaustively with public drinking water services in urbanareas. Given certain gaps and inconsistencies, in particular with regard to subsectors not concernedby drinking water, the Code should be supplemented and improved. Furthermore, the decreesconcerning enforcement of the Water Code and governing the regulatory framework are not yet allup to date and this delay means that the regulatory framework is not fully operational.

Delegation of public drinking water services to decentralised local authorities and correspondingmanagement procedures: decree 249/PR/MEE/02 of 28 May 2002.

Presidential decree 249/PR/MEE/02 was signed on 28 May 2002. This defined the procedures andconditions whereby the State temporarily11 handed over its authority to the Decentralised LocalAuthorities (DLA) with regard to the delegation of public drinking water services. In particular, thisdecree recalled that the hand-over was to encourage the introduction of a participatory operationand management method involving users of the public drinking water service and that a contract hadto be signed between the DLA and the delegated manager and operator of the drinking water supplysystem (water users’ associations or, failing this, independent operators) throughout the territory ofthe DLA in question. This decree also described the new role of the State, focusing on its prerogativeswith regard to regulation and monitoring. In addition, the general framework of public drinking waterservice management procedures is defined on an industrial- and commercial-type basis withinfrastructure operation managed in accordance with real direct running costs involving all expensesto cover supply, distribution and management functions and replacement costs.

The other main regulations concerning this sector are the following:

� Decree no. 12/PR/INT of 06/05/1970 outlining the status of the “chefferie”.

� Decree no. 399/PR/MISD/97 of 10 September 1997 concerning decentralisation.

� Decree no. 249/PR/MEE/02 defining the procedures and conditions whereby the Statetemporarily handed over its authority with regard to the delegation of public drinking waterservices to the Decentralised Local Authorities.

� Order no. 0292/MEHP/SE/220/DONHPV/88 of 02/05/88 fixing taxes on water consumptionfrom ONHPV pumping stations.

� Order no.138/MEHP/86 of 01/03/86 fixing taxes on water consumption from pumping stations.

� Order no. 034/PM/MEE/99/02 outlining the creation and organisation of a National WaterManagement Committee.


11 Pending adoptionof the law concerning

the hand-over ofauthority as part ofthe decentralisation

process.

� Order no. 028/MEE/ defining the form of special agreement for handing over the power todelegate a public drinking water service from the State to a Decentralised Local Authority.

� Order no. 029/MEE/DG/2002 defining the form of special contract for delegating a public drinkingwater service to a users’ association or private tenant.

� Order no. 030/MEE/DG/02 outlining the methods for setting up, organising and operatingdrinking water users’ associations (DWUA).

� Circular no. 012/MISD/SE/DIAT/00, relating to the formal prohibition of the fees known as zakatand management of pastoral wells by tribal chiefs.

The water police: the Agence pour la Régulation du Secteur de l’Eau (ARE - Water SectorRegulation Agency)

According to article 42 of the Water Code, this Agency is placed under the responsibility of theMinister in charge of water. Its principal duty is to ensure that regulations relating to the water sectorare applied impartially and to put forward water tariffs for approval by the State. The decree referredto in the Code concerning the organisation and operation of the Agency has not yet appeared.

7.3 General institutional context of the water sector

Management of the water sector is a public prerogative in Chad. Consultation of the variousstakeholders (public and private organisations and associations) is institutionalised at central level viathree committees (political, strategic and technical) placed under the authority of the Prime Minister(HCNE), the Ministry of the Environment and Water (CNGE) and Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs(CTIE).

Prime Minister’s office

Two institutions at the Prime Minister’s office are primarily concerned with water and watermanagement:

High National Council for the Environment (HCNE)

The role of the HCNE is to make sure that the recommendations of Agenda 21 of the UnitedNations Conference on the Environment and Sustainable Development held in Rio de Janeiro inJune 1992 are effectively applied. The National Water Management Committee (CNGE) isunder the authority of the HCNE. Secretarial functions are carried out by the MEE.

Ministry in charge of Decentralisation

This new ministry is responsible for implementing the decentralisation policy that will enableparticipation and decision-making to take place at the lowest possible level.

Ministry of the Environment and Water

According to chapter 1 of decree no. 183/PR/PM/MEE/2001 of 30 March 2001, the Ministry of theEnvironment and Water is responsible for defining and implementing policies with regard toenvironmental protection, the fight against desertification, management of natural resources,application of policies concerning urban, village, agricultural and pastoral water supplies and sanitation,meteorology and hydrology.

At central level, the Ministry is responsible for five directorates: Hydraulic Affairs (DH), WaterResources and Meteorology (DREM), Fisheries and Aquaculture (DPA), Wildlife Protection andNational Parks (DPFPN) and Forest Protection and the Fight against Desertification (DPFLCD). Atdecentralised level, eight regional Directorates of the Environment and Water were set up in 2001(decree no. 183/PR/PM/MEE/2 001).


Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs (DH)

This Directorate is responsible for all activities relating to groundwater. These include planning urban,village and pastoral water supply and sanitation activities, conducting studies and centralising theirresults, inventorying and classifying aquifers, carrying out water supply and sanitation works on a directlabour basis, monitoring the maintenance of hydraulic facilities, checking the quantity and quality ofgroundwater abstraction. The Directorate’s organisation and duties are set out in detail in orderno. 9/MEE/DG/DH/98 of 3 July 1998.

At central level, the DH comprises a Water Office, a Studies and Planning Division, an Urban WaterSupply and Sanitation Division, a Village and Pastoral Water Supply Division and a FacilitiesMaintenance Division. The DH also has an Administrative and Equipment Section. It is in principlerepresented in the various prefecture branch offices by a head of department. However, theprefecture branch offices had not been set up in 2001.

Most of the divisions do not yet completely fulfil their roles, especially the Urban Water Supply andSanitation Division and Studies and Planning Division. The lack of sufficient well-trained middlemanagers prevents the Directorate from fulfilling its role in terms of designing and monitoring studiesand works in the field. The Directorate also lacks sufficient means and an organisational frameworkfor collecting the information that is essential for it to function correctly.

Directorate of Water Resources and Meteorology (article 20 of decree no.183/PR/PM/MEE/2001)

This directorate is responsible in particular for planning and programming the exploitation of surfacewater and for promoting studies connected with determining surface water reserves and changestherein. Its only office is in N’Djaména (hydrology department). The hydrology teams only work outof N’Djaména, covering a fairly vast area with few logistical resources.

Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture (article 11 of decree no. 183/PR/PM/MEE/2001)

This directorate is responsible for developing and promoting fish resources and aquaculture,implementing national regulations and regional/international agreements relating to the fisheries andaquaculture sector and the corresponding biodiversity. It is represented via the fisheries departmentand hydrobiology department at central level and the fisheries sectors at the main lakes (Lakes Chad,Léré, Iro and Fitri). It lacks adequate logistical and human resources to carry out its activities. Thedirectorate also lacks the resources for carrying out its supervisory duties and for collectinghydrobiological data.

Directorate of Forest Protection and the Fight against Desertification (DPFLCD)

Via the Environmental Protection Division, this directorate is in theory responsible for pollution-related issues. It is the directorate with the widest representation throughout the country. However,it lacks logistical resources and equipment, as well as a conceptual framework for carrying out itsduties effectively.

Directorate of Wildlife Protection and National Parks(article 14 of decree no.183/PR/PM/MEE/2001)

The role of this directorate is to implement and monitor national policy in terms of development andsustainable management of wildlife and biodiversity, plan and programme related activities, and applynational regulations in regional/international agreements concerning wildlife and biodiversity.

Since Chad adhered to the Ramsar Agreement on wetlands, the Directorate of Wildlife Protectionand National Parks has assigned a focal point for the Ramsar Agreement. It is responsible formonitoring all questions relating to wetlands. The directorate is represented in N’Djaména via theParks and Wildlife Reserves Division and in the regions with parks (Zakouma, Manda). Its capabilitiesare limited owing to its lack of logistical and human resources.


7.4 The consultative mechanism

Order 034/PM/MEE/99 signed by the Prime Minister on 3 September 1999, at the time of initiatingthe SDEA, was the first document aimed at organising an intersectoral, participatory consultativemechanism for protecting and managing water resources in Chad on an integrated basis, and atensuring rational local exploitation of these resources by the many subsectors concerned. Theconsultative mechanism is organised under the supervision of the High National Council for theEnvironment (HCNE), with the creation of the National Water Management Committee (CNGE) -concerning strategic questions and at the level of the major administrative departments - and theIntersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) at the level of the technical directorates (10).These two consultative committees do not have the power to make or veto decisions but they areoperational and demonstrated their vital importance during the preparation of the SDEA. Electedrepresentatives and federations of users’ associations are members of these committees by right.External resources may be brought in and external persons may be invited to take part in meetingsand works. These committees should play a compulsory key consultative role with regard to majorprojects of general and strategic importance concerned by water and with regard to discussions onthe introduction of a complete water governance system in Chad.

8 MAIN CONCLUSIONS, LESSONS AND CONSTRAINTS TO OVERCOME

The main conclusions of this assessment are as follows:

� Chad has considerable reserves of water. However, this should not hide the major constraintsinvolved in mobilising water resources, in particular the unequal distribution of rainfall and surfacewater both geographically and in time, and the lack of knowledge about how the main aquiferswork. As a general conclusion, it is clear that water resources are no hindrance to the economicand social development of Chad. However, a prerequisite to developing these water resourceswill be to carry out studies in order to provide more information on the relations between themain hydrological and hydrogeological systems in the country.

� The drinking water supply rate for the population of Chad as a whole was only 23% in 2001. Itwas a mere 16.5% in rural areas, 25% in towns in the non-concessionary area and 40% in townsin the STEE concessionary area. Major efforts need to be made for the entire population of Chadto have equitable and widespread access to drinking water and also to achieve the Millenniumtargets.

� The absence of essential basic data, such as livestock numbers and fodder resources, is a majorconstraint in evaluating water requirements and appropriate facilities in the field of pastoral watersupplies, and in developing the entire stock-rearing sector.

� The average increase in cereal production has been only 2% per annum over the past 20 yearsin spite of major investment in the agricultural water supply sector, while the annual populationgrowth rate over the same period has been 2.5%. Current cereal production satisfies only a littleover 55% of requirements. Significant efforts must be made to increase the productivity of theexisting irrigation areas and to develop new schemes in order to maintain and in particular toincrease the level of satisfaction of cereal requirements for the population as a whole.

� There is practically no basic sanitation infrastructure, in either rural or urban areas. Everythingneeds to be done in this field. In addition, there are numerous institutional stakeholders involvedin sanitation, working with almost no financial resources and too often without being able tocoordinate their activities and programmes. However, in recent years, initiatives have been takenby neighbourhood organisations to make up on a very local scale for the shortcomings of thissubsector.


� The legal and regulatory framework is very scant. The Water Code is the only law governingwater. However, the decrees bringing this law into force had still not been promulgated in 2001.This hampers harmonious development in this area, especially with regard to defining and sharingresponsibilities among the various stakeholders and with regard to managing the facilities forexploiting water resources.

� There are many stakeholders ranging from private to public. To develop and strengthen theprivate sector, it seems essential to encourage strategic partnerships between national andinternational companies. With regard to the public sector, it seems important to clarify the roleand responsibilities of the various stakeholders in the water sector and to define the legal andregulatory context in detail.

� National capacity-building in all sectors is a priority and requirement in order to ensure thesustainable development of water resources and guarantee socio-economic development forpresent and future generations.

The main lessons to be learned from this assessment are as follows.

Village water supply programmes: success dependent on the quality of accompanying measuresto support physical investments

The village water supply projects conducted in Chad over the past 10 years have proved to be veryefficient, with the effective involvement of the people concerned via Water Point ManagementCommittees, which guarantee to a certain extent that local people take responsibility for the schemes,and in particular ensure that they will be managed and maintained on a sustainable basis. An essentiallesson is that, to be efficient and sustainable, any local development programme must necessarilyinvolve the people concerned right from the moment of designing and choosing the technology tobe used. Moreover, facilities must be managed by the users organised legally into managementcommittees or associations, following clear and standardised contractual rules agreed upon with theState departments and private service providers, setting out the respective roles and responsibilitiesof everyone involved. Better geographical distribution of hydraulic facilities in order to reduce theregional imbalances revealed by the SDEA through improved knowledge of the existing situation, andharmonisation of project approaches following a single strategy and in particular with procedure andcoordination guides, are aims that should be achieved in the next 5 years thanks to ongoingdiscussions and the methodological improvements made within the DH since 2000.

Urban and semi-urban water supply projects: a subsector that is lagging behind

Concessionary area

Lessons have already been learned concerning the chronic shortcomings in management of the STEE.The solution adopted is to delegate the public service to a private concessionaire. As a prerequisite,the private consortium demanded that the STEE’s accounts should be cleared. A large part of thewindfall from oil that the Government received in April 2000, i.e., FCFA 4.9 billion, was used to clearthe STEE’s debts. However, considerable uncertainty remains with regard to the funding ofoperations, network maintenance, rehabilitation and extension work, and the feasibility of the chosensolution. The price of water services is low and has not changed since 1984. The State’s control overSTEE tariffs is a constraint and could become a source of conflict over the understanding of thetargets set out in the introduction to the agreement with the consortium. Discussions must beinitiated to reach a consensus on adopting a progressive price structure that is equitable with regardto levels of services, socially acceptable and economically viable for the targets set.

The absence of any move towards a viable solution has created an inefficient, unfair situation and, giventhe population growth, is leading to a drop in the rate of access to drinking water in certain largetowns in the country.


The STEE has initiated integrated planning studies for drinking water supplies in 11 towns in theconcessionary area. To reach the Government and Millennium development goals in this area (40%rate of access in 2000 and 70% by 2015), major investment must be made and these integrated plansshould examine them in light of the above target figures (to be included in the terms of reference forthe studies). It is logical and fair to aim at goals that are to apply in principle to the entire country, asrural areas and towns of more than 2000 inhabitants in the non-concessionary area will be organisedin accordance with these performance levels.

For reasons of good governance and transparency, it would be appropriate for the STEE SA to takean active part now in the consultative process concerning water management, via the CTIE andCNGE. This would enable it to present and discuss the main strategic options as a semi-publicconcessionary company that is to be privatised at a later stage. In the present situation, it is difficultto make any prediction regarding the planned new management system and the chances of all stagesbeing implemented. Furthermore, operational control of the new company by the monitoringcommittee provided for in the contract would be an additional guarantee that the concessionaire(STEE SA) would fulfil its obligations, in particular with regard to the expected extensions. It wouldalso be advisable for the contract-monitoring mechanism to be harmonised with the stipulationsexpected in this respect under the Water Code, in order to maintain a consistent overall mechanismfor monitoring the implementation of activities throughout the sector by the public service.

Towns of more than 2000 people outside the concessionary area

The lessons to be learned from the innovative experiments carried out in the context of the projectsentitled “Water and Services in the peripheral neighbourhoods of N’Djaména”12 and “Drinking WaterSupplies to Secondary and Semi-Urban Centres” are vital in organising the future maintenance andmanagement of hydraulic structures in urban and semi-urban environments. These projects are in facta starting-point for setting up a structure maintenance and management organisation based essentiallyon users and the private sector, with the role of the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs being graduallyshifted to supervision and regulation activities. This is all the more justified as the lessons learned fromthe management systems recently set up by the DH in centres outside the STEE area and fromexisting embryonic networks often reveal malfunctions. The roles of operation, regular managementand control are not clearly dissociated, while local dignitaries and officials are all directly involved inways that are hardly suited to their function and institutional role as arbiters. Accurate accounts,records of elementary indices and regular technical reports do not always exist.

However, there are serious constraints linked with the introduction of a new operational managementsystem for drinking water supply systems based on the empowerment of users, and these should notbe underestimated. They entail concrete changes in or clarification of: the responsibility of thecommunes (competency with regard to public water services); the role of local dignitaries, committeechairmen and canton chiefs; local organisations (small companies, associations, etc.) that are ofteninexperienced and inadequately trained to take over management and operation from theGovernment; payment of water bills by State departments; the readiness of users to pay for theservice, and the institutional framework. Lastly, the projects proposed by the donors should beanalysed in detail by the DH right from the design stage so that they can be adapted to the country’sstrategy defined by the SDEA and to the procedural guides that still need to be studied, tested andvalidated once concrete management procedures that have proved successful in the field have beenassessed and adopted. The public service could ensure the consistency of the various works, projectsand cooperative ventures but, given the scope of the planned programmes, this means a capacity-building programme for managers and a recruitment and training plan for young people.

Pastoral water supplies: the absence of a clear institutional framework and inadequate knowledgeof basic data in the subsector mean there is a lack of consistency in programmes and thedistribution of pastoral water points.


12 In fact, inside theconcessionary area, but withautonomous management.

There are at least two major institutional stakeholders, belonging to two different ministries, involvedin the pastoral water supply subsector. These are the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs of the Ministryof the Environment and Water, and the Directorate for the Development of Animal Production andPastoralism of the Ministry of Stock-Rearing. In the past, this has been a source of needless tensionsas their functions are complementary and much would be gained by clarifying the duties of theseorganisations and the manner in which they should work together in operational programmes.

Insufficient basic knowledge of fodder resources and in particular of livestock numbers has led todiscrepancies observed on one hand between the major transhumance patterns and areas to beprotected, and on the other in the spatial distribution of modern pastoral water points built in thepast. Poor knowledge of these basic data also hampers the development of this sector and regionaldevelopment in a wider sense, especially in pastoral areas.

Water resources: they are abundant and generally do not represent a restriction on development,but they need to be better known, protected and used rationally.

It is essential to manage the resources rationally in order to guarantee the health of the aquaticecosystems on which most of the country’s economic activities depend, as well as the biodiversity ofLake Chad. In semi-arid piedmont areas, such as oasis ecosystems, the fragile balance between waterresources and uses could be jeopardised by the lack of integration of support operations or by themassive introduction of motor pumps. Vigilance is called for and appropriate measures must bedefined and put into effect with regard to risks connected with floods and industrial (especially oil-related) pollution.

On the other hand, the mobilisation of water resources may be a constraint at local level owing tothe investment costs involved for exploitation systems and the corresponding running costs. Boththese types of cost depend on the accessibility of the water resources. User funding and managementcapability are a decisive factor in choosing each type of equipment to be installed.

Management of knowledge on water resources

Chad has paid much more attention to infrastructure for mobilising and exploiting its water resourcesthan to managing knowledge of them. It is estimated that less than 1% of the total funding in thewater sector between 1985 and 2000 was allocated to monitoring water resources. Not evenminimal piezometric monitoring of the aquifers was carried out owing to the lack of resources. Thesame is true of hydrological measurements and processing. The water yearbook for Chad has notbeen published for several years because the small number of gauging operations limits the validity ofthe rating curves and the quantity and quality of water level measurements are insufficient, mainly asa consequence of the inadequate logistical resources. This subsector also suffers most from a lack ofmanagers in relation to the other countries in the sub-region. However, what is probably most lackingin the institutions concerned is a clear view of the country’s development priorities, enabling them todefine on the basis of demand (and not supply) a work programme that is suited to requirements andavailable resources. With such an economic valuation of work carried out and in light of the resultsobtained, it would be advisable to increase the share of the budget devoted to these institutionsprogressively on the basis of a programme covering several years. This attempt at rationalisationshould be based on the requirements defined by the SDEA for the next 20 years, starting byidentifying, collecting, processing, interpreting and computerising the considerable quantity ofhydrological and hydrogeological data existing within the country, that are so far unused. Specificrequirements can be identified. For example, in the irrigation subsector, activities concerning amongother things the potential for spreading floods on the Salamat, the hydrology of each event in aridpiedmont areas, infiltration capacity and subsurface dams, could be initiated, not to mention everythingconcerning the pastoral water supply subsector and an inventory and study of the natural functioningof the main seasonal ponds.

With regard to the consistency of operations, it is certain that separating surface water andgroundwater monitoring activities between two agencies (DREM and DH) has an adverse effect onthe knowledge, modelling and integrated management of the same single resource involved in thewater cycle.


Regional cooperation on shared international watercourses

At regional level, the Lake Chad Basin Commission enables regular discussions to take place betweenthe member States that share the watercourses of the Lake Chad basin. Since May 1977, theGovernment has had a Ministry of the Environment and Water. If one adds the High National Councilfor the Environment (HCNE), the National Water Management Committee (CNGE) and theIntersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) to assist in the field of water, the Government ofChad has a complete framework for controlling its water and environmental policy with a view toachieving a truly integrated approach. This complies with the recommendations of the LCBC StrategicAction Plan of May 1998. However, the fact that the LCBC is only motivated by “project” approachesand that the Ministry of the Environment and Water of Chad has not been represented on it so farlimits the continuity and efficiency of regional cooperation efforts.

Water policy: absence of a clear policy and single reference framework for developing andmanaging water

Table 14 summarises the contents of recent documents containing recommendations or a strategicorder for the various water subsectors. For want of a reference framework, these objectives haveoften been produced without any analysis of the subsector concerned and without knowing the initialsituation, or the costs and resources that can be mobilised, and obviously without being in a positionto consider the characteristic interdependence of water and water management within each sub-system and between sub-systems, due to lack of information.

Approaches fragmented into subsectors and projects, that the SDEA needs to coordinate andrationalise

In the past, the water sector has been handicapped by too many malfunctions, by the relativeinefficiency of the various interministerial committees, by insufficient consultation between theministries concerned with the same development project, between the stakeholders and end users,between the funding agencies themselves and between regional and bilateral institutions, by a certainamount of confusion between monitoring, regulating and operating roles, by the lack of structuremonitoring and by the lack of professionalism of certain charitable organisations. However, thepreparation of the SDEA and the multisectoral and multi-stakeholder discussions that it has entailed,particularly via the CTIE and CNGE, has proved that these difficulties can be overcome and that thecorresponding achievements deserve to be institutionalised in order to prolong the strategiesadopted through good practice in concrete programmes.

Consequently, the SDEA is not limited to proposing an action plan. Through a holistic, integratedapproach, it also establishes the reference framework of a water policy and rational control of thewater sector in its entirety for the country, the funding agencies and all others involved. The followingchapters will therefore concentrate on a view of long-term requirements, a Chadian water policyderived from the observations, requirements and resources identified above, a strategy for eachsubsector, an action plan, a strategy for implementing the SDEA (including a legal framework andstrategy for mobilising funds) and finally a mechanism for monitoring performance in implementing theSDEA.



Table 14: Summary and analysis of strategy documents in the various water subsectors

Document Village water supply Urban water supply Pastoral water supply Agricultural water supply Sanitation Water management

GuidelinePlan: Chadaround 2000

Provide people withenough water points ofsufficient quality. On thebasis of requirements,the aim is: one waterpoint for 500 inhabi-tants in rural areas.

Progressively increaseto 10 800 by 2000 thenumber of water points,comprising 20% wellsand 80% boreholes (cur-rently about 4000 waterpoints)

Aimed at urban devel-opment and sanitation

HealthEnsure that by 2000water is available nofurther than 15 min-utes away on foot

Housing and urbanplanningImplement hydraulicinfrastructure works insecondary urban cen-tres (Sarh, Moundou,Abéché and others)

Create a sufficient num-ber of water points tolimit overgrazing andrationalise livestockmigrations

Considering the size andmigratory movements oflivestock: requirementsare estimated at about3000 water points (thecountry has 500 at themost at present)

Total area irrigated estimat-ed at about 20 000hectares spread more orless evenly between smalland large irrigation schemes

Given its decidedly volun-tarist strategy to promoteexports, the Governmentintends to:

� help double the areas ofsmall irrigation schemes,

� rehabilitate half the areaof large irrigationschemes,

� reorganise the manage-ment and productionmethods of large areas.

The State will:

� focus its activities on sup-porting farmers and with-drawing from production

� seek to encourage thedevelopment of market-garden crops near urbancentres and out-of-sea-son crops in low-lyingareas and around wadis

Make villagers’ groups take responsibility andbecome more autonomous so that they can keeppumps in good working order and thus benefitfrom water of constant quality. In urban areas, theprogramme is based on campaigns to educatepeople about the use of stand-pipes, disposal ofstormwater and waste water, and the collection ofhousehold waste.

Housing and urban planningEnsure that people, especially in urban areas, havehygienic, healthy living conditions.

The Government intends to draw up urban plan-ning documents for the main towns in the countryas quickly as possible in order to proceed with themost urgent sanitation works.

In the short termUrban development master plan for N’Djaména

Initiate the process to define a national housingpolicy (urban planning, sanitation).

Initiate the process to define a municipal policy(allocation, management).

In the medium termSupport municipal management of N’Djaména

Rehabilitate sanitation and drainage infrastructure(waste water and stormwater).

Rehabilitate services and road infrastructure inN’Djaména.

Prepare urban development master plans for theother main towns.

Strategy strongly gearedto small, inexpensivestructures involving sim-ple technologies that arewell-suited to the physi-cal and human environ-ment.More generally:� encourage local and

private initiatives, inparticular in the areaof agricultrual watersupply

� recognise rural com-munities as partners

� raise the issue of pay-ment for water

Source: SDEA 2001


Table 14: Summary and analysis of strategy documents in the various water subsectors (cont.)


RevisedGuidelinePlan: PreparingChad for the21st century=>Geneva IV(1997)

Ensure that safe water isavailable no further than15 minutes away onfoot for 50% of thepopulation by 2001 andfor 70% by 2015

Promotion of a waterpoint for 250 to 300inhabitants representingthe need for 16 000structures by targetyear 2001

Ensure that safe water isavailable no further than15 minutes away onfoot for 50% of thepopulation by 2001 andfor 70% by 2015

Ensure all urbandwellers have drinkingwater

Implementation of 4000 additional waterpoints to secure drink-ing water for livestock inpastoral activity areas

Rehabilitation of all largeirrigation areas

Encourage the creation ofsmall private or village irri-gation areas

Increase the installation of latrines in houses andpublic services (schools, dispensaries)

Ensure the removal of solid waste and wastewater

Halve the number of water-releated diseasescaused by the consumption of poor-quality water

Create and instil a senseof responsibility in users’groups, village beneficiariesand nomads with a viewto handing over the man-agement and maintenanceof irrigation areas andwater points

Introduction of the princi-ple of payment for water

Source: SDEA 2001




Geneva IVconference(referencedocument):strategicdevelopmentoptions (1998-2001) 1998

Water and sanitation(infrastructure)

Ensure the availability of 9800 village waterpoints by 2001

HealthEnsure the availability ofsafe water no furtherthan 15 minutes awayon foot for 50% of thepopulation by 2001


Three priorities mustguide public action forthe period:

� make the necessaryinvestments to ensurewater supplies in largetowns

� progressively equipthe main secondarytowns with drinkingwater distribution andcarry out urbandevelopment

� ensure the availabilityof safe water no fur-ther than 15 minutesaway on foot for 50%of the population by2001


Ensure the availability of 3500 pastoral waterpoints by 2001


Carefully rank investmentprojects to be implementedin the various fields:

� rehabilitate certain partsof large irrigation areas

� develop small village irri-gation areas

� develop low-lying areas

� flood-recession crops

Water and sanitation (infrastructure)

The priority is to define an institutional and legalframework for clarifying the duties of thoseinvolved in waste water, stormwater and solidwaste

Priorities:

� stormwater drainage

� extension of latrines

� organisation of waste collection and manage-ment circuits in the main urban areas

� national policy in the field of waste disposal andwaste water, in order to rank projects

HealthHalve the number of water-related diseases causedby the consumption of poor-quality water

Urban planningFinalise the urban development master plan forN’Djaména and define a housing policy and devel-opment strategy for town councils (in the shortterm)


Capacity-building in themanagement of the sanita-tion subsector by relyingon municipal services andpromoting sanitation com-mittees

Source: SDEA 2001




Sectoral con-sultation onRural Devt.1999-2002(1999)

Creation of 2000 waterpoints in the short termand 10 000 others by2010

Subject not dealt with Equipping of grazingareas with 4000 struc-tures by the year 2010

Mark out cattle tracksand migration routes

Increase irrigated areasthrough scheme creationand rehabilitation

Subject not dealt with Local management

Definition and adoption ofa legal and regulatoryframework

Clairification of preroga-tives and fields of compe-tence

Action Planfor theDevelopment of Chad(2001-2010)(2001)

Creation of a further21 000 water points tocover the country’sdrinking water require-ments by 2010

Investment to increasewater supply rate inlarge towns

Equipping of main sec-ondary towns withdrinking water distri-bution networks

Create 3250 waterpoints in 2003 and11 500 water points bythe year 2010 eachproducing a yield of30 m3/day

Rehabilitate certain partsof large irrigation areas

Develop small village irri-gation areas

Develop low-lying areasand extend flood-reces-sion crops

Define a sanitation programme and sanitationmaster plan

Strengthen capacities of town councils andhygiene/sanitation committees

Include sanitation issues in all urban planning pro-grammes

Make people aware of hygiene measures

Organise waste collection and management cir-cuits in main urban areas and study appropriatetechnology

Involve the populationvia joint managementcommittees responsiblefor operating and man-aging equipment

Take into account theimpact of hydraulicdevelopment works witha view to preservingecosystems

PovertyReductionStrategyPaper 2015(in progress)

Guarantee access todrinking water

Water policy project

Integrated Plan forChad’s WaterDevelopment andManagement

Guarantee access todrinking water


Integrated Plan forWater Developmentand ManagementSanitation for theurban environment

Extend use of improved latrines

Sanitation for the urban environment


Integrated Plan for Water Development andManagement


Integrated Plan forWater Development andManagement

Source: SDEA 2001


1 DEVELOPMENT POLICY IN CHAD

The Geneva IV Round Table of October 1998 marked a turning point in Chadian development policy,enabling the Chadian government to engage its partners in dialogue at the highest level ondevelopment policy guidelines and priority sectors.

In accordance with the "Revised Orientation Plan to Prepare Chad for the Challenge of the 21stCentury – Geneva IV", the government undertook to meet the strategic objective of fighting povertyand improving the quality of life of the Chadian people. Therefore, the "Poverty Reduction StrategyPaper" (PRSP) was drawn up so that all the sector strategies implemented in the country since 1998could be brought together in a consistent and comprehensive manner. The PRSP will encourage thedevelopment partners to provide Chad with stronger financial support as a complement to nationalresources, including those resulting from oil exploitation that started in 2004. In addition, the PRSP isaccompanied by the "National Good Governance Strategy" and espouses the goals of the MillenniumDeclaration. These strive to "halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the world’s people whoseincome is less than one dollar a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger; and also,by the same date, to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach, or to afford, safedrinking water".

The PRSP1 document has an integrated vision of poverty reduction and preparation for the post-oilboom era, and states:

"In the social sector, it will be a question of focusing on:� expediting and implementing social policies (health, education, social protection), with a view

to rapidly extending coverage in basic services, raising the quality of those services, andnarrowing current gaps;

� implementation of specific actions, especially in the areas of nutrition, food security, hygiene,and social protection, geared to improving the lot of the most vulnerable segments of thepopulation.

At the political and institutional level, the focus will be on:� consolidating the foundations of democracy by completing the establishment of the

institutions contemplated in the Constitution; implementing decentralisation;

� strengthening domestic capabilities in government institutions and among the representativesof civil society.

In the economic and financial sphere, efforts will focus on:� national skill-building in both the private sector and in government departments dealing

directly with economic agents."

The PRSP revolves around five principal strategies aiming to generate an overall momentum forpoverty reduction in all spheres of the public administration and civil society, while highlighting anucleus of priority sectors based on the poverty profile and its determinants, namely the health sector,rural development (including water resources and the environment), infrastructure, and the educationand training sector. These strategies are:

� strategy 1: promoting good governance;

� strategy 2: ensuring strong and sustained economic growth;

� strategy 3: improving human capital;

� strategy 4: improving the living conditions of vulnerable groups, and victims of HIV/AIDS andsexually transmitted diseases (STD);

� strategy 5: restoring and safeguarding ecosystems.

All the development actions to be undertaken by the different development stakeholders over thenext 15 years will be implemented within the framework of the National Poverty Reduction Strategy.This strategy takes account of the international context and, above all, the national context.

1 Poverty ReductionStrategy Paper.N’Djaména, June 2003.


2 HP equivalent:One water point

equipped with a handpump supplies

400 people whereas avillage well supplies 600

people. The HPequivalent involves

converting the supplycapacity of all types of

water point to thecapacity of a hand

pump. Thus, one wellcorresponds to 1.5 HP

equivalent.

This chapter of the Integrated Plan for Chad’s Water Development and Management, in accordancewith the above-mentioned strategies and the costed objectives defined by the government, identifiesthe equipment and the accompanying measures to be implemented between now and 2020.Evaluation of these needs depends mainly on demographic projections and takes account of theassessment-diagnosis carried out in Chapter 1. When compared to investments already planned withthe corresponding funding obtained, the SDEA reveals a deficit.

The main difficulty in overcoming this deficit remains the poverty of the country and its people. Therestrictions to be overcome concern:

� the mobilisation of internal and external funds;

� insufficient human resources to support the programmes;

� weaknesses in the skills of local private sector companies.

Methodology: after identifying water and equipment requirements up to 2020, thesections below will assess the impact of the developments planned by the SDEA on waterresources and the environment, and the impact of financial and capacity constraints. Thepolicy and strategies which will address these constraints will be described in chapter 3,and the corresponding action plan and costings will be studied in chapter 4.

2 EVALUATION OF REQUIREMENTS IN THE DIFFERENT SUBSECTORS

2.1 Village water supply requirements

There is a major requirement for drinking water points in village areas. The requirements areevaluated according to the following criteria: 20 litres of water per day per inhabitant; one hand pumpsupplies, on average, 400 people; a self-contained unit (solar or thermal) supplies 1600 people and awell supplies 600 people. Projections on village population growth (see table 1) and the number ofvillages, have been drawn up using data from the 1993 census. In 2000, the drinking waterrequirements for the total village population were 43.6 million m3; they will rise to 53.6 million m3 in2010 and 64.65 million m3 in 2020.

2.1.1 Evaluation of drinking water point requirements in 2000

To allow for the populations’ capacity to pay for the equipment, the number of water points to beconstructed and the technical characteristics of the different types of pumping devices that can beinstalled on the boreholes, the populations have been grouped into one of four classes of village: thosewith fewer than 150 inhabitants, those with between 150 and 299, those with between 300 and 1200and those with between 1201 to 2000 inhabitants. Table 15 lists the drinking water pointrequirements in hand pump (HP) equivalents2 for each class of village in 2000.

Table 15: Drinking water point requirements (HP equivalent) in village centres in 2000

Total Population WP needs inSize of Number estimated supplied HPvillage of villages population in 2000 equivalents Remarks

Construction of 2000 covered wells or

Fewer than 150 people 16 000 694 000 2000 auger holes

150 to 300 people 6 187 1 373 820 143 500 5 613

300 to 1200 people 5 814 3 166 577 710 400 6 334

Replacement of 1400 HPs 1200 to 2000 people 483 738 833 135 600 1 516 by 350 individual units

Total 28 484 5 973 132 989 500 13 463 Rounded up to 13 500 WPs

Source: SDEA 2001

Villages with fewer than 150 inhabitants

It is difficult to estimate the number of villages with fewer than 150 inhabitants, because the 1993census counts communities of between 5 and 10 people as villages. However, these small villages donot meet the standards needed to qualify for financial contributions and the installation of water tanksas required by the institutional donors and by the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs in the context ofmajor water supply infrastructure construction projects. It is suggested, therefore, that this class ofvillage be equipped with water points consisting of small diameter closed wells, and/or boreholesdrilled by auger, fitted with locally manufactured water pumps. This type of equipment and civil workis justified for all villages with few inhabitants, since the demand for water from the pump and waterpoints would consequently be low. Another solution is to group together certain villages, where theseare not too far apart, so that they have the financial means to maintain a borehole type water facilityequipped with a hand pump. Considering only the population of this class of village and not takinginto account the spatial distribution of the villages, the drinking water supply equipment requirementsamount to approximately 2000 sets.

Villages with between 150 and 300 inhabitants

In theory, this class of village does not meet the current standards governing the allocation of moderndrinking water points. However, because 23% of the village population of Chad live in villages like this,it is important for these populations to obtain access to drinking water within the next two decades.

The drinking water supply equipment to be installed in these villages consists of boreholes fitted withhand pumps (HP). Because of the relatively low maintenance cost of hand pumps, the localpopulations are normally able to take responsibility for the management, maintenance and servicingof these water points. This is the essential prerequisite for the provision of water points in each village.in 2000, the equipment required to supply drinking water to all these villages was estimated at5613 boreholes fitted with hand pumps.


The drinking water supply equipment to be installed in this class of village consists mainly of boreholesfitted with hand pumps. Self-contained pumping units can also be envisaged where they would supplyvillages with more than 1000 inhabitants and where the local population can demonstrate the capacityto pay for this type of equipment. In 2000, the equipment required to serve all populations in thisclass of village was estimated at 6325 borehole/HP sets.


In view of the technical capacities of hand pumps (one hand pump supplies 400 people) and theirconstruction costs, it is proposed, where the local population has the capacity to pay for theseinstallations, to equip this class of village with self-contained units consisting of a borehole, a solar orthermal pumping station, a water tower and one or two stand-pipes, especially in villages with morethan 1500 inhabitants.

In 2000, the drinking water supply equipment requirements for this class of village were estimated at340 self-powered water points or 1516 hand pumps.

Figure 13 gives the estimated drinking water point requirements per department in 2000 in handpump equivalents (one hand pump per 400 people). Moreover, the analysis of the water points tobe constructed was based on estimated requirements and takes no account of actual demand.Taking current demand into account, fewer drinking water points would probably need to beconstructed.



Republic of ChadFigure 13:Village drinking water point requirements

(HP equivalents) in the year 2000

Number of HPsMore than 550451 to 550351 to 450300 to 350Less than 300



2.1.2 Evaluation of village drinking water point requirements for 2020

The village population is expected to increase from 5 973 130 inhabitants in 2000 to 8 855 260; in2020, in other words, approximately 2 882 130 extra inhabitants will need to be supplied by drinkingwater points. In HP equivalents, this extra village population represents 7200 new water points.However, considering that 15% of the village population would still be living in villages of fewer than150 inhabitants, the theoretical number of drinking water points to be constructed to satisfy this extrarequirement would be approximately 6125 (0.85 x 2 882 130 people = 2 450 000 people/400people per HP = 6125 drinking water points).

Table 16 summarises the drinking water point requirements in HP equivalents for 2020.

Table 16: Summary of drinking water points for 2020

Drinking WP Total drinking Drinking water point Drinking WP needs from WP needsequipment scenario needs in 2000 2001-2020 in 2020

(HP equivalents) (HP equivalents) (HP equivalents) Remarks

Scenario 1:villages with populations of Rounded up tobetween 300 and 2000 people 7 850 4 500 12 350 12 500

Scenario 2:villages with populations of between 150 and Rounded up to2000 people 13 500 6 125 19 625 19 600

Scenario 3:villages with populations of between 75 and Rounded up to2000 people 15 500 7 800 23 300 23 500

Source: SDEA 2001

This table invites the following observations:

� Scenario 1 corresponds to the standards governing the allocation of drinking water points in2001, i.e., the construction of a drinking water point in villages with populations of 300 or more.Using this standard, approximately 12 500 drinking water points are to be constructed by 2020to supply all these villages. This represents approximately 70% of the village population of Chad.In order to meet the Millennium Goal, i.e., 60% of the village population with access to drinkingwater by 2015, it will be necessary, therefore, to construct 10 300 new water points.

� Scenario 2 consists in providing drinking water points in all villages with populations of 150 ormore. For this to happen, the 2001 standards for allocation of drinking water points must bemodified. According to this adjustment, 19 600 drinking water points must be constructed by2020 in order to supply 85% of the Chadian village population.

� Scenario 3 consists in providing drinking water points in all villages with populations of between75 and 2000 people. This would mean constructing approximately 23 500 drinking water pointsby 2020. However, the provision of drinking water points in villages with fewer than150 inhabitants would fall mainly within the remit of NGOs and charitable organisations.

The number of HP equivalent drinking water points can be significantly reduced by installing self-contained pumping units in villages with 1200 inhabitants or more, and by grouping together certainsmall, closely located villages.

The funds currently obtained (2001) are sufficient to construct at least 7200 boreholes with handpumps and 207 boreholes with solar or thermal-powered pumping stations during the period 2000-2008. Provision of these new water points will have a significant effect in increasing the proportionof the village population having access to drinking water. Depending on the scenarios selected for theallocation of new water points by department and by village, the percentage of the population withaccess to a drinking water point in 2010 will vary between 35% and 55%. This is because, in the event


that the various projects are implemented on a large area (departmental) basis, in villages with 150to 2000 inhabitants, the national percentage of villages with drinking water supplies would only be ofthe order of 35%. This is because most villages with fewer than 300 inhabitants (generally an averagepopulation of fewer than 200 people) will be provided with a water point. Therefore, considering thatone hand pump normally supplies 400 people, the HP supply capacity would be halved. On the otherhand, by extending the intervention areas of these projects to new departments and by working onlyin villages with more than 300 inhabitants, the nation-wide proportion of villages supplied with waterin 2008 would be of the order of 55%. In this case the pumping equipment, consisting mainly of handpumps, would be working at maximum capacity.

In addition, in order to increase drinking water supplies to village populations in accordance withthe principle of national equity defined by the Water Code, scenario 1 is to be preferred for theperiod 2000-2010, whereas the application of scenario 2 will increase the density of village drinkingwater points during the period 2011-2020.

On the basis of the requirements for drinking water supply equipment mentioned above, 10 300 newdrinking water points (HP equivalents) will have to be constructed in villages by 2015 to reach theMillennium Goal3. In view of the funding obtained in 2002, this goal will probably be met.

Considering the current rate of capital investment and assuming that it is maintained, the objective setby the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs is to guarantee that the proportion of village people withaccess to drinking water reaches 85% by 2020. This corresponds to the construction and equippingof 19 600 drinking water points (HP equivalents). In 2002, approximately 8000 drinking water pointsare being constructed or at least have funds available. Therefore, 11 600 remain to be built between2002 and 2020, an average of 650 new water points per year. Moreover, starting in 2015, it will benecessary to devote part of the capital investment to renewing existing boreholes (about 250 peryear).

2.2 Urban and semi-urban water supply requirements

Table 17 presents urban and semi-urban water consumption hypotheses for 2000, 2010 and 2020 inthe STEE concessionary sector and the non-concessionary sector.

Tableau 17: Specific water consumption hypotheses

Sectors 2000 2010 2020 Remarks

Concess. excl. N’Djaména 45 l/day/inhab. 75 l/day/inhab. 100 l/day/inhab. Competition betweenvillage water points & DWS

N’Djaména 75 l/day/inhab. 100 l/day/inhab. 150 l/day/inhab. Consumption including services

Non-concessionary 35 l/day/inhab. 60 l/day/inhab. 75 l/day/inhab. Competition betweenvillage water points & DWS

Source: SDEA 2001

Based on these hypotheses and assuming that all inhabitants of towns and centres with populationsof more than 2000 have access to a drinking water supply (DWS) distribution system, the urban andsemi-urban water requirements are estimated at 34.75 million m3 for 2000, rising to 73.2 million m3

in 2010 and 135 million m3 in 2020. Table 18 presents the requirements expressed as water volumesby department and for sites with more than 2000 inhabitants for the period 2000-2020.


3 The Millennium Goal isto halve the percentage

of people without accessto drinking water

between 2000 and2015. In the case ofrural Chad, this wouldrepresent a reduction

from 83.4% (in 2000)to 41.7% (in 2015).

2.2.1 Equipment requirements for the non-concessionary sector

The 175 sites in the non-concessionary sector represent a total population of 783 055 inhabitants in2000, i.e., an average of 4500 individuals par site (see tables 4 and 18). Considering the funding thatis being or has been obtained, and the constraints hindering sector development and the urgency ofproviding these populations with access to drinking water, it is proposed to equip non-concessionarysector towns with mini water supply networks. These would consist of a borehole, a submergedpump, an electricity generator or solar energy station, a water tower and a small-scale distribution


Table 18: Estimated urban and semi-urban water requirements

2000 2010 2020

No. of L/ Needs No. of L/ Needs No. of NeedsDept. sites Popul. inhab/d in 2000 sites Popul. inhab/d in 2010 sites Popul. L/inhab/d in 2020

Batha Est 1 14 508 35 185 340 2 19 969 60 437 321 2 24 529 75 671 481

Batha Ouest 5 31 118 35 397 532 6 43 191 60 945 883 10 57 978 75 1 587 148

Borkou 1 10 405 45 170 902 1 11 034 75 302 056 1 11 678 100 426 247

Ennedi 1 3 816 35 48 749 2 7 583 60 166 068 4 15 381 75 421 055

Tibesti 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Biltine 6 23 665 35 302 320 6 30 678 60 671 848 11 45 580 75 1 247 753

Baguirmi 10 47 793 35 610 556 11 72 102 60 1 579 034 13 92 490 75 2 531 914

Dababa 4 29 715 35 379 609 5 37 545 60 822 236 7 47 041 75 1 287 747

Hadjer Lamis 18 64 401 35 822 723 21 106 083 60 2 323 218 25 126 757 75 3 469 973

Guéra 12 68 073 35 869 633 19 106 230 60 2 326 437 27 141 829 75 3 882 569

Kanem 2 17 822 35 227 676 2 20 262 60/75 554 672 2 21 783 75/100 795 080

Barh El Gazal 1 19 130 35/45 314 210 1 23 285 60/75 637 427 2 26 618 75/100 971 557

Lac 5 22 345 35 285 457 11 39 343 60 861 612 13 54 169 75 1 482 876

Logone occidental 13 154 053 35/45 2 530 321 27 230 309 60/75 6 304 709 51 343 435 75/100 12 535 378

Logoneoriental 8 48 283 35/45 793 048 17 84 535 60/75 2 314 146 25 125 606 75/100 4 584 619

Mont de Lam 3 20 208 35 258 157 3 23 405 60 512 570 3 28 161 75 770 907

Mayo Boneye 4 37 474 35/45 615 510 8 53 293 60/75 1 458 896 11 63 106 75/100 2 303 369

Kabia 16 48 801 35/45 801 556 29 82 354 60/75 2 254 441 48 149 406 75/100 5 453 319

Mayo Dala 14 73 758 35 942 258 30 147 231 60 3 224 359 56 243 495 75 6 665 676

Lac Iro 2 16 773 35 214 275 5 28 693 60 628 377 12 54 895 75 1 502 751

Barh Kho 9 113 058 35/45 1 856 978 13 162 379 60 3 556 100 22 211 698 75 5 795 233

Mandoul 16 81 444 35 1 040 447 28 129 408 60 2 834 035 46 200 679 75 5 493 588

Assongha 1 9 689 35 123 777 2 14 494 60 317 419 3 19 251 75 526 996

Ouaddaï 5 75 364 35/45 1 237 854 6 92 111 60/75 2 521 539 13 123 143 75/100 4 494 720

Sila 3 8 065 35 103 030 4 11 949 60 261 683 5 15 365 75 420 617

Salamat 9 45 768 35 584 686 13 72 879 60 1 596 050 15 93 614 75 2 562 683

Tandjilé Est 7 35 778 35 457 064 11 56 941 60 1 247 008 17 76 711 75 2 099 964

Tandjilé Ouest 9 65 809 35/45 1 080 913 16 97 200 60/75 2 660 850 28 136 593 75/100 4 985 645

Total 185 1 187 116 17 254 583 299 1 804 486 43 319 990 472 2 550 991 78 970 862

N’Djaména 1 639 000 75 17 492 625 1 818 600 100 29 878 900 1 1 024 000 150 56 064 000

Grand total 186 1 826 116 34 747 208 300 2 623 086 73 198 890 473 3 574 991 135 034 862

Source: SDEA 2001

network consisting of several stand-pipes. These basic supply units (BSU) can supply populations ofbetween 2000 and 3000 people on average. Depending on investments and the populations’ abilityto pay, some of these BSUs could later be connected together to form a complete water supplynetwork, with connections to individual houses.

In 2000, based on this criterion and considering that approximately 200 000 people are alreadysupplied by such systems, 292 basic supply units must be constructed on 175 sites with over 2000inhabitants (783 055 people (total population) – 200 000 people (population supplied) = 583 055people/2000 people per BSU = 292 BSU). In 2010, 259 BSUs will have to be constructed and, by2020, 324 new units will have to be fitted. Between 2000 and 2020, the number of sites needing tobe equipped with BSUs will rise from 175 to 462. Over the same period, to provide the entireresident population of the non-concessionary sector with drinking water supplies, 875 BSUs spreadover 462 sites will have to be constructed. However, considering sites which are currently within thevillage water supply domain (44) but which will, by 2020, be in the semi-urban water supply domain,and including the BSUs already financed (205) and those already being constructed, the number ofBSUs to be installed by 2020 amounts to about 625. In 2000, the average cost of one BSU wasFCFA 60 million; to guarantee a drinking water supply for the entire population of the non-concessionary sector, funding of FCFA 37.5 billion must be found. It should be noted that thisevaluation is based on "supply" and not "demand". Moreover, the criterion of 2000 people per "centre"for a BSU to be installed, takes into account economic considerations (investment costs, service costs,maintenance and renewal charges) in relation to the population's capacity to pay, this capacityremaining the main condition for authorising the construction of a BSU in a town.

In addition, in order to meet the Millennium Goal, 62% of the non-concessionary sector populationmust have access to drinking water by 2015, i.e., approximately 975 000 people. In water supplyequipment terms, this represents 488 BSUs. Regarding the 2020 target set for the SDEA, theobjective is 70% of the non-concessionary population having access to drinking water by 2020, i.e.,approximately 1 100 000 people, which will require the construction of 550 BSUs. In view of thefunds obtained and the ongoing installation programmes for this type of water point (250 BSUs), theseobjectives can be met. In 2002, funds still had to be found to construct 238 BSUs, to meet theMillennium Goal, or 300 BSUs to meet the target set for the non-concessionary sector by 2020.

2.2.2 Concessionary sector equipment requirements

The STEE concessionary sector includes 11 towns with a total population of 1 043 061 in 2000.According to data obtained from STEE, the drinking water supply rate is, at best, 40% of the populationof each town, apart from Faya where the network is currently being rehabilitated. This water supplyrate does, however, seem high. Even so, equipment requirements remain extensive.

Additionally, within the framework of the STEE long-term capital investment plan, works are plannedto rehabilitate, extend, renew and upgrade the water networks in N’Djaména and in some othertowns. Thus, in the capital, 1000 connections per year are planned as well as the installation of 12stand-pipes in the same period. In all, this corresponds to almost 10 000 more inhabitants with accessto drinking water per year whereas, taking only demographic growth projections into consideration,the population of the town is expected to rise by at least 20 000 inhabitants per year.

In STEE centres other than N’Djaména, almost the same number of inhabitants will be provided withaccess to drinking water. The total population of these centres is of the order of 405 000 inhabitants.Population growth in these centres is bound to be slower than in N’Djaména; however, a 3% increaserepresents 12 000 people, which shows that, here again, the efforts made by STEE will not improvethe proportion of the population with access to drinking water. These schemes will, at most, maintainthe supply rate at the current (2001) rate. However, in 2002, the schemes programmed in the long-term capital investment plan have still not obtained funds.



While waiting for the funds and resources (studies, town planning reports, DWS networkdevelopment plans for each town, etc.), required to extend the different networks and to improve thesupply rate, it is proposed to repeat the Water and Service project being implemented in thedistricts surrounding N’Djaména (provided that the experiment is successful) in the otherconcessionary sector towns. These mini-DWS, each of which can serve an average of 10 000 peoplein densely populated districts, should be designed so that they can be interconnected once thefinancial and technical resources become available, thereby providing a complete drinking water supplynetwork in each town of this sector.

In 2000, based on a rough calculation, 626 000 people required access to drinking water in theconcessionary sector, which represents, theoretically, 63 mini-DWS. Since the estimated installationcost of each mini-DWS is FCFA 250 million, the total funding to be found is FCFA 15.75 billion, which,in theory, would enable the total population of the concessionary sector in 2000 to be served.Between 2000 and 2020, approximately 60 new mini-DWS would need to be installed. In parallelwith these actions, it is vital to continue efforts to install complete DWS networks. However, giventhe current level of knowledge (2001), it is difficult to quantify the capital investment necessary to extendand set up complete drinking water supply networks for the entire concessionary sector in order toincrease the current supply rate (40%) to 70% in 2015, and to maintain it and increase it by 2020.

To set up mini-DWS, 114 drinking water supply systems of this type would have to be constructed inorder for the set objective to be achieved; this new equipment would supply drinking water toapproximately 1.14 million people. Funding for these 114 mini-DWS amounts to approximatelyFCFA 28.5 billion.

Table 19 summarises the objectives to be met for the concessionary and non-concessionary sectorsby 2020.

Table 19: Urban and semi-urban water supply objectives to be met by 2020

Population Population Population Access % PopulationSector 2000 % access supplied 2020 to be reached to be supplied

Concessionary 1 043 061 40 417 225 1 625 900 70 1 140 000

Non-concess. 783 055 26 204 000 1 949 091 70 1 365 000

Total 1 826 116 621 225 3 574 991 2 505 000

Source: SDEA 2001

2.3 Sanitation requirements

2.3.1 Sanitation requirements in rural areas

The great majority of Chadian households in rural areas do not have toilets, and systems for disposingof excreta, solid waste and wastewater are almost non-existent. As a consequence, 10.6% ofhouseholds use a rudimentary latrine, 0.6% use a ventilated and improved pit latrine and 88.5% ofhouseholds relieve themselves in the open. Moreover, there are no waste collection services in thevillages and domestic animals roam free. Finally, between 65% and 70% of rural households consumewater from traditional wells and only 17% of the rural population has access to a drinking water point.

Other than those funded by UNICEF, there are few projects being implemented in the field of ruralsanitation. Most of the large infrastructural water projects include population awareness-raising andeducation campaigns relating to water/hygiene/health issues. But these efforts do not result inconcrete improvements in population behaviour since they make little or no connection between theillnesses which afflict them, and their drinking water, sewage removal and waste disposal methods.Moreover, none of these projects plays a role in the construction of latrines and in the implementationof measures and infrastructure which could improve the sanitary environment in rural communities.

Basic infrastructure development requirements are substantial in village areas and everything remainsto be done.

In view of the immensity of these needs, it is proposed to associate each village water supply projectwith a sanitation aspect which, in addition to environmental health education, will consist in fitting outbasic sanitary infrastructure such as ventilated improved pit latrines for families, ventilated improveddouble pit latrines for schools and health centres, soakaways for wastewater disposal, etc. In order tointegrate the sanitation aspect with that of water supply, the basic sanitary equipment could possiblybe considered as the villagers’ contribution in return for the development of drinking water points intheir village.

As an indication and in order to evaluate approximately the basic sanitary infrastructure requirementsin rural areas, it is assumed that each household has a ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine; therefore,there would be approximately 1 million VIP latrines to be built in Chadian villages. At a basic unit priceof FCFA 25 000, investments would amount to FCFA 25 billion.

2.3.2 Sanitation requirements in urban and semi-urban environments

Although knowledge of this field is localised and incomplete, it can be asserted that, in 2000, the entireurban and semi-urban population requires modern, conventional urban and semi-urban sanitation.

Collection and treatment of domestic wastewater

Collection and treatment of wastewater remains to be established in all urban and semi-urban areas.The average cost per linear metre of sewerage pipes is much higher than that of drinking water pipes:this cost ratio can be 10 to 1. With this hypothesis, the cost of a sewerage network, includinginstallation, varies between FCFA 320 000 and 420 000 per metre.

To give a simple idea of the funds needed, equipping only the four largest towns (2020 population)could reach almost FCFA 36 billion.

Therefore, realistically, self-contained sanitation will have to remain policy for the coming years, to befitted systematically where space permits in the concessionary sector. Where this is not possible, asis the case in many densely populated suburban areas, this type of sanitation would be fitted on publicsites.

Furthermore, the current situation is not satisfactory for groundwater, which is known to be over-exploited by the same users.

Improvements will be achieved:

� for excreta (fecal matter and urine), through the general use of modern sealed, ventilated andimproved double pit latrines (which, under normal circumstances, only produce dry, hygienicmatter which is easily disposed of);

� for domestic wastewater, through the general use of systems to remove stored materials intosealed pits and no longer into cess pits;

� as a priority, through the provision of a communal sanitary outlet for all these materials. As alwaysin this regard, the organisation of the removal of these materials must be considered from theoutset.

This should significantly improve the current situation in the towns.

Collection of solid waste

It is of the utmost urgency to start by assigning a suburban area to be used for managed solid wastedumping. It is completely illusory to think that sustainable cleanliness in towns or public health inurban centres could be achieved without first having a clearly defined and easily accessible wasteoutlet.

Whereas efforts with regard to stormwater drainage studies have started to bear fruit, no study onsolid waste treatment has been identified. Field surveys of the main towns, especially N’Djaména,report the concerns of municipal leaders. The technical services of the capital have taken steps torationalise waste collection and the recovery of all items that are easy to sort.


In nearly every case, the inhabitants in the end use "transfer stations" which are basically waste dumpslocated within the inhabited area. Since it is not systematically removed, the waste stagnates. Thechain of measures put in place to protect public health is broken at the worst point, from a healthpoint of view, when waste gathers in town centres.

It is, therefore, a question of finding resources not just for removing the waste regularly but also fortransferring it to a recognised and appropriate site sufficiently close to each town to be accessible(perhaps even by animal transport) and of sufficient area to allow the material to be spread out ratherthan piled up, a solution which, moreover, presents technical difficulties.

In terms of requirements, there were approximately 200 towns and population centres with morethan 2000 inhabitants in Chad in 2000. On this basis and according to the size of these centres,suitable studies need to be carried out to identify 200 managed solid waste dumping sites.

Following these studies, the sites will have to be developed and solid waste collection organised. It isclear that the problem of solid waste disposal is much more complex in the larger Chadian townsthan in the secondary centres with populations of between 3000 and 4000 people.

Stormwater collection and disposal

This is the highest-priority water-related issue for the inhabitants of the main towns, and representsthe major part of the work to be done in the years to come. This is an aspect which representsconsiderable investment and, for the most part, is beyond the reach of local authorities. Nothingeffective can be achieved without starting with the downstream equipment, which is the most costlyand most complex. In particular, this requires that the ground surface be mapped and levelled. Theseschemes are not possible without regional coordination.

It is suggested that, for stormwater collection, priority for capital investment should be placed on theprimary main drains and on flood relief basins; priority must be given to this infrastructure in order totake maximum advantage of natural flow channels.

Furthermore, there are no primary or secondary stormwater drainage networks. The tertiarynetwork in operation is underdeveloped and seems to have been built without overall planning.However, it appears that creating more drainage channels is not a realistic solution because firstly, mostof the annual rain falls in downpours over only about two months of the year and, secondly, the localpopulation throws waste into the channels, which become blocked once the rainy season starts.

In this context, the most appropriate solution seems to be to make best use of the existing naturalflow channels. In towns, roads themselves can serve as stormwater drains; they must merely belevelled to prevent the accumulation of standing water. The investment required is relatively low andthe primary drainage networks can thus be constructed in the low points.

The cost of installing drainage channels across N’Djaména to provide drainage for the town has beenroughly estimated at FCFA 7 billion per 100 000 inhabitants. This estimate is based on the followingcalculation: there is, on average, one road per hectare and since one hectare is a square of 100 m sidelength and since the road crossing it will be 100 m long, then 100 m of drainage channel needs to beconstructed per hectare. At FCFA 100 000/m, this represents a cost of FCFA 10 million/ha. Inaddition, since the population is of the order of 150 inhabitants per hectare, around 700 hectareswould need to be drained for a population of 100 000 inhabitants.

2.3.3 Sanitation requirements in industrial areas

The few industries in Chad are concentrated in N’Djaména, Moundou and Sarh. Little is known aboutthe volumes and chemical content of the wastewater discharged by these industries. However, thevast majority of these industries discharge their wastewater into watercourses (Chari and Logone inparticular) without pre-treatment.

In view of this data shortage, it is not possible to make an exhaustive inventory nor evaluate therequirements, except to say that everything remains to be done. All industrial wastewater hasdifferent properties; it can be difficult to establish the appropriate treatment methods beforehand.


Moreover, there is no national legislation covering the type and composition of industrial emissions. Afirst step to be taken is to draw up national standards relating to the composition of industrial effluentand wastewater and to implement control and monitoring procedures. In addition, each industrycould be required to produce a periodic report on the characteristics of its emissions.

Initially, efforts must be made to mobilise public funds to draw up standards. Industries must thensubsequently comply with these standards by installing appropriate treatment equipment, at their owncost.

2.4 Pastoral water supply requirements

2.4.1 Assessment of pastoral water supply requirements

The assessment of pastoral water supply requirements is based on the current Chadian livestocknumbers expressed as tropical livestock units (TLUs). Each TLU corresponds to 30 litres of water perday. On this basis, table 20 assesses the pastoral water supply requirements for the period 2000 to 2020.

Table 20:Assessment of pastoral water supply requirement per geoclimatic zone

2000 2010 2020

Geoclimatic TLU Needs TLU Needs TLU Needszone m3/year m3/year m3/year

Saharan 1 044 610 11 438 475 1 400 563 15 336 165 1 906 308 20 874 069

Sahelian 12 271 104 134 368 592 15 869 346 173 769 341 21 362 895 233 923 697

Sudanian 2 748 516 30 096 252 3 482 850 38 137 204 4 758 992 52 110 958

Total 16 064 230 175 903 320 20 752 759 227 242 711 28 028 194 306 908 724

Source: SDEA 2001

It may be deduced from this table that pastoral water supply requirements in 2000 were176 million m3/year ; these requirements will rise to 227 million m3/year in 2010 and307 million m3/year in 2020. It should be remembered that these water volume estimates are basedon the high-end hypothesis of livestock numbers expressed as TLUs and that these estimatedrequirements, especially for 2020, do not into take account the carrying capacities of the pastoralland which must be evaluated before then, as must livestock numbers. Therefore these water supplyrequirements are probably overestimates; however, as a precaution, they will be retained for theremainder of this document.

Moreover, of this estimated water volume, approximately 57 million m3 (33%) is derived from surfacewater and 119 million m3 (67%) is abstracted from groundwater sources.

2.4.2 Assessment of pastoral water point requirements

A lack of basic data, such as livestock numbers, pastoral resources, and the location and operation ofpastoral water points (especially those exploiting surface water and traditional wells), makes itimpossible to estimate the current and future requirements for pastoral water supply equipment witha minimum degree of reliability. In order to overcome this major difficulty, the methodologyimplemented in assessing water point requirements consists in defining a hexagonal reference gridcentred on the existing, georeferenced wells. The ponds with basic facilities developed in easternChad have also been marked on these maps (see figures 14, 15 and 16). However, in the followingpages, when reference is made to pastoral water points, this refers first and foremost to wells sincethey guarantee access to water at all times, which cannot be said for ponds, which only provide waterfor cattle for a few months of the year, .



Republic of ChadFigure 14: Estimation of pastoral water point requirements

Saharan zone

Legend

25 km grid around theexisting pastoral waterpoints

100 km grid

Protected area

Developed ponds

25 km buffer zone aroundlines to be equipped



Sources: Water Office Data Base (Wells)Practical Atlas of Chad (Relief and flood-prone areas)DPFPN/MEE



Sahelian zone

Legend25 km grid

Influence zone of pastoralwells

Flood-prone areas

Protected areas

Developed ponds

Main roads

Normal Lake Chad before 1973Lake Chad “Petit Tchad 1999”



Sources: SDEA, April 2001from the Water Office Data Base (Wells)Practical Atlas of Chad (Relief and flood-prone areas)DPFPN/MEE



Sudanian zone

Legend25 km grid

Influence zone of pastoralwells

Flood-prone areas

Protected areas

Developed ponds

Protected areas

Natural forest

Main roadsIntegrated Plan for Water Development and Management

Chad 2002 - Govt of Chad - with UNDP fundingand technical support of UNDESA

Sources: SDEA, April 2001from the Water Office Data Base (Wells)Practical Atlas of Chad (Relief and flood-prone areas)DPFPN/MEE


For the Sahelian and Sudanian zones, each hexagon is drawn inside a 25 km diameter circle. Assumingthat the entire territory has this density of pastoral water points, each person would be placed lessthan 12.5 km from a pastoral water point. At the moment, this reference grid is only useful forforecasting and development, with the accuracy depending on the unit size of the hexagonal grid. Thisenables:

� grids and areas devoid of pastoral water points to be precisely located, and priority status to beestablished for schemes in the medium and long-term perspectives;

� grids and, therefore, sectors to be pinpointed that have sufficient water point provision and donot require specific, immediate schemes;

� water point locations to be determined along the migration moukhals and trade routes to beadequately evaluated;

� in relation to existing or future water supply structures, local stakeholders to be groupedaccording to the structures which concern them; these stakeholders will eventually becomemanagers and coordinators of actions taken within the context of agro-pastoral activities basedon wells.

It is appropriate to stress that, for the entire Saharan zone, the grid adopted includes larger mesh sizessince, at these latitudes, the hexagons are located in circles 100 km in diameter which, still from theperspective of a network of fully installed pastoral water points, would place all potential users lessthan 50 km from a pastoral water point. This density of water points governing access to fodderresources has been used for the following reasons:

� many stockbreeders do not live all year in the BET;

� in northern Chad, only camels and goats, requiring less frequent watering, are raised;

� there are no pasture maps for the Saharan zone and, as a consequence, few data on thepotentially available carrying capacity.

Therefore, from the sustainable development perspective, it is felt that an excessive density of wellsshould not be proposed, otherwise too many herds would be attracted. By standing on the land allyear round, the livestock could cause irreversible erosion of the pasture which does not necessarilygrow again if there is no rainfall. This being the case, it should be noted that, in view of the low cattlenumbers in these regions, once all the water points are located using the 100 km spacing, there willstill be time, after consultation and a detailed survey of the pastoral load carrying capacity of theSaharan region carried out by the national agrostology department, to consider whether it isappropriate to reduce the reference grid unit size in this zone down to 50 km or less.

While the necessary mapping and inventory work is being carried out, a development referenceframe based on a regularly spaced grid of water points offers numerous advantages, including inparticular :

� compatibility with the custom of locating water points by a system of sexagesimal coordinates aspractised by the water supply and agrostology departments;

� the ability to integrate with a geographical information system (GIS) or database withoutsignificant modification of the data entry fields;

� to list and group together similar sets of grids able to accommodate particular schemes,corresponding to the detailed phases of the development actions;

� to plan the various actions to be managed starting from previous typologies, according either totime or to the level of equipment to be installed in the geographical sectors identified;

� to be used as a geographical reference frame for associations and/or local stakeholderassociations responsible for the durability of the water supply structures, their operation and theirmanagement in easily delimited environmental sectors. All groups are fully aware of the waterpoint locations which, unlike the uncertain and/or contested cantonal boundaries, constituteindisputable markers of position, the neighbourhoods that they enclose and the understandingsthat they suggest;

� to provide donors and decision-makers as well as institutions, technical departments and grass-roots associations with the same working framework, on the scales being used, in order to plan,choose, decide on and set down a regulatory framework for regional development based on anaccurate grid provided by the water point network.

Saharan zone

Applying the calculation method defined for the Saharan zone, i.e., a grid of pastoral water pointsinitially 100 km apart, the number of water supply structures to be built is estimated at 150 pastoralwater points based on wells or boreholes fitted with appropriate pumping equipment.

Sahelian zone

Applying the calculation method defined for the Sahelian zone, i.e., a grid of pastoral water pointsinitially 25 km apart, the number of water supply structures to be built is 465. However, as a secondstage and after conducting the appropriate studies, applying a grid with 12 km between each waterpoint (a distance of 6 km between each well), the number of water supply structures to be built wouldbe 1860. The water points to be constructed are wells or boreholes fitted with appropriate pumpingequipment. Ponds with basic facilities can also be created, especially in sectors where hydrogeologicaland hydrological studies and the implementation of the latest technical resources have demonstrateda low potential for groundwater resources.

Sudanian zone

As figure 16 shows, the modern wells are concentrated in the western Sudanian zone and over 85%of these wells are used in villages. Applying a unit grid size of 25 km between wells, there would be535 pastoral water supply structures to be built. Reducing this grid size to 12 km, the number ofstructures required would rise to 2140. It must be remembered that these numbers are given as anindication only and that they take no account of the current soil and land use, normally agricultureand cotton growing. The number of pastoral water points to be constructed in this zone as well asthe type of structure (pastoral stations, wells, connections to water points several kilometres from theexisting DWS network, etc) must be the subject of discussion or negotiation and must be part of themore general regional development framework. It should also be remembered that the westernpart of the Sudanian zone is the sector where oil exploitation is developing.

Summary of pastoral water point requirements

Table 21 summarises the number of pastoral water points (wells) to be constructed, based on a 25 kmgrid, with 12 km between water points for the Sudanian and Sahelian zones and a 100 km grid for theSaharan zone.

Table 21: Estimated number of pastoral water points to be installed

Grid Saharan zone Sahelian zone Sudanian zone Total

100 km 150 0 0 150

25 km 0 465 535 1 000

12 km 0 1 860 2 140 4 000

Source: SDEA 2001

This table shows that 1150 pastoral wells (1000 in the Sudanian and Sahelian zones and 150 in theSaharan zone) would need to be installed, based on a 25 km grid, and 4150 water supply structureswould be built, based on a 12 km distance between each water point. However, considering thecurrent land use intended for agriculture in the Sudanian zone, the number of pastoral water points tobe constructed would most likely be between 3000 and 3500.


GeoclimaticCereals (t/year) Vegetables (t/year) Fruit (t/year) Sugar (t/year)

zone 2000 2010 2020 2000 2010 2020 2000 2010 2020 2000 2010 2020

Saharan 21 950 30 400 44 000 1 500 2 775 6 760 1 100 1 950 4 050

Sahelian 617 100 748 700 837 900 64 700 85 000 125 700 10 800 17 000 41 900 24 250 34 000 50 300

Sudanian 705 000 873 500 1 100 000 101 900 136 500 206 300 25 475 38 200 82 500 38 200 54 600 82 500

N’Djaména 146 350 180 000 204 800 15 300 20 500 30 720 2 500 4 100 10 250 5 750 8 200 12 300

Total 1 490 400 1 832 600 2 186 700 183 400 244 775 369 480 39 875 61 250 138 700 68 200 96 800 145 100

Source: SDEA 2001


Moreover, by comparing production in 2000 with the estimated requirements and their change overtime, it can be seen that:

� the increased demand for fruit and vegetables is not an insurmountable problem; the increase inirrigated land area and enhancement of operator technical skills, on one hand, and theimprovement in the downstream segment of the activity and road quality, on the other, shouldsuffice to achieve this;

2.5 Agricultural water supply requirements

2.5.1 Changes in food needs

Table 22 summarises cereal, fruit and vegetable production by geoclimatic zone in 2001. The data inthe table were extracted from various reports concerning agriculture in Chad.

Tableau 22: Estimated production in 2001

Cereals Vegetables Fruit

Geoclimatic Total Irrigated Total Irrigated Total Irrigatedzone production (t) production (t) production (t) production (t) production (t) production (t)

Saharan 300 300 1 000 1 000 15 000 15 000

Sahelian 240 000 46 000 71 500 71 500 15 000 5 000

Sudanian 570 000 85 000 100 000 100 000 25 000 7 500

Total 810 300 131 300 172 500 172 500 55 000 27 500

Source: SDEA 2001

Table 23 summarises the estimated change in consumption of cereals, fruit and vegetables bygeoclimatic zone between 2000 and 2020.

Table 23: Estimated change in consumption per inhabitant between 2000 and 2020

Geoclimatic Cereals Vegetables Fruit Sugar

zone (kg/inhabitant/year) (kg/inhabitant/year) (kg/inhabitant/year) (kg/inhabitant/year)

2000 2010 2020 2000 2010 2020 2000 2010 2020 2000 2010 2020

Saharan 100 110 130 27 10 20 5 7 12

Sahelian 229 220 200 24 25 30 4 5 10 9 10 12

Sudanian 166 160 150 24 25 30 6 7 12 9 10 12

Source: SDEA 2001

Table 2 shows the population per geoclimatic zone. Based on the assumed consumption figures givenin table 23 coupled with demographic changes, the requirements for various food products arepresented in table 24.

Table 24: Estimate of requirements for various food products between 2000 and 2020

� however, satisfying the growth in basic cereal requirements of over 600 000 tonnes in 2000 andover 1.3 million tonnes by 2020 from local production might cause a problem. This can beavoided only if priority is placed on developing flood-recession farming, systematically developinglowland areas, implementing an ambitious programme to develop mountain catchment areas andincreasing productivity. Another potential solution lies in the intensification of rain-fed cash crops(cotton, peanuts, sesame) or irrigated crops (sugar cane), the profits made being used oninternational markets to counter the shortfall in cereals. But there are good reasons to think thatthe overall solution would consist of a combination of these different possibilities.

The particular situation of the Saharan populations means that the potential rise in their food needswill have to be treated separately, the solution depending largely on irrigation, especially for proteinfoods (meat and milk) and carbohydrate foods (dates), which is not the case in other regions. Therise in requirements for these three foods is presented in table 25 with reference to the standardsproposed above.

Table 25: Predicted rise in the consumption of dates, milk and meat in the Saharan zone (valuesgiven in tonnes)

Product 2000 2010 2020

Dates 13 934 16 820 18 377

Meat 2 754 3 533 4 453

Milk 2 135 2 776 3 498

Source: SDEA 2001

Date production is currently sufficient to provide for the food requirements of the Saharanpopulations, except in years of shortage. There is frequently a surplus of several thousand tonnes inBorkou. In the medium and long term, the moderate rise in demand should not pose any problems.However, a solution must be found at all costs to a fundamental problem: future funding for thepurchase of cereals, which has always depended on the sale (or barter) of date surpluses.

There is the same concern for protein food. By 2020, demand for meat will have risen by 1700 tonnesand for milk by about 1400 tonnes. However, increasing the areas of irrigated land would have onlya marginal effect on providing these extra food requirements, since the proportion devoted to foddercrops would feed only a limited number of goats for an annual production of a few hundred tonnesof meat and milk, provided that a programme of stock-rearing improvement were initiated in parallelwith an agricultural sector development programme.

2.5.2 Agricultural water and equipment requirements

In agriculture, water requirements cannot be considered in the same way as drinking waterrequirements. This is because there are no limits to unit requirements as is the case with humanconsumption (a few dozen litres per day). In theory and up to a certain point, the higher the volumeof water mobilised, the higher the tonnages produced, thereby making it possible either to improvefood security or to develop cash crops. On the other hand, considering the prices at which agriculturalproducts can be sold, the cost of mobilising water resources is a fundamental parameter of the waterresource access development strategy.

The agricultural water issue cannot be separated from the agriculture issue itself or, more precisely,from the returns from agricultural investment. Therefore, despite wide variations in rain-fedagricultural production from one year to the next, the average annual growth rate of cerealproduction over the last 20 years has been about 2%. This rate is 0.5% per year less than the annualpopulation growth rate, estimated at 2.5%; some recent studies even report a 3% annual populationgrowth rate. Cereal production in 2000 barely covers 56% of the requirements, estimated at around1.5 million tonnes. By 2020, this requirement for cereals will have risen to approximately 2.2 milliontonnes. Increasing productivity and crop yields, developing new irrigation schemes and trainingoperators are all essential if the current coverage (56%) of the populations’ cereals requirements is tobe maintained and increased.



Based on the assessment-diagnosis and considering the major constraints on agricultural developmentin Chad, it is proposed that an objective be set to develop 100 000 hectares of land, irrespective ofirrigation type, by 2020. This corresponds to the development of 5000 new hectares per year.

Based on the hypothesis above, agricultural water requirements by 2020 are estimated by consideringthe irrigation of 100 000 new hectares at the rate of 15 000 m3/ha/year, equivalent to 1.5 billion m3

of water. To this volume of water an extra 600 million m3 must be added for other schemes, giving atotal volume of 2100 million m3 of agricultural water by 2020. This corresponds to an increase ofapproximately 108% over the volume used in the sector in 2000. Agricultural water requirementsestimated according to this hypothesis are considered to be high.

Estimates of changes in agricultural water requirements between 2000 and 2020 according to thehypothesis above are shown in Table 26.

Table 26: Changes in agricultural water requirements between 2000 and 2020

2000 2020

Surface Ground- Surface Ground- %Climatic water water Total water water Total increasezone (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3) (million m3)

Saharan 127 127 6 204 210 65.35

Sahelian 117 63 180 319 81 400 122.22

Sudanian 683 20 703 1402 88 1490 111.95

Total 800 210 1010 1727 373 2100 107.92

Source: SDEA 2001

By 2020, over 80% of agricultural water will be provided by surface water. It should be stressed,however, that depending on whether or not surface water exists in sufficient quantities, as well as thecost of constructing and operating these schemes, groundwater can be used to make a significantcontribution, especially in the Sudanian zone where there are large aquifers.

3 BALANCE BETWEEN WATER REQUIREMENTS AND RESOURCES ANDENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF IMPLEMENTING THE SDEA

3.1 Constraints arising from mobilisation of water resources

3.1.1 Surface water

The main constraints arising from surface water resource mobilisation are:

Strong pressure on endoreic basins: this particular situation demands a different approach to watermanagement and use. All abstraction from river basins has an impact downstream in other parts ofthe country, sometimes also affecting other countries surrounding the Conventional Lake Chad Basin.The sustainability of the lakes depends on how upstream water is managed. All polluting or toxicsubstances likely to be carried by the water eventually end up in the low points of the different riverbasins (Lake Chad, Lake Fitri) and the Ennedi wadi basins. Therefore, these low points collect andconcentrate waste resulting from human activities. Qualitative and quantitative water managementmust be conducted in parallel.

Climatic constraint: evaporation plays a dominant part in the overall surface water balance. Lossesthrough evaporation are compensated for by rainfall. Due to the currently observed global warming,evaporation could increase, whereas rainfall could in future become less frequent. In the mediumterm, as far as agriculture is concerned, this climate change would limit rain-fed crop growing andincrease risks of land erosion. As regards surface hydrology, more very low flow levels and shorterperiods of river flooding are predicted.


International constraint: the natural scale used for surface water management is that of thecatchment area. Numerous aquatic systems cross Chadian borders, requiring concerted managementby the countries which share these water basins. A number of agreements have been signed for thispurpose. To a certain extent, they restrict the degree of freedom for the countries managing theseresources.

Economic constraint: in general, the high cost of implementing the various types of scheme whichaim to control or exploit surface water resources, can constitute a major constraint.

3.1.2 Groundwater

Ignorance of the main relationships between different aquifer systems, on one hand, and therelationships between aquifers and rainfall, on the other, certainly restricts the mobilisation ofgroundwater. In addition, the lack of monitoring data at national level on the exploitation of aquifersshared with other countries represents a constraint on sustainable resource manageability.

However, considering that groundwater resources exist throughout Chad, apart from a few sectors,the main constraints governing their mobilisation are technical (depth, flow rate, success/failure rate),qualitative and economic.

After processing existing data, the average depths and specific discharges expected from buildingwater abstraction facilities are presented in Figures 17 and 18, by aquifer and by sector. Figure 17shows that the static water level is between 10 m and 35 m below ground in most largehydrogeological units. There is, however, a marked reduction (over 60 m) in the North ContinentalTerminal and the West Pleistocene in the centre of the country (north of the town of Ati), in thedepartments of Dababa, Batha Ouest and Batha Est. Another reduction in the static level can also beseen in the North, in the Nubian sandstone.

Interpolation of the specific borehole discharges (figure 18) reveals that specific discharges greaterthan 5 m3/h/m are obtained in the Ogolian Sands,West Pleistocene and South Continental Terminal.Low specific discharges are obtained in the southern part (Mongo town) of the Eastern Basement(less than 1 m3/h/m) and in the South-west basement zones and in the volcanic areas of Tibesti. Theboreholes drilled in the North Continental Terminal and in part of the Paleozoic Sandstones havespecific discharges of between 1 and 5 m3/h/m.

The aquifer water quality is generally good (see figures 19 and 20). The exception is a sector whichlies in an arc east of the Ogolian Sands, where conductivity is below 2000 micro-Siemens/cm, therebymeeting the WHO drinkability standard. Figure 20 also shows that the pH value lies between 5 and8.5. Acidic water is encountered in southernmost Chad, the eastern centre and towards the northof the country. The aquifer water of the Eastern Basement and the Pleistocene generally has pHvalues between 6.5 and 7.5.

Figures 21 and 22 link the technical characteristics of the water abstraction structures to economicaspects. The map showing accessibility to groundwater through boreholes was drawn using theborehole depths divided by the success rate for each sector. This map shows that the sectors in theeastern centre (the East Modji and North Continental Terminal sector) and some sectors of theEastern Basement correspond to zones which are unsuitable for groundwater abstraction. Theboreholes are too deep and/or the failure rate is high, making water abstraction more expensive.However, it should be noted that the abstraction of groundwater via boreholes from the aquifers ofthe Plio-Quaternary and the South Continental Terminal can, in general, be described as moderatelyfavourable to favourable.

The groundwater exploitability map was drawn using the ratio of the average specific discharge ofeach water supply structure to the depth of the static water level. In this way, the exploitability of theaquifers may be defined in terms of pumping costs and productivity. From this figure it can beconcluded that, with the exception of the basement and North Continental Terminal zones and thewestern Paleozoic Sandstones, the exploitability of the large hydrogeological units is described asfavourable to very favourable.

110 INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT ■ MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 ■ HCNE ■ MEE ■ UNDESA ■ UNDP110 INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT ■ MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 ■ HCNE ■ MEE ■ UNDESA ■ UNDP

Republic of ChadFigure 18: Specific discharge interpolation

Specific discharge (m3/h/m)

More than 30301051

Less than 1Insufficient data

Republic of ChadFigure 17: Interpolation of static level depth

Depth (m)

1006030100Insufficient data





111INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT ■ MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 ■ HCNE ■ MEE ■ UNDESA ■ UNDP 111INTEGRATED PLAN FOR CHAD’S WATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT ■ MAIN DOCUMENT JUNE 2003 ■ HCNE ■ MEE ■ UNDESA ■ UNDP

Republic of ChadFigure 19: Conductivity interpolation

Micro-Siemens/cm)

Republic of ChadFigure 20: pH interpolation

pH

98765Insufficient data


and technical support of UNDESAIntegrated Plan for Water Development and Management

Chad 2002 - Govt of Chad - with UNDP fundingand technical support of UNDESA

More than 3000300020001000500

Less than 500Insufficient data


Republic of ChadFigure 22: Groundwater exploitability

Exploitability

Very favourableFavourableAverageUnfavourableVery unfavourableInsufficient data

Republic of ChadFigure 21: Groundwater accessibility by borehole

Accessibility

Very unfavourableUnfavourableAverageFavourableVery favourableInsufficient data





Accessibility = Depth of drilling/Success rateExploitability = Specific discharge/Depth of static level


3.2 Summary of water resources by large climatic zone

Figure 23 presents a summary of water resources in terms of estimated requirements for 2000 and2020 by large climatic zone. This figure makes a distinction between groundwater resources andsurface water resources in addition to the various uses and functions of the water. In addition,Table 27presents, for each large climatic zone, an estimation of the potential water resources (both surfaceand groundwater) and an estimate of the increase in requirements to satisfy the different water usesthroughout the period 2000 to 2020. Additionally, Figure 24 illustrates all the Chadian waterresources. These issues are discussed below.

Saharan zone

Few data exist on surface water ; its potential, estimated at 300 million m3, needs to be studied in detail.In 2000, this resource was used mainly to satisfy pastoral water requirements, estimated atapproximately 1 million m3, which represents approximately 0.3% of the estimated potential surfacewater resources. In 2020, provided that surface water studies have been carried out and betterknowledge of their potential is available, surface water abstraction should be approximately 8 millionm3, or around 2.7% of the estimated resources; this abstraction would be used mainly to satisfyagricultural water requirements.

Groundwater is drawn from reserves estimated at more than 100 billion m3; there are no renewableresources. In 2000, abstraction from this resource (139 million m3) was mainly used to satisfyagricultural water requirements, estimated at 127 million m3, whereas drinking water requirements areof the order of only 1.7 million m3. Only about 0.14% of the potential groundwater resources wasexploited in 2000. According to projected requirements for 2020, only about 0.25% of these reserveswill have been tapped. Nonetheless, it should be noted that their mobilisation or availability mightoccasionally pose certain problems, especially in the aquifers of the Tibesti volcanic basement.

Water requirements, all uses combined, were estimated at about 140 million m3 in 2000, of which139 million m3 was abstracted from groundwater and 1 million m3 abstracted from surface water,representing just over 0.14% of the potential estimated water resources (ground- and surface water).

In 2020, water requirements are estimated at 233.5 million m3, or approximately 0.25% ofestimated resources.

Sahelian zone

The surface water of the Sahelian zone must also be studied in order to determine more accuratelyits actual potential, estimated at 4 billion m3. Abstraction from this resource in 2000 was estimatedat over 153.6 million m3, of which 117 million m3 (76%) fulfilled agricultural water requirements. Inaddition to its normal use, surface water in the Sahelian zone has an important role: biodiversityconservation. In 2020, to meet the total requirements, surface water abstraction will be of the orderof 406 million m3, i.e., 10.1% of the estimated resources.

In general, groundwater in the Sahelian zone is abstracted directly from the renewable resourcesestimated at over 8 billion m3. In 2000, water abstraction from this resource was estimated atapproximately 200 million m3, or approximately 2.5% of the annually renewable resources, of which98 million m3 was to fulfil pastoral water requirements. In 2020, water abstraction is estimated at over330 million m3, or approximately 4.1% of the renewable groundwater resources. Adding renewableand non-renewable resources, the groundwater potential in the Sahelian zone is 90 billion m3; waterabstraction in 2020 represents only 0.36% of this potential.

Water requirements, all uses combined, were estimated at 353 million m3 in 2000 of which a littleover 199 million m3 was abstracted from groundwater sources. This abstraction corresponds toapproximately 3% of the estimated potential renewable water resources in the Sahelian zone.

In 2020, water requirements are estimated at a little over 736 million m3 of which 406 million m3will be abstracted from surface water. These abstractions will tap a little over 6% of the estimatedpotential renewable water resources (ground- and surface water) of this zone.

Sudanian zone

Water resources in this zone are the most understood. Here, the median surface water flow rate forthe period 1972-2002 is 22.4 billion m3 per year, with an absolute minimum of 6.7 billion m3 whichoccurred in 1984-1985. Surface water resources are relatively plentiful in this zone; they are usedmainly to satisfy agricultural water requirements (683 million m3) and, to a lesser extent, pastoral andindustrial water requirements, estimated (in 2000) at 20 million m3/year and 2 million m3/yearrespectively. In 2000, total surface water abstraction in the Sudanian zone was estimated at over 706million m3, which corresponds to 3% of estimated resources. Water abstraction envisaged for 2020is estimated at 1.4 billion m3, or 6.5% of the resources. Moreover, the surface water resources in theSudanian zone also have a role in conserving and sustaining biodiversity which is difficult to quantify.

As far as groundwater is concerned, renewable resources are estimated at 11.2 billion m3/year andthe reserves at 82 billion m3. In 2000, water abstraction from this resource was estimated at70 million m3 (0.6% of the renewable resources); this will reach 206 million m3 by 2020, or 1.8% ofthe renewable resources.

Water requirements for the Sudanian zone, all uses combined, were estimated at 776.5 million m3 in2000, of which a little over 70 million m3 was abstracted from groundwater sources.

In 2020, water requirements are estimated at slightly over 1.6 billion m3, 1.4 billion m3 of whichwould be abstracted from surface water to be used mainly to satisfy agricultural waterrequirements. This abstraction of surface and groundwater corresponds to 4.7% of the potentialrenewable water resources in this zone.


Table 27: Summary of water resources and estimated abstraction by use

2000

Estimated resources Ground- SurfaceZone (billion m3) Subsector water (m3) water (m3)

Saharan zone Surface water: Village water supply 1 493 879 00.30? (potential to be studied) Urban water supply 195 700 0Groundwater Agricultural water supply 127 000 000Renewable: 0 Pastoral water supply 10 498 326 940 149Reserve: 100 Industrial water supply 0 0

Total 139 187 905 940 149

Sahelian zone Surface water: Village water supply 15 243 247 300 0004.0? (potential to be studied) Urban water supply 22 062 495 300 000Groundwater Agricultural water supply 63 000 000 117 000 000Renewable: 8 Pastoral water supply 98 294 127 36 074 465Reserve: 82 Industrial water supply 700 000 0

Total 199 299 869 153 674 465

Sudanian zone Surface water: Village water supply 26 866 738 700 00022.4 Urban water supply 12 489 013 700 000Groundwater Agricultural water supply 20 000 000 683 000 000Renewable:11.2 Pastoral water supply 10 130 840 19 965 412Reserve: 82 Industrial water supply 626 000 2 000 000

Total 70 112 591 706 365 412

Total 408 600 365 860 980 026

National total Surface water: Village water supply 43 603 864 1 000 000abstraction 26.7 Urban water supply 34 747 208 1 000 000by subsector Groundwater Agricultural water supply 210 000 000 800 000 000

Renewable: 19.20 Pastoral water supply 118 923 293 56 980 026Reserve: 264 Industrial water supply 1 326 000 2 000 000

Source: SDEA 2001Note: estimates of the percentage of total groundwater abstraction in the Sahelian and Sudanian zones are calculated on the basis of renewable resources whereas, for the Saharan zone, the percentage is calculated on the basis of non-renewable resources (reserves).


2020 Estimated % abstraction

Ground- SurfaceTotal (m3) water (m3) water (m3) Total (m3) 2000 2020

1 493 879 2 127 116 0 2 127 116 Surface water: Surface water:195 700 518 704 0 518 704 0.30% 2.70%

127 000 000 204 000 000 6 000 000 210 000 000 Groundwater: Groundwater:11 438 475 18 786 663 2 087 406 20 874 069 Renewable: 0% Renewable: 0%

0 0 0 0 Reserve: 0.14% Reserve: 0.25%

140 128 054 225 432 483 8 087 406 233 519 889

15 543 247 22 167 980 0 22 167 980 Surface water: Surface water:22 362 495 78 507 876 0 78 507 876 3.8% 10.1%

180 000 000 81 000 000 319 000 000 400 000 000 Groundwater: Groundwater:134 368 592 147 371 930 86 551 767 233 923 697 Renewable: 2.5% Renewable: 4.1%

700 000 1 000 000 500 000 1 500 000 Reserve: 0% Reserve: 0%

352 974 334 330 047 786 406 051 767 736 099 553


703 000 000 88 000 000 1 402 000 000 1 490 000 000 Groundwater: Groundwater:30 096 252 20 844 383 31 266 574 52 110 958 Renewable: 0.6% Renewable: 1.8%2 626 000 1 000 000 3 000 000 4 000 000 Reserve: 0% Reserve: 0%

776 478 003 206 200 931 1 436 266 574 1 642 467 506

1 269 580 391 761 681 200 1 850 405 747 2 612 086 948


1 010 000 000 373 000 000 1 727 000 000 2 100 000 000 Groundwater: Groundwater:175 903 319 187 002 976 119 905 747 306 908 724 Renewable: 1.4% Renewable: 2.8%

3 326 000 2 000 000 3 500 000 5 500 000 Reserve: minimal Reserve: minimal

3.3 Conclusions on the water resource and environmental impact assessment

Abstraction from water resources to fulfil the requirements for various water uses excluding therequirements of the aquatic ecosystems, were estimated at 1269 million m3 in 2000, representing 2.8%of the renewable resources. From this total, a volume of 408.6 million m3 of water (32%) is abstractedfrom different aquifers and about 861 million m3 (68%) from surface water. In addition,269.5 million m3 of water, or 66% of the total abstraction from groundwater sources, is taken fromrecharged aquifers, whereas 139.1 million m3 of water (34%) is taken from aquifers which are notrecharged.

In 2020, water requirements are estimated to be just over 2.6 billion m3, or approximately 5.7% of theestimated annually renewable resources. Of these abstractions, over 1.85 billion m3 will be fromsurface water and 761 million m3 from groundwater. This represents 7.0% of the surface waterresources and 3.9% of renewable groundwater resources or 0.26% of all groundwater resources(renewable and reserves).

Therefore, water resource abstraction would not have a major impact on the environment, for tworeasons. First, Chad has considerable water resources, and second, the planned developments,including those in the irrigation sector, remain modest. What is more, from the water qualityviewpoint, the SDEA is not going to develop any polluting activities; on the contrary, it proposes anaction plan and an approach to accelerate schemes needed to address rural, urban and industrialsanitation issues. The SDEA also recommends vigilance (the precautionary principle) with regard toindustrial pollution risks, especially in the mining and oil industries.


Furthermore, it is recalled that the abstraction estimates do not include abstractions from these sameresources by countries neighbouring Chad. For integrated and sustainable management, it is essentialto take all abstraction into account. The LCBC has an essential role to play in providing coordinationmechanisms between countries, to enable the shared resources to be monitored and exploited in asustainable manner.

While bearing in mind the main constraints linked to the mobilisation of water resources and, aboveall, the unequal temporal and geographical distribution of rainfall and surface water as well as the lackof data on how the large aquifers function, it generally seems that, in 2001, this resource will not curbeconomic and social development in Chad. However, development of the water resources requiresstudies to be conducted to improve knowledge of the functioning of and relationships between themain hydrological hydrogeological systems, especially in the more sensitive semi-arid zones and alsoin zones highly suited to flood spreading. The integrated basin approach will be preferred, especiallyand preferably via the "The Integrated Plan for the Chari-Logone basin and its flood plains", which willensure that the right balance will be struck between exploiting water resources, sustaining aquaticecosystems and meeting the needs of economic and social development.


Republic of ChadFigure 23: Resources/Requirements

summaryIn calculating water requirements, allowancemust be made for the needs of aquaticecosystems (particularly flood-prone areasand lakes) which govern the sustainability ofbiodiversity, and also the essential resourcesfor fishing, stock-rearing and traditionalflood-recession agriculture.These needs areindicative and represented by the light-blueto white shading.

Village water requirementsUrban water requirementsPastoral water requirementsAgricultural water requirementsIndustrial water requirementsGroundwater resourcesSurface water resources

Saharan Zone

Sudanian Zone

Sahelian Zone

Groundwater (million m3) Surface water (million m3)

Potential tobe studied


Saharan Zone

Sahelian Zone

Sudanian Zone

Use of groundwater reserves

Use of renewable resources

Use of renewable resources

Median

Absoluteminimum






Republic of ChadFigure 24: Overview of water resources in Chad

Libya

Main hydrogeological formations

Surface water resources

Marine CarboniferousNorth Continental TerminalSouth Continental TerminalNubian sandstonesPaleozoic sandstonesEast PleistoceneWest PleistocenePlioceneOgolian sandsModji seriesEastern basementSW basementTibesti basementTibestic volcanic

Standing waterFlowing water

Sudan

Niger

Nigeria

Cam

eroo

n

Central Afric

an Republic





Source: SDEA, adapted from the Practical Atlas of Chad, 1972


1 WATER POLICY

The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management includes provision for a national waterpolicy in order to achieve the main goals set by the Chadian Government.

The relevant strategies state how the specific goals of the water subsectors are to be reached takinginto account the main principles set out in the water policy. These strategies may be broken downinto five subsector levels: drinking water, pastoral and agricultural water, water resources and, lastly,sanitation. The subsector strategies will be complemented by a transverse fund mobilisation strategythat will be compatible with the major macroeconomic equilibria and the ability of users to pay. It alsoproposes an organisational framework for water governance and for national capacity-building.

1.1 Objectives

To contribute to reducing poverty and to economic growth, firstly by improving access to drinkingwater and sanitation in a sustainable manner and, secondly, by participating in the rational and equitableexploitation of pastoral and agricultural resources while protecting and preserving ecosystems.

1.2 Principles of the water policy

The water policy consists of twelve major founding principles, which govern all actions carried outconcerning the sustainable development of water resources and services throughout the periodcovered by the Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management up to 2020. Theseprinciples are listed below.

Principle 1 Water in the nation’s public domain:

“All water resources within the boundaries of the national territory are in the publicdomain. In this capacity, they form an integral part of the State’s public domain, which isinalienable and imprescriptible” (Article 1,Water Code).

Principle 2 Human health and access to water and sanitation:

The priority that has been defined for the Chadian population’s health requires that theyhave extensive, reliable access to drinking water, hygienic conditions, sanitation, andsufficient, nutritionally balanced food. Water mobilisation must contribute to this priority,while ensuring that no subsectors, notably sanitation and food production, are neglected.

Principle 3 Integrated management and use of water resources to promote sustainable socio-economic development:

Water is a vital resource for the population, the country’s socio-economic developmentand for biodiversity. It must be known, protected and managed in an integrated manner,in terms of both quality and quantity. The State services must continuously improveknowledge of both the water resource (which must be considered to be unitary) andits uses.

Principle 4 Gradual refocusing of the State’s role:

The State’s services must gradually withdraw from construction and maintenanceoperations and refocus on their role as a public utility responsible for monitoring andinspection, as well as for promoting best practices. This must take place gradually, as anational private sector emerges and becomes capable of running these operations ona long-term basis. Nevertheless, “regardless of the method used for managing thedrinking water utility, the State (or the Decentralised Local Authority in the event ofdelegation) shall guarantee smooth operation” (Article 41,Water Code).

Principle 5 Water governance as close as possible to the user:

An integrated system for managing water as close as possible to the end user willgradually be set up as decentralisation progresses, notably based on delegation of thepublic drinking water, pastoral water and sanitation service to the Decentralised LocalAuthorities and of the future devolved government structures.

Principle 6 Institutional framework strengthening:

The functions and obligations of the public and private stakeholders and operators andassociations concerning local water development measures must be clearly identified ina legislatory and regulatory context. Any development action involving the control ofwater, whether national or carried out by an external partner, must fall within theinstitutional and regulatory context of the water sector.

Principle 7 Participation of stakeholders and integration of water subsector policies:

On all territorial levels there must be an institutional consultative mechanism enablingthe main stakeholders, and notably the users, to participate in the design, planning andmonitoring of development measures and the management of hydraulic equipment,water resources and their uses.

Principle 8 A fair, transparent water price:

The water transfer and distribution equipment and the water operation service have acost, which must be known to the users. The proportion of any subsidies must betransparent and known. The real-cost tariff of the public drinking water service must, asa minimum, cover all operating charges and renewal costs for equipment with a servicelife of less than twenty years. Equity must be the rule when fixing the price of thedrinking water service within a homogeneous area. Thus, at a lower level of service, theunit cost of the water service must not exceed that of a higher level of service.

Principle 9 Collecting and sharing information:

The public manager responsible for water shall be obliged to collect and publishinformation on water resources, all their uses and all discharges into the environment.Information on management data subject to control by the public service for drinkingwater, productive water (for agriculture, pasture-land, industry) and sanitation iscollected in the context of a compulsory declaration system, laid down by law. In thiscontext, the public service responsible for water must ensure that this information iscollected, organised and processed to make it accessible, subject to conditions, to asmany users as possible, with help from new technologies.

Principle 10 Water management and environmental protection:

The impacts of economic activity in the water sector and of developing the mobilisationand use of water as a natural resource, must be examined and dealt with from theperspective of protecting the aquatic ecosystems of Chad and the environment ingeneral. The polluter-pays principle must be applied.

Principle 11 Strengthening subregional cooperation on shared water:

Water must be a source of regional economic integration. Managing the use of sharedwater resources and protecting their quality must be agreed through subregionalconsultation and carried out in accordance with the agreements signed with the existingbasin authorities.

Principle 12 National capacity-building is necessary to promote the sustainable management of water:

Capacity-building at national, regional and local levels is necessary in order to promotethe sustainable use of water resources. Each project implemented in one of thesubsectors must include a significant proportion of capacity-building at national, regionaland local levels. In addition, partnerships between regional and international traininginstitutes and Chadian institutes will be encouraged.


1.3 Specific objectives

On the basis of the assessment-diagnosis and previous experience and in accordance with theMillennium Declaration, a number of objectives specific to the issue of water in Chad are listed in theparagraphs below.

Water resources and the environment

� Preserve and protect water resources and the environment by implementing study programmescovering several years in order to obtain, by 2020, in-depth knowledge of the mechanismsthrough which the aquifer systems and basins of Chad function and interrelate.

Access to drinking water and sanitation

� Halve the proportion of people in Chad without access to drinking water by 2015. This involvesreaching or exceeding, by 2015, a sustainable access rate of 60% in village areas, 60% in towns ofmore than 2000 inhabitants located in the non-concessionary area, and 70% in the urban area ofthe concessionary sector.

� By 2020, to have provided a level of access to sanitation and application of environmental healthmeasures compatible with progress made in terms of access to drinking water for at least 50%of the population.

Pastoral water supply

� Double the number of permanent pastoral water points in order, firstly, to rationalise theexploitation of pastoral resources and promote development of pastureland and, secondly, toimprove stock-rearers’ standard of living.

Agricultural water supply

� Promote and improve food security through the sustained development of natural resources,with the objective of developing 100 000 additional hectares of irrigated land by 2020.

1.4 Subsectoral strategies

1.4.1 Strategic components of drinking water

In the drinking water field, five strategic components for reaching the objectives have been formulated.They are:

Strategic component 1: Improving drinking water supplies to village and semi-urban populationsby constructing water supply systems

To improve drinking water supplies in village areas, the following strategy willbe implemented: for the period 2000-2010, the notion of equity of accessto water will be promoted by giving priority to equipping villages of300 people or more, whereas between 2011 and 2020 the number ofwater points will be increased by building tapping structures in villages withless than 300 inhabitants. In semi-urban water supplies, in the non-concessionary area, equipment requiring investments which are modest yettangible and feasible in the short term will be favoured.

Strategic component 2: Strengthening the legal and regulatory frameworkStrengthening the legal and regulatory framework involves passing thevarious decrees of application of the Water Code on one hand, and settingup a regulatory framework encouraging the creation of Water PointManagement Committees, user associations (populations), and small-scaleprovider associations (mechanics, hand pump repair men, etc.), regional andnational federations of users and small-scale providers and privatecompanies on the other hand. This regulatory context will be defined onthe basis of existing laws governing the right to form associations and createprivate companies. It could be improved if necessary by passing new lawsspecific to the water sector.


Strategic component 3: Capacity-building to promote the efficient monitoring and managementof drinking water supply equipment

Implementing this strategy consists in developing and disseminatinginformation, education and training programmes aimed at populations,Water Point Management Committee members, users’ associations, small-scale provider associations and any other village associations, notablywomens’ associations and national consultants, NGOs, and otherassociations of social facilitators working in the field of drinking water. Inaddition, specific training programmes will be developed to strengthen smallprivate companies such as national engineering consultants, small-scaleprovider associations and cooperatives working to build wells andboreholes and manufacture local pumping equipment and companiesinvolved in distributing, maintaining and servicing pumping equipment andcomponents. Management programmes will also be developed anddispensed to the managers of the various users’ associations.

Strategic component 4: Supporting the emergence of an organisational framework promotinglocal management and maintenance of drinking water supply systems

This strategic approach consists in creating and strengthening local waterpoint and pumping equipment management structures, encouraging privateinitiative, supporting stakeholders in the field and, lastly, promoting access tovarious funding sources.

Strategic component 5: Supporting the public water service delegation process

In all towns, reforms aimed at decentralising administrative services areunderway. The water services should be among the first responsibilities tobe taken on by Decentralised Local Authorities (DLA). “Mini-DWS”,embryonic drinking water supply networks, are being or to be created inthe non-concessionary area and even in the concessionary area. Theadministration responsible for water will have to help the DLAs with thispromising work. They must be prepared in order to perpetuate theinvestments and ensure infrastructure sustainability.

1.4.2 Strategic components of pastoral water supply

In the pastoral water supply field, five strategic components have been formulated to reach theobjectives. These are:

Strategic component 1: Distribution of pastoral water supply structures in accordance withlivestock water needs, taking into account the carrying capacities of thepastures

Water supply structures for pastoral use are mainly concentrated in thewestern part of the country along a strip running north to south, with thedensity of pastoral water points decreasing towards the east. Therefore, theaim of this strategy is to distribute the structures evenly throughout theadministrative units of Chad. However, before this strategy can beimplemented, significant input is required to update the existing inventories,or else create new ones, in order to assess the availability of fodderresources and livestock numbers more accurately. This knowledge will beused to increase the density of the modern water point network forpastoral use according to the criteria that best reflect the actual situationand needs of the agropastoral community.


Strategic component 2: Equipping stock-rearers’ migratory routes and traditional trading routeswith water points

The present strategy only concerns migrating stock-rearers as they aremoving around. It mainly aims to equip the stock-rearers’ migratory routesand trading routes with sufficient water points to guarantee water suppliesto all annual and exceptional pastoral movements.

Strategic component 3: Strengthening the legal and regulatory framework by adding lawsgoverning the various pastoral and agropastoral uses to the Water Code

The notion of the migratory stock-rearer, an age-old tradition that still liveson today in the extensive stock-rearing systems of Chad, is completelyoverlooked in the Water Code. Therefore, to the notion of water user withrights and duties in relation to a particular place and at well-defined periodsof time, it is necessary to add the notions of water access points andtemporary user-operator, claiming large volumes of water for his family andanimals. The aim is therefore to improve the Water Code so as to take theneeds of the agropastoral community into account.

Strategic component 4: Strengthening the institutional framework by clarifying the responsibilitiesof the various services involved in developing and managing pastoralresources

The aim is to clarify responsibilities, through suitable laws and by setting upa “consultative mechanism” grouping together not just the differentinstitutional stakeholders but also the donors and all other stakeholders, toharmonise each person’s actions in the field of pastoral water supply.

Strategic component 5: National capacity-building

The aim is to strengthen the various services involved in managing andmonitoring pastoralism and water resources, as well as the stock-rearersand national operators involved in pastoral water supply (NGOs,associations, private structures, etc.).

1.4.3 Strategic components of agricultural water supply

Four subsectoral strategies have been developed for agricultural water supply. These are:

Strategic component 1: Developing and exploiting in a rational and sustainable manner the soilpotential that is currently under- or unexploitedThere is a great deal of soil potential remaining to be developed, especiallyon the great flood spreading plains of the river Salamat, the flood plains ofthe rivers Chari and Logone, and around the many lowlands of the Sudanianzone and the mountain catchment basins. The aim is to carry out the studiesrequired to develop this soil potential, which is as yet under- or unexploited.

Strategic component 2: Rehabilitating or bringing back into operation existing irrigation areasThe aim is to make certain existing irrigation schemes operational, on thebasis of economic and profitability criteria.

Strategic component 3: Drawing up and implementing a policy of training and support for peasantorganisations and the different stakeholdersIt is urgent to train and organise the farmers across the entire country.Special attention will be paid to strengthening and managing the peasantorganisations. Training and support programmes to organise the productionchains are also essential if the subsector is to function correctly. Programmeswill have to be drawn up and dispensed to the main participants: producers,farmers, transporters, traders, etc. Support and strengthening programmesfor institutional and parapublic stakeholders will also be developed andimplemented through technical assistance and external training geared totheir requirements.


Strategic component 4: Strengthening the legislatory and regulatory framework

Strengthening the legislatory and regulatory framework involvespromulgating the Water Code decrees and drawing up new lawsconcerning land-related aspects, geared to the current agricultural watersupply context. These new laws will have to fall within the widerperspective of regional development if they are to reduce conflicts betweenland farmers and stock-rearers as well as promoting sustainabledevelopment of rural areas.

1.4.4 Strategic components in the water resources field

Three major strategies have been formulated in the water resources field. These are:

Strategic component 1: Improving knowledge of resources by performing studies and setting upmonitoring and forecasting systems

The aim is to acquire the basic data that are essential for sustainabledevelopment of water resources, in order to derive maximum social andeconomic benefit from these resources. The aim is also to set up reliableforecasting systems that will contribute to improving food production andprovide a means of preventing and guarding against water-induced damage.


The aim is to develop national capacities at central, regional and local levels,to promote the integrated management and sustainable development ofwater resources while protecting the environment.


The aim is to promulgate the decrees of the Water Code, notablyconcerning declaratory aspects, discharges into the environment,abstraction and uses.

1.4.5 Strategic components in sanitation

Five strategies have been developed in sanitation. These are:

Strategic component 1: Gradual implementation of individual sanitation in urban and semi-urbanareas

Given that the situation with regard to sanitation is mediocre and, takingaccount of existing resources, both human and financial, the proposedstrategy consists in the gradual and realistic implementation of individualsanitation in urban and semi-urban areas by calling on small firms, buildinglatrines that are adapted to the different contexts, recommendingincentives, setting up community excreta collection systems and trainingpopulations in basic health measures.

Strategic component 2: Gradual installation of urban and semi-urban sanitation facilities in themain towns of Chad

Urban sanitation facilities (stormwater sewerage, wastewater collection andtreatment network, waste disposal systems, etc.) are practically non-existentin the largest towns of Chad, and totally non-existent in the other urbancentres. The aim is therefore gradually to equip the urban centres of Chadwith this infrastructure, placing priority on starting with the four largesttowns (N’Djaména, Moundou, Sarh and Abéché).


Strategic component 3: Promoting basic village sanitation measures by disseminating healtheducation programmes and building low-cost basic sanitation facilities

Health education programmes will be developed and disseminated amongthe village populations as well as in schools and health centres. Theseprogrammes will focus on faeces-related hazards, personal hygiene,environmental health, proper use of water, simple water disinfection andtraditional water point sanitation techniques, and drinking waterconservation techniques (transport and storage).

Basic sanitary infrastructure, such as traditional pit latrines (sandplat),ventilated improved pit latrines, filtering wells for wastewater, and areas fordumping household and other waste will be developed in villages. Thefuture village water supply programmes will be used as a framework forbuilding this infrastructure and for disseminating the health educationprogrammes.


The aim is to develop capacities at all levels: national, regional and local. Inparticular, it is necessary to strengthen and encourage district organisationsto take charge of managing and promoting the subsector. This isaccompanied by the desire to develop an economy of small privateentrepreneurs, which may be modest but is perfectly suited to the actualnature of the resources that can be mobilised.


A large number of institutional stakeholders are involved in sanitation,carrying out actions in a non-concerted manner. In addition, there are few,if any regulations concerning the different aspects of sanitation. Thesesolutions are relieving the stakeholders of responsibility and leading tochronic under-funding of the sector. The aim is therefore to define the rolesand responsibilities of each stakeholder within a suitable regulatoryframework.

2 MACROECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND ANALYSIS OF THE WATER SECTORDEVELOPMENT STRATEGY IN LIGHT OF THE IDENTIFIED NEEDS

This macroeconomic analysis is aimed at determining the place of water in the national economy. Itis also aimed at outlining the requirements and the financial conditions necessary to meet theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs). Finally, it assesses the State’s ability to fund the sector inlight of its oil revenue.

The SDEA carried out a macroeconomic analysis in 2001. The results of this analysis showed thatthe State’s annual income from oil revenue would be between FCFA 40 billion and 80 billion forthe period 2003-2015, i.e., an average FCFA 60 billion per year.This study was carried out on thebasis of a sale price of US$20.00 per barrel of crude oil.

Moreover, in order to remain consistent with the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) and at theGovernment’s request, the present economic analysis is mainly based on the report on themacroeconomic framework of the National Poverty Reduction Strategy. This is given in appendix 2.


2.1 Economic forecasts

2.1.1 Analysis of the long-term performance of the Chadian economy

GDP growth

Oil exports, expected to start in 2004, will cause a short-term leap in GDP growth. In 2004, initialproduction will represent 36 percent of the total GDP growth rate, increasing GDP by 42.4%. In thecurrent scenario, oil exploitation should decrease from the initial 2004 peak by 0.7% per year between2005 and 2009, before falling more sharply by 14% per year thereafter. This means that the share ofoil in GDP will decrease rapidly, by 31% between 2004 and 2009, and then 11% between 2010 and2015. This growth is not evenly spread across all sectors of activity.

Primary sector GDP is expected to grow by 4.2% per year between 2003 and 2015. During theperiod of review, the added value of the food crop sector should increase by 5.6%. Cash cropproduction should grow by an average 4.6% per year, while the stock-rearing subsector should recordaverage growth of 2.9% per year.

In the secondary sector, GDP is expected to increase by 11% per year between 2003 and 2015 (oilexploitation falls within this sector). Excluding oil production, this sector should grow by 8% per year.

Lastly, in the tertiary sector, GDP is forecast to grow by 6.5% between 2003 and 2015. During thesame period, it is assumed that income per inhabitant will increase by 5% per year.

Balance between savings and investments

On the basis of these GDP growth forecasts, investments should increase by 18% of GDP on averagebetween 2003 and 2015 and should be divided almost equally between the private and public sectors.At the same time, national savings will increase from 9.5% of GDP in 2003 to 13.3% in 2015, i.e., anannual average of 11%.

Debt

Within the macroeconomic context of the poverty reduction strategy, the debt sustainabilityindicators should improve substantially in the medium term thanks to oil exploitation and exports andto debt relief under the HIPC initiative.

Total foreign loans will decrease gradually from 172 million dollars in 2003 to 90 million dollars in2015. During the same period, the ratio of net discounted value of debts to exports will decreasefrom 266% to nearly 50% between 2005 and 2009 before gradually increasing again to 120% in 2015,and then 137% around 2020. The ratio of debt service to exports will fall from 15.3% in 2003 tonearly 2.6% between 2004 and 2009, and then to 7.2% in 2015.

Balance of payments

The current balance of payments deficit is expected to fall from its present high level of 46.7% of GDPin 2002-2003 to 8.6% in 2004 with the start of oil exploitation. The deficit will amount to an average3.4% of GDP from 2005 to 2009 and increase with the drop in oil exports to around 5.2% in 2015.

Poverty reduction

With an annual growth forecast of about 3.5%, poverty in Chad could be halved by 2015.


2.1.2 The oil economy

Oil revenue

The State’s revenue from oil exploitation is expected to amount to some FCFA 118 billion per year.The structure of this State oil revenue is as follows:

� royalties;

� extraction tax;

� pipeline tax;

� COTCO dividends;

� TOTCO dividends.

However, the depreciation expenses taken on by the consortium and TOTCO will largely exceedtaxable income during the first few years of production. The proportion of revenue granted to theState will consist mainly of production royalties. In this context, the total budget deficit (excludingdonations) is expected to plunge from 14.1% of GDP in 2002-2003 to 3.5% of GDP during theperiod 2004-2015. Between 2015 and 2020, this deficit will remain below 3% of GDP, in spite of thereduction in oil revenues. During the same period, this basic primary budget balance should alsoimprove, rising from a deficit of 2.7% of GDP in 2002-2003 to an excess of 1.6% of GDP during theperiod 2004-2015.

Law 001/PR/99 of 11 January 1999 governing oil revenue management orders all oil revenue to beplaced under the general budget and all direct revenues (royalties and dividends) to be allocated tothe following expenditure:

� 10% to the fund for future generations;

� remaining 90% broken down as follows:� 72% to operating expenditure and equipment in priority sectors (health, education,

infrastructure and rural development, including water);

� 13.5% to general operating expenditure;

� 4.5% to expenses relating to the Doba basin oil project.

There are currently no programmes allocating this revenue to one sector or another. Hence theimportance of the proposals that can be made now for using oil revenue in one sector rather thananother. However, an attempt can be made to estimate the approximate share of state revenue to bedevoted to water, for example.

Table 28 indicates the structure of the Public Investment Programme (PIP) by main sector, as apercentage of the donor total or the State total. Table 29 indicates the amounts in millions of FCFA.



Table 28: Public Investment Programme as a % of the donor and State totals

2001 2002 2003 2004

Sectors Donor State Donor State Donor State Donor State

Agro-Sylvo-Pastoral 25.7 31.2 19.6 27.0 15.4 28.2 16.3 30.3

Agriculture 11.0 25.6 9.2 23.7 7.0 24.7 8.2 24.8

Stock-rearing 1.2 2.0 1.9 0.0 2.2 0.0 1.5 0.0

Environment 13.5 3.6 8.5 3.3 6.2 3.5 6.5 5.4

Mines, Industry, Energy 28.8 3.9 21.5 1.1 18.0 1.4 14.8 1.7

Infrastructure/transport 29.5 38.0 32.1 39.3 43.5 31.3 44.0 26.5

Roads/airports 27.3 30.8 30.6 34.7 42.0 30.6 42.5 25.1

Telecommunications 0.1 1.1 0.1 2.3 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.4

Town planning 2.1 6.1 1.4 2.3 1.4 0.0 1.1 0.0

Human resources 10.9 12.7 18.6 22.3 17.6 27.3 18.3 25.0

Education 1.6 5.5 7.0 3.1 7.4 6.4 9.3 5.5

Health 8.0 6.4 10.0 18.6 9.7 19.6 8.4 19.5

Social affairs 1.2 0.9 1.7 0.6 0.5 1.3 0.6 0.0

Youth and sport 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Integrated development 3.8 6.6 4.2 6.7 3.9 8.4 5.1 7.1

Development assistance 1.4 7.6 4.0 3.6 1.5 3.6 1.6 9.5

TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

T.DON./T.DON.+T.STATE 92.4 94.9 95.6 95.9

T.STATE./T.DON.+T.STATE 7.6 5.1 4.4 4.1

Source: PIP

Table 29: Public Investment Programme in millions of FCFA

Year 2001 2002 2003 2004

Source Donor State Donor State Donor State Donor State

TOTAL 78 278 6 432 196 262 10 500 166 728 7 724 116 607 5 047

Source :PIP

The following observations may be made concerning these tables:

� The Ministry of Environment and Water is responsible for water. In 2002, the MEE’s investmentbudget was 8.5% from donors and 3.3% from the State;

� between 2002 and 2004, investments from donors are set to fall (6.5% in 2004) and Stateinvestments are set to rise (5.4%);

� it should be noted that the MEE manages other sectors in addition to water, which also haveinvestment needs.

The first question to be answered is by how much the Public Investment Programme (PIP) willincrease following the rise in State revenues. The structure of the State budget is currently as follows(2002, in millions of FCFA):

Operation 123 154 31.7%

Total investment 264 804 68.2%

Total 387 958 100%

Counterpart funds 10 500 2.7%

Other 6 747 1.7%

External resources 196 262 50.6%

The proportion of State-funded investment (counterpart funds) is less than 3% of the total budget,which amounts to about FCFA 400 billion, including foreign aid. For about 15 years, the State willreceive about FCFA 118 billion more per year compared to current levels of expenditure:operation, i.e., FCFA 123 billion, and investment excluding aid, i.e., FCFA 10 billion.

The proportion of oil revenue (royalties and dividends alone) devoted to priority expenditure isabout 55% of total revenue (or, applied to FCFA 118 billion per year, about FCFA 65 billion). Part ofthis amount will be devoted to priority operating costs (e.g., healthcare workers’ salaries). Assuminga 70/30 distribution of oil revenues between operating costs and investment excluding aid, whichwould be a major shift in favour of investment, there would be about FCFA 20 billion per year to beshared out between the sectors. The proportion for the environment (in large part for water) willbe 5.4% in 2004. Doubling it would take it to FCFA 2 billion per year. The proportion of oilrevenues destined for other sectors (agriculture and stock-rearing) to be used for water supplystructures must be added. These amounts are difficult to evaluate. One billion per year seems tobe a reasonable guess, i.e., FCFA 3 billion in total.

Spin-offs

The spin-offs of oil exploitation for the Chadian economy, excluding those passing through the publicfinances, are difficult to evaluate. Oil production costs (cumulated over the period 2004-2033) are anestimated 3.768 million US dollars, including 1.537 for the pipeline to Cameroon. The remaining2.231 million dollars are therefore payable by Chad, i.e., the equivalent of about FCFA 1.561 billionover about 30 years (contrary to the tonnages extracted, operating costs are spread fairly evenly overthe period, so the reduction in quantities extracted will not significantly reduce costs). Roughlyspeaking, operating costs are about FCFA 50 billion per year. These are the costs that are likely tobring about a spin-off effect, given that the revenues are distributed to the Chadian government (theeffect of which is analysed elsewhere), to the consortium or to the Cameroonian government.Consortium revenues will not necessarily be spent in Chad.

It is therefore through operating costs that spin-offs are likely to be produced for the Chadianeconomy. Imported intermediate consumption and expatriates’ salaries probably represent a largeproportion. Goods and services and Chadian salaries are not likely to exceed 20%, or about FCFA 2.5billion per year.

In a good year for oil exploitation, oil GDP may represent 30% of total GDP. Oil GDP is the sum ofthe following factors:

� consortium profits, which do not remain in Chad;

� salaries of expatriates, few of whom remain for very long in Chad;

� Chadians’ salaries, which are low;

� the State’s oil revenues, which are discussed elsewhere.

Therefore, oil resources should not be expected to have a significant effect other than on publicrevenue. Public investment is the essential lever for development of the non-oil sector during theperiod of oil exploitation.

To conclude, on the current basis of oil revenue distribution, the State will only investFCFA 3 billion1 in the water sector over the next few years.

Therefore, to fund the priority water sector, it is urgent to define a new key fordistributing oil revenues on one hand, and for the minister responsible for water to obtainthe means and resources that will enable him to manage and monitor the budgetsrequired to fund the sector on the other hand.


1 The economic study carriedout by the SDEA concludedthat the State could onlyinvest FCFA 1.5 billion peryear in the water sector. Inany case, the two studiesmake it quite clear thatexternal resources arenecessary to fund the watersector, which needs anestimated FCFA 23 billion per year for the period2000-2020.


2.2 Strategy for mobilising funds

The two main funding sources to supplement State investments will be international aid and users.Taking a longer-term perspective, the private sector is also a potential source of funds for the watersector.

In its role as supporter and main mobiliser of investments, it is the duty of the State to create aframework which will be conducive to national consultation, coordination and regulation in order tostrengthen a dynamic partnership with the various donors.

There are a number of decrees and orders concerning users: decree 249/PR/MEE/02 defining the termsand conditions for temporarily transferring the State’s powers in terms of delegating the public drinkingwater service to the Decentralised Local Authorities; order no. 029/MEE/DG/2002 defining thestandard framework of the special contract for delegating the Public Drinking Water Service to a Users’Association or Private Farmer, and order no. 030/MEE/DG/02 governing the conditions for setting up,organising and operating Drinking Water Users’ Associations (DWUA). In addition to clarifying theregulatory and institutional context, they make it possible to begin taking action in terms of localmanagement of the equipment and funds from selling drinking water and (indirectly) productive water.The following sections analyse the ability of the population to pay for both “social” water and“productive” water.

2.2.1 Ability of the population to pay the cost of water

In theory, users’ incomes increase in line with GDP, which represents distributed income (salaries,profits and taxes). If GDP triples by 2020 this will be truly reflected in the Chadians' incomes since,by then, the proportion of oil GDP (mainly oil companies’ income) in total GDP is low. This is sufficientto be able to envisage developing the water sector with partial funding from the users.

Users’ ability to pay for water can be measured by comparing the cost of water with their incomeand what they already pay (for example, FCFA 10 per 20-litre container). The following calculationsare performed in constant francs, i.e. in real terms. Discounting is not taken into consideration, giventhe current low interest rates. These calculations are cost calculations. The price billed depends on theprice policy implemented by the Users’ Association management committee or the water company.

2.2.1.1 Village water supply

A borehole fitted with a hand pump serves 400 inhabitants on average. The investment cost anddepreciation of this equipment is presented below:

Description Cost Service life Depreciation

Borehole FCFA 7 million 30 years FCFA 230 000/year

Pump (HP) FCFA 1 million 10 years FCFA 100 000/year

Considering personnel costs (stand-pipe managers, keepers: FCFA 240 000/year) and servicing andmaintenance costs (FCFA 100 000/year), the estimated total cost of the borehole excludingdepreciation is FCFA 350 000/year, or FCFA 580 000/year including depreciation.

On this basis, it is then possible to calculate the cost per inhabitant, per household and per m3 of water.Thus, the cost per inhabitant, for a village of 400 people, excluding borehole depreciation, isFCFA 900/year, and FCFA 1500/year including depreciation.

The cost per household (7 people) is FCFA 6000/year excluding borehole depreciation, andFCFA 10 000/year including depreciation. The cost per m3 is based on a drinking water consumptionrate of 15 litres per day per inhabitant, which would appear to be a maximum figure given the factthat needs for non-drinking water can be met through access to least-cost traditional water points.This makes 5500 l/inhab./year or 2200 m3 per year for 400 inhabitants; this leads to a cost of FCFA160/m3 excluding borehole depreciation and FCFA 260/m3 including borehole depreciation.

Assessing the ability of the population to pay

Two different points of view may be taken, depending on whether the cost per m3 or the total costper inhabitant is used as a reference.

Cost per m3

The cost per m3 of water obtained above must be compared with the price per m3 of water paid ofFCFA 10 per 20 litre container, i.e., FCFA 500/m3. This price, which the users seem to have accepted,easily covers the cost of water in village areas (borehole/HP). Therefore, the populations would beable to pay for water, even in the event that the State hands over its responsibility for funding therenewal of boreholes.

Total cost

The total cost is FCFA 6000 or 10 000/household/year, depending on whether the borehole is funded.This figure must be compared with income in rural areas, around FCFA 80 000/year per inhabitant,i.e., FCFA 550 000/year per household. Spending on water therefore represents 1% to 2% of thehousehold income. Taking monetary income in rural areas, which is around 35% of total income, i.e.,FCFA 190 000/year per household, spending on water therefore represents 3% to 5% of thehousehold’s monetary income.

The monetary proportion of rural populations’ incomes is estimated on the basis of their spendingstructure. It is assumed that the populations are self-sufficient in terms of food and that non-foodspending is paid for. The figures used are taken from an ECOSIT study.

Conclusion

Households appear to be able to pay for the cost of water. The problem with village water suppliesprobably lies elsewhere, i.e. in water management in the wider sense, including the creation of a spareparts sales network.

It should be noted that some of the projects being envisaged propose a water service of a betterquality but also at a higher cost. In this case, the following are billed to the user :

� water quality inspection twice a year ;

� after-sales service;

� a FCFA 40 fee which goes to the Water Development Fund;

� spare parts.

The cost of water is therefore higher than the figures proposed above. The question is whether theusers are interested in a centralised service which is high-quality, but also cumbersome and costly.

Moreover, taking a long-term perspective, the creation of family drinking water points (each familyfunds its own drinking water point consisting of locally-manufactured equipment) could represent arelatively large source of private investment in the sector.

2.2.1.2 Water supplies in urban and semi-urban areas

Non-concessionary area

The estimated investment, operating, servicing and maintenance cost, as well as the depreciation costsof the basic supply units (BSUs), are given in the following table:

Table 30: Cost of a basic supply unit

Description Investment cost Service life Depreciation

Solar BSU FCFA 70 million 20 years FCFA 3.5m/year

Thermal BSU FCFA 50 million 20 years FCFA 2.5m/year

Sundry expenses Personnel: FCFA 850 000/yearRepairs: FCFA 600 000/yearExpenses specific to thermal BSUs: FCFA 2 million

Source: SDEA 2001


Using the figures in table 30 and considering that one BSU2 supplies 2000 people on average, the costper m3 of water in the non-concessionary area excluding depreciation is around FCFA 130/year perinhabitant with a solar unit and FCFA 200/year with a thermal unit. Including depreciation, the costper m3 of water is therefore FCFA 580/year/inhab. for a solar unit and FCFA 560/year/inhab. for athermal unit.

Concessionary area

In the concessionary area, the cost of extending a network in a suburban area (200 additional metresof network for 20 households) is about FCFA 400 000 per household. This must be compared withthe investment cost of a thermal BSU (the network being thermal), which is 50 million for 300households or FCFA 170 000 per household. However, the comparison cannot finish here since thenetwork cannot be extended indefinitely. A rough estimate, based on STEE data, gives FCFA 600 000per household, including the network and the water production associated with extending thenetwork.

The average cost per m3 of water delivered by STEE in N’Djaména was FCFA 180/m3 in 1995.However, this figure is an underestimate since, according to STEE’s trading account, depreciation andprovisions are relatively low: about 13% of the total cost. A more reasonable estimate is thereforeabout FCFA 160/m3, i.e., between that of the solar and thermal BSU.

The 30-year depreciation of a FCFA 600 000 investment for a household of 7 people each consuming35 litres of water per day (the household consumes 90 m3 per year) is about 200 FCFA/m3.

The total cost of STEE water is therefore an estimated FCFA 360/m3.

The price of STEE water

The current price of STEE is FCFA 105/m3 for the first 15 m3 bracket, which easily meets the needsof a large family consuming a large amount of water (excluding garden-watering). The price at thestand-pipe is about FCFA 300/m3 and that of the water-carriers is about FCFA 4500/m3.

Therefore, the water service provided by a connection (tap in the home) is by far the best and thecheapest. For example, a family of 7 people consuming 5 litres of water per day and per person, orabout 1 m3 of water per month, pays amounts that vary widely depending on whether it buys thiswater from a small water vendor, or obtains it from a stand-pipe or even a connection:

� purchased from carrier — FCFA 4500/month/household;

� purchased at stand-pipe — FCFA 300/month/household;

� connection — FCFA 105/month/household.

It may appear as though households that purchase water from a small vendor are willing to pay muchmore than FCFA 105 per m3 to have tap water. However, less than 10% of the urban population issupplied via a connection.

For efficiency and fairness reasons, it is difficult to maintain the water price at its present level, whileits total cost is around FCFA 400/m3.

The policy combining a simultaneous gradual increase in the water price to its actual cost ofFCFA 400/m3 and an increase in the number of connections is realistic because it is profitable for STEEand advantageous for the poor, who still do not have access to a connection. Small consumers, thosewho buy water from a carrier, would benefit with this hypothesis.

For various reasons, if increasing the water price were not desirable, it could be possible to subsidisenew connections. This would create an equitable situation with the rural sector, where new waterpoint investments are subsidised in full.

To increase the water price to FCFA 260/m3 instead of FCFA 400/m3, half of the depreciation of theconnections would have to be compensated, corresponding to a subsidy of about FCFA 300 000 perconnection.


2 BSU: basic supply unitconsisting of a mini

drinking water supplynetwork with 2 to 3stand-pipes, and noprivate connection.

This will have to take place in stages. Moreover, increasing the water price to bring it into line with itscost means increasing the average water price using the different brackets, which will have to be kept.The lower bracket should be limited to a much smaller cubic volume than at present, since it leads tothe resale of water to the detriment of STEE.

Conclusion

In the projects that allow for equipment adapted to the different contexts, checks are carried out toensure that the end user is able to pay the “tariff at the apparent actual cost of the public drinkingwater service”, as stipulated by the water policy. As a minimum, this tariff must cover all operatingexpenses and the costs of renewing equipment with a service life of less than twenty years. Thisprinciple is yet to be applied fairly in the urban and suburban areas and in small non-concessionarytowns, as has been the case for a long time in the rural sector, where the tariffing principles of thewater policy are applied.

2.2.1.3 Pastoral water supply

Building a sufficient number of wells to cover the entire territory that is of use to stock-rearers wouldcost FCFA 100 billion (see action plan). These installations require little in the way of servicing(cleaning, repairs to the edges) and this can be carried out by stock-rearers’ associations. Each wellcosts about FCFA 20 million for a period of 20 years. Its annual renewal cost, for a 30-year servicelife, is about FCFA 650 000.

There are about 1500 modern pastoral wells. There are plans to build another 4500. It costs aboutFCFA 4 billion per year to renew the 6000 wells for livestock numbers of around 14 million TLU,representing 300 FCFA/TLU/year.

Therefore, the stock-rearers can afford to pay for their water. The problem lies in collecting payments,with practically the only means being through the tax system, in the form of a tax on sales.

The low cost of pastoral water supply per TLU (although the total figure of 100 billion seems high)means that priority must be placed on investments in this field as part of the diversification of thepost-oil economy, provided that two problems have been studied: actual knowledge of livestocknumbers and fodder resources, and competition with crop-growing.

2.2.1.4 Agricultural water supply

Private initiatives (small-scale irrigation and small private irrigation areas) manage to cover their costs.

The very high cost of large irrigation areas makes it impossible for users to pay for them.

It is not easy to assess the effects of other agricultural schemes (flood-recession farming andcatchment areas). The estimated cost varies depending on the type of scheme between FCFA 300000 and 1 500 000 per hectare for a yield of one tonne per hectare, i.e., FCFA 100 to 500 per kilo,representing an income of FCFA 100 000 per hectare before payment of any inputs.

If these schemes are assumed to have a service life of fifteen years, the renewal cost varies betweenFCFA 20 000 and 100 000/ha. If inputs and the uncertainty governing the actual yield of land givenover to crops are taken into account, it is difficult for the beneficiaries to pay the total cost of water.Identifying the beneficiaries is a further difficulty.

2.2.2 Mobilising international aid

Cooperation between the Government and the donors hinges on the objectives defined in theframework of the Geneva-IV Round Table meeting (October 1998 - follow-up meeting in November2000) and the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP). Nearly all of the external financial needs forthe different sectors defined during the Geneva IV Round Table meeting were covered bycommitments made by the different donors, notably 369 million US dollars for infrastructure. Thedonors have yet to be mobilised, to complement internal fund mobilisation (users and public finances)for the priority water sector on the basis of the SDEA document, its action plan and its jointperformance-monitoring plan, presented below. The SDEA includes the creation of a coordinationand monitoring mechanism after the donors’ meeting. At institutional level, the creation of a host of


“steering committees” for each project will be avoided as far as possible. It is advisable to transformall steering committees into “operational management committees”, in principle by sector, withparticipation from the donor(s) concerned depending on the administrative procedures to be definedcase by case. On the other hand, as regards the strategic monitoring of major projects (generallyintersectoral in the field of water), the intention is to use a single public consultative mechanism to bemade common to all projects, in order to remain generally consistent with the country’s water policyand national strategies. This consultative mechanism, to be used right from the project inceptionstage, is already defined and operational. At intersectoral technical level it is the CTIE, and for anyproject on a national scale and in the national interest it is the CNGE, as stipulated by Prime Minister’sdecree. This mechanism is flexible and light, because it includes a CTIE meeting every two months aswell as the possibility, if necessary, of specific meetings of a smaller CTIE. In principle, the CNGE onlymeets twice per year.

On the basis of this consultation strategy for effective mobilisation, in addition to internal resourcesthat can be mobilised, a great deal of effort is therefore required and expected from internationalaid for the next twenty years, as indicated below and in the detailed action plans.

2.3 Water sector funding strategy

In the following sections, the tables presenting “current and proposed projects” for the differentsubsectors are drawn from the compilation of action plans by major theme given in chapter 4 of theSDEA.

2.3.1 Urban water supply

A distinction must be made between the concessionary area (STEE) and the non-concessionary area.Planned new works will first have to involve improving the existing service, the quantity and regularityof supplies to users and extending the number of individuals supplied by connection and stand-pipe.After this, it will be possible to envisage improving water quality and extending networks on asustainable basis. Table 31 below summarises the proposed urban water supply projects.

Concessionary area

Appendix 3 of the contract delegating management to the Vivendi/Dietsman manager is a long-terminvestment plan stipulating that the State and the concessionary operator (which are currently thesame thing, given that the State is the sole owner of the STEE for the time being) shall provide someFCFA 13 billion over a ten-year period, broken down according to the table below:

Investments in billion FCFA

WATER NETWORK 9.35

Upgrading and renewal 5.02

N’Djaména 3.95

Secondary centres 1.01

Extension 4.33

N’Djaména 3.55


WATER PRODUCTION 3.87

N’Djaména 0.61


TOTAL 13.2



Table 31: Ongoing and proposed urban water supply programmes

Type of project No. of InvestmentsPeriod 2000-2010 projects Status FCFA billion

Projects being implemented or with funding obtained

Improvement of supply, non-concessionary area 7 In progress 27.56

Improvement of supply, concessionary area 2 In progress 4.925

Period 2000-2010 (Funding obtained or being obtained) 9 Total 32.485

Projects to be defined and funding to be found for the period 2000-2010

Improvement of supply in the concessionary area 6 Projects to be defined 48.93

Improvement of knowledge of the concessionary area 1 Projects to be defined 10

Strengthening of the institutional, legislatory and regulatory frameworks, national capacity-building 2 Projects to be defined 6.6

Period 2000-2010 (Funding to be found) 9 Total 65.53

Total funding obtained or to be found for urban water supply projects. Period 2000-2010. 98.015


Improvement of supply in the non-concessionary area 9 Projects to be defined 20.5

Improvement of supply in the concessionary area (mini-DWS hypothesis) Projects to be defined 27

Total funding to be found. Period 2011-2020. 47.5

Grand total. Period 2000-2020. 145.515

Source: SDEA 2001

These figures must be compared with the total annual income of STEE of about a billion FCFA.Without external funding of 100% of the cost of the STEE works, this does not appear to be feasiblewith a constant tariff. This external funding looks likely to be obtained soon.

The investment plan stipulates that the FCFA 13 billion will be spread more or less evenly over theten years, i.e., FCFA 1.3 billion per year. However, this funding is not sufficient to improve the supplyrate in line with the objective.

Integrated plans are to be drawn up to study the 11 towns in the concessionary area. These are tospecify the total costs in order to reach a drinking water access target of 70% in 2015. As estimated(and stated in the action plan), the total cost will exceed FCFA 76 billion since the cost of extendingthe network towards the suburban mini-DWS schemes will have to be added. This has not yet beenspecified by the eleven integrated plans for drinking water supply.

From table 31 and the projects to be implemented in the concessionary area, the following need forphysical investments and studies can be deduced:

� FCFA 59 billion during the period 2000-2010, i.e., 5.9 billion per year ;

� FCFA 30 billion during the period 2011-2020, i.e., 3 billion per year.

Non-concessionary area

It thus appears that the development to be reached between 2000 and 2010 will have to take placeusing small units, BSU or mini-DWS schemes, designed to be interconnected at a later date.

2000-2010 is set to be the decade during which as many embryonic networks as possible will becreated in urban districts, based on the village and mini-DWS model. Over the next ten years, newprojects should only concern construction of BSUs or mini-DWS schemes, even in the largest towns.

Given that 250 BSUs are already under construction, the remainder (300 BSUs) are going to bepostponed to the period 2011-2020, together with the connection of the BSUs in the main centresto form a complete DWS network. The cost of this additional investment has not yet beencalculated in relation to what has already been achieved. The cost of one BSU is about FCFA 60million and the cost of connection at about FCFA 250 million which, if accompanying measures areincluded, would lead to the following amounts:

� FCFA 5 billion during the period 2000-2010, i.e., 0.5 billion per year ;

� FCFA 19 billion during the period 2011-2020, i.e., 1.9 billion per year.

These figures must be viewed in light of the funding for non-concessionary towns that has beenobtained over the past four years: 3.5 billion per year. It is therefore realistic to consider achieving theaim of meeting most drinking water needs in non-concessionary urban areas. The construction ofmini-DWS schemes increases the investment cost, but remains financially feasible.

Accompanying measures include:

� implementation of organisational reforms;

� training of local operators;

� training of local entrepreneurs;

� training of microcredit entities;

� promotion of a local activity sector;

� implementation of administrative and legal reforms;

� training of trainers and awareness-raising.

The cost of these measures is included in the list of proposed projects.

It may also be assumed that, given the planned improvement in public revenue, the State cannotwithdraw completely from this part of the urban water supply subsector, which has been relativelyneglected by donors, especially since the State has devoted a great deal of effort to the concessionaryarea by funding the discharge of STEE’s debt, amounting to almost FCFA 5 billion.

2.3.2 Urban sanitation

Urban sanitation hypothesis 1

This hypothesis corresponds to the needs identified above in a deliberate perspective of mobilisingFCFA 88 billion in twenty years for the projects summarised in table 32 below.

The planned investments, FCFA 1.5 billion per year up to 2010 and FCFA 7.4 billion from 2011 to2020, do not have any funding. However, relatively large amounts have been obtained in the past,most recently FCFA 5.5 billion for a main drain network in N’Djaména, Moundou and Sarh.

It may be assumed that donors are prepared to assist a strategy in which the populations pay for thetertiary networks. This refers back to the strategy of sanitation management by local committees.



Table 32: Ongoing and proposed urban sanitation projects



Stormwater drainage for three towns 1 In progress 4.5



Sanitation programme for the four largest towns To be found 7.8

Sanitation programme for the other centres 1.2

Capacity-building and regulatory framework strengthening 5.58

Total funding to be found for urban sanitation. Period 2000-2010. 14.58


Sanitation programme for the four largest towns 10 Projects to be defined 64.6

Sanitation programme for the other centres 2.5

Capacity-building 6.5

Total funding to be found. Period 2011-2020. 10 73.6


Source: SDEA 2001

Urban sanitation hypothesis 2

The project proposed here corresponds to a slightly lower hypothesis than hypothesis 1 in that itbrings about a satisfactory level of sanitation in 2020 in certain fields, i.e. public latrines, and 50%participation in private latrines as well as the development of stormwater and wastewater collectionand treatment from 2005 and, especially, 2010.

The small number of kilometres of drainage channels built each year may seem surprisingly low, butit must be borne in mind that the decision has been taken to build only a few tertiary drainagechannels. Moreover, tertiary channels would be fitted at low points and by district organisations, whowould only be provided with technical assistance.

Application of hypothesis 2 to the four main urban centres

Period 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2020

Included in URP + SW NDJ east outfall Included in URP Included in URP

SW sec. & tert. networks. None 4 km/year 20 km/year

WW collection None None 4 km/year

WW treatment None None Capacity 1 200 000

Sanitation comb. DWS 5 in NDJ None None

Public latrines 1 for 3000 inhab. Addition to 1 Increase with pop.

Dom. water, private tanks 1 for 10 inhab. Increase with pop. Increase with pop.

Sub-total per year FCFA 1.4 billion FCFA 1.1 billion FCFA 6.5 billion

URP: Urban Reference Plan

SW: stormwater

WW: wastewater

The significant increase from 2010 is due to the fact that wastewater will not be treated until thisdate.

Application of hypothesis 2 to the other urban centres

Period 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2020

STEE concessionary towns

SW Sec. and tert. networks None 4 km/year 6 km/year

WW Collection None None None

WW Treatment None None None

Sanitation comb. DWS 1 per year 1 per year 3 per year


Dom. water, private tanks 1 for 10 inhab. Increase with pop. 200 per year

Other urban centres


Dom. water, private tanks 1 for 10 inhab. Increase with pop. 200 per year

Sub-total per year FCFA 78 million FCFA 105 million FCFA 94 million

Total

Period 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2020

Total per year FCFA 1.5 billion FCFA 1.2 billion FCFA 6.6 billion

Private latrines (50%)

Period 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2020

Per year FCFA 27 million FCFA 27 million FCFA 54 million

Accompanying measures

Period 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2020

Per year FCFA 27 million FCFA 27 million FCFA 30 million

Accompanying measures include studies and training. The figures above do not include urban wastedisposal.

The investments stipulated under hypothesis 2 require the mobilisation of FCFA 1.4 billion peryear between now and 2010 and FCFA 6.7 billion per year from 2011 to 2020.

2.3.3 Village water supply

The funding that has been obtained more or less meets the needs in terms of “conventional projects”.Second-generation projects are required to ensure installation sustainability. Table 33 summarises thefunding that is required and that has already been obtained.

Overall, given the amount of funding already obtained, it may appear as though the Millennium goal,i.e., a 60% rate of access to drinking water, will be reached and exceeded in 2015. The goal of an 85%rate of access to drinking water could be reached in 2020 if this rate of investment is maintained.



In view of the funding obtained, the following funds remain to be found to supply the village sector(including accompanying measures):

according to hypothesis 1 (based on an 85% access rate in 2020) - FCFA 103 billion over twentyyears, of which 3.2 billion per year during the period 2000-2010, then 7.1 billion per year from 2011to 2020;

according to hypothesis 2 (based on the Millennium goal of a 60% access rate in 2015 and a rateincrease from 17% to 70% by 2020) - FCFA 42 billion over twenty years, i.e.:

� FCFA 3.2 billion per year (2000-2010), with the goal achieved by 2010;

� FCFA 1 billion per year (2011-2020), with only rehabilitation and capacity-building.

Table 33: Ongoing and proposed village water supply programmes



Improvement of supply 10 In progress 71.95

Improvement of supply 1 In discussion 1



Improvement of supply 7 Projects to be defined 24

Strengthening of the institutional, legislatory and and regulatory frameworks and national capacity-building 2 Projects to be defined 8

Period 2000-2010 (Funding to be found) 9 Total 32

Total funding obtained or to be found for village water supply. Period 2000-2010. 104.95


Improvement of supply 10 Projects to be defined 60.77

Rehabilitation of water supply structures 6 Projects to be defined 7.27

Capacity-building 1 Projects to be defined 3



Source: SDEA 2001

2.3.4 Village sanitation

Table 34 below summarises the village water supply projects and their costs. A sanitation section isto be added systematically to any new village water supply project, which should reduce some of thecosts.

Table 34: Ongoing and proposed rural sanitation programmes



Rural sanitation 1 In progress 0.5



Development of basic rural sanitation infrastructure 10 Projects to be defined 5

Production and dissemination of campaigns on sanitation techniques in village areas and on the relationship between water, hygiene and health 10 Projects to be defined 1

Production of guides to sanitation techniques in rural areas 1 Projects to be defined 0.05

National capacity-building notably at small-scale provider level Projects to be defined 0.5

Total funding to be found for rural sanitation. Period 2000-2010 6.55


Development of basic rural sanitation infrastructure 10 Projects to be defined 7.5

Capacity-building 1 Projects to be defined 1



Source: SDEA 2001

The total funding to be found would amount to FCFA 6.55 billion from 2000 to 2010 and 8.5 billionfrom 2011 to 2020, i.e., about:

� FCFA 0.7 billion per year (2000-2010);

� FCFA 0.9 billion per year (2011-2020).


2.3.5 Pastoral water supply

Table 35 below summarises projects that are required and funding that has already been obtained.

Table 35: Ongoing and proposed pastoral water supply programmes



Construction of PWPs and guaranteed supplies for migration 2 In progress 8.5

Construction of PWPs and guaranteed supplies for migration 3 In discussion 19



Improvement of knowledge and basic data 6 Projects to be defined 1

Construction of PWPs and guaranteed supplies for migration 5 Projects to be defined 49

Strengthening of institutional, legislatory & regulatory frameworks 3 Projects to be defined 0.86

National capacity-building 1 Projects to be defined 0.7


Total funding obtained or to be found for pastoral water supply. Period 2000-2010. 79.06


Construction of PWPs and guaranteed supplies for migration 3 Projects to be defined 32

National capacity-building 2 Projects to be defined 0.55



Source: SDEA 2001

PWP: pastoral water point

The total funding to be found would amount to FCFA 52 billion from 2000 and 2010 and 32 billionfrom 2011 to 2020, i.e.:

� FCFA 5.2 billion per year (2000-2010);

� FCFA 3.2 billion per year (2011-2020).

2.3.6 Agricultural water supply

On the basis of the realistic hypothesis of developing an additional 100 000 hectares with a unit costof FCFA1.5 million/ha for small irrigation areas (bearing in mind that, in view of past experience, nolarge irrigation areas are planned for the next five years), the proposed projects are summarised intable 36.

In Chad, the unit costs are as follows:

Small-scale modern irrigation with total control of local water (less than 10 ha): FCFA 500 000 perha with hand pump, FCFA 700 000/ha with motor pump without any improvement attributable tothe use of PVC pipes and FCFA 1 million/ha in the case of an improved network.

Small irrigation areas: these are extensions of small-scale irrigation. In fact, the distinction betweensmall-scale irrigation and a small irrigation area is subtle and stems from the size of the scheme,between 10 and 30 hectares for a small area. A distinction is made between small village irrigationareas and small private irrigation areas. The average cost is FCFA 1.5 million/ha.



The projections above do not come within the scope of the Integrated Plan for Water Developmentand Management. This is more of an exercise with the aim of attempting to estimate a realistic orderof magnitude for investments (which must be effective and for which funding must be obtained), giventhe absence of an integrated plan for this subsector. This exercise gives a total amount of funding tobe found for agricultural water supply of FCFA 5 billion per year during the period 2000-2020including studies, accompanying measures and developments.

At this point, it must be noted that the SDEA recommends setting up pilot projects, between 2003and 2007, involving a wide range of development schemes focusing on small-scale village irrigation(flood-recession and flood-spreading), followed by a second phase of consolidated in-depthassessments (in 2008) within an integrated plan for village irrigation schemes. This five-year period ofstudy and action would be accompanied by a moratorium on any new investment in large-scaleirrigation schemes.

When the SDEA is updated again in 2008, this will provide an opportunity for making furtherrefinements to the irrigation forecasts on the basis of an integrated plan for irrigation.

Tableau 36: Ongoing and proposed agricultural water supply programmes



Irrigation schemesSupport for peasant organisations 5 In progress 58.22

Knowledge-improvement study 3 In progress 0.3

Irrigation schemesSupport for peasant organisations 2 Starting up 40.87



Irrigation schemesSupport for peasant organisations 4 Projects to be defined 93.57

Improvement of knowledge on the sector 3 Projects to be defined 3.72

Strengthening of the institutional,legislatory and regulatory frameworks 1 Projects to be defined 0.75

National capacity-building 1 Projects to be defined 2


Total funding obtained or to be found for agricultural water supply. Period 2000-2020. 199.43

Source: SDEA 2001

2.3.7 Water resources

Investments in the field of water resources mainly revolve around studies to evaluate resources andinitiatives aimed at improving the Chadian government’s capacity to implement a water andenvironment policy as defined elsewhere. Table 37 presents the projects suggested in this field.

In total, the funding to be found amounts to FCFA 14.57 billion over twenty years, or aboutFCFA 0.73 billion per year during the period 2000-2020 for all surface and groundwater resources.


3 The annual totalinvestments for eachperiod was rounded upto the next unit.

Tableau 37: Ongoing and proposed water resources programmes



Water resource studies 1 Ongoing 0.75

Capacity-building and strengthening of the institutional and regulatory framework in the field of water 2 Ongoing 2

Integrated plan for fisheries 1 Ongoing 0.75

Capacity-building and strengthening of the institutional and regulatory framework in the field of water 2 In discussion 2.87



Improvement of knowledge and monitoring of surface water and its relationship with groundwater 10 Projects to be defined 4.35

Improvement of knowledge and monitoring of groundwater 11 Projects to be defined 6.87

Strengthening of the institutional, legislatory and regulatory framework and national capacity-building 1 Projects to be defined 0.85

Design and implementation of an early warningsystem to detect pollution from oil spills 1 Projects to be defined 1

Capacity-building for monitoring oil exploitation and its impact on water resources 1 Projects to be defined 1.5

Period 2000-2020 (Funding to be found). 22 Total 14.57

Total funding obtained or to be found for water resources. Period 2000-2020 20.94

Source: SDEA 2001

2.4 Summary of investments to be found in the field of water

Table 38 summarises the investments to be found in the field of water in billions of FCFA, accordingto two scenarios.

Table 38: Summary of investments to be found in FCFA billion in the field of water (per year)

2000-2010 2011-2020

Voluntarist Balanced Voluntarist BalancedSubsector scenario scenario scenario scenario

Urban DWS / Concessionary area 5.9 5.9 3 3

Urban DWS / Non-concessionary area 0.5 0.5 1.9 1.9

Urban sanitation 1.5 1.4 7.4 6.7

Agricultural water supply 5 5 5 5

Pastoral water supply 5.2 5.2 3.2 3.2

Village water supply 3.2 3.2 7.1 1

Sanitation for rural areas 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.9

Water resources 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73

Total3 23 23 30 23

Source: SDEA 2001

In the case of the balanced scenario, these investments to be found represent:


� about 16% of public investment throughout the period 2003-2015 (therefore, investmentscompatible with the country’s major economic equilibria as analysed above).

According to the voluntarist scenario, these investments represent:


� about 22% of public investment throughout the period 2003-2015.

It is certain that these scenarios will have to be rebalanced after the first update of the SDEAscheduled for 2008, notably because of the concessionary urban DWS, over which a large amount ofuncertainty still reigns. However, the projects proposed to donors remain relevant in that theyrepresent a guideline integrated plan that will provide a basis for study and more detailedprogramming.

Investments are way behind schedule in the following areas:

� sanitation;

� DWS in the concessionary area;

� agricultural water supply to small village irrigation areas;

� accompanying measures.

The issue of accompanying measures is fundamental. These govern the efficiency and local suitabilityof management and maintenance, and hence the sustainability of the physical investments. Too manyprojects do not include sufficient strengthening of capacities to manage installations. Little effort isdevoted to providing support for surface and groundwater management or for integrated watermanagement.

3 POSSIBLE EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT SCENARIOS AND SCENARIO SELECTED

3.1 Scenarios of possible future changes in drinking water supply

The percentage of the Chadian population (rural, urban and semi-urban) with access to drinking watersupply systems in 2000 was an estimated 23%.

This section analyses possible future changes in the rate of access to drinking water of the entireChadian population during the period 2000-2020. This analysis is based on two parameters: prospectsfor growth in supply as expressed for each domain and the preparation of equipment maintenanceand servicing scenarios.

As an indication, while remaining cautious in predicting future changes in supply and considering theinvestments planned and works in progress, in 2020 the drinking water supply percentage will be 70%in urban and semi-urban areas and 80% in rural areas. Using this hypothesis, three maintenancescenarios are formulated and illustrated in the graph below, illustrating the impact of each scenarioon the drinking water supply rate.


Source: SDEA 2001

Scenario 1: equipment is maintained efficiently so as to ensure that 100% of drinking water supplysystems in urban areas and 80% of equipment in rural areas are operational. The supply rate wouldthus be 71%.

Scenario 2: equipment is maintained moderately such that 90% of drinking water supply systems inurban areas are operational, with only 70% of equipment operating in rural areas. The supply ratewould thus be just over 60%.

Scenario 3: equipment maintenance is very poor, such that 60% of urban equipment and 60% ofurban equipment is operational. The supply rate would thus be 46%.

This graph shows that, with scenario 1, over 70% of the total population of Chad would have accessto drinking water in 2020. The supply rate dips sharply to about 46% in the case of scenario 3.

Moreover, these different simulations demonstrate the importance of setting up an environmentconducive to equipment management and maintenance. If a return is to be obtained on theinvestments and the Chadian population is to have guaranteed access to drinking water at all times, itis essential to start up a new generation of projects as soon as possible, focusing on building capacityand organising the drinking water sector, at both national and local level.

Reaching the Millennium goal (which, it must be remembered, constitutes a commitment on behalf ofthe international community) means that Chad must have an overall access rate of 60% in 2015 (anincrease from 20% to 60%).

The graph above indicates the priority to be followed and the scenario to be selected. Scenario 1 isthe best scenario, since it corresponds to both the national policy objective of efficiency in publicinvestments and the Millennium goal. This scenario entails heavy investment between 2000 and 2010in accompanying measures to foster sustainable management and make users responsible formaintenance wherever possible.


Évolutions possibles du taux d'accès globalà l'eau potable au Tchad

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

Année

Po

urce

ntag

e de

la p

opu

lati

on

tota

le Scénario 1

Scénario 2

Scénario 3

Possible changes in overall rate of accessto drinking water in Chad

Scenario 1

Scenario 2

Scenario 3

Year

Perc

enta

ge o

f to

tal p

opu

lati

on

3.2 Sanitation scenario

Given that sanitation is lagging so far behind, and the low level of investment in this subsector, onlyone scenario is proposed and recommended.

In rural areas, we recommend combining each village water supply programme with sanitation works,including the construction of basic sanitary infrastructure. After reaching agreement with the villagers,this low-cost equipment could be their contribution in return for the development of a drinking waterpoint in their community. Hygiene and sanitation education programmes will be continued and backedup by information campaigns through projects as well as via the media (radio, press, etc.).

In urban areas, pending the investments required to build major installations such as stormwaterdrainage networks, priority will be placed on developing basic sanitary infrastructure in eachconcession, such as latrines, “wastewater collection equipment” compliant with recognised standards,respecting stipulated distances between traditional latrines and wells, etc., while protecting theenvironment, notably aquifers, which populations often exploit for drinking water through traditionalwells.

We also recommend developing a specific sanitation policy.

3.3 Pastoral water supply scenario

Several projects to construct pastoral water points (ponds with basic facilities, wells, pastoral pumpingstations) are currently being implemented. New projects are due to start up over the next few years.These projects should create over 1100 new pastoral water points. This number must be seen in thelight of the estimated number of pastoral water points needed (1150) based on a 25 km meshbetween each point. Nevertheless, these new water points are concentrated in specific sectors, ineastern and western Chad. Very little work has been carried out in the southern part of the Sudanianzone or in the north Saharan zone. The potential for access to pastoral water supplies will beimproved significantly over the next ten years.

However, to improve development of Chadian pastoral areas, optimise investments and guaranteetheir long-term profitability, projects focusing on improving knowledge in all areas (livestock numbers,migratory routes, fodder resources, conflict-solving mechanisms, etc.) must be undertaken as quicklyas possible.

3.4 Agricultural water supply scenario

Chad has immense agricultural potential which is not yet being exploited to the full. Thus, to satisfythe priority goal of food security, it is first necessary to develop the soil potential which is beinginsufficiently exploited, if at all, i.e., the vast flood plains of the Salamat, the difluence plains of theChari-Logone, the extensive lowlands of the Sudanian zone and the mountain catchment areas ofthe Ouaddaï. Achieving this objective also entails rehabilitating the existing irrigation areas or bringingthem back into operation.

However, two major difficulties remain: scheme management and peasant organisation. According tothe assessment-diagnosis, several constraints are hampering the development of irrigated agriculturein Chad: poor management and insufficient area maintenance, lack of organisation of the differentchannels, high investment costs, etc. Nevertheless, with the exception of some very specific sectors,water resources cannot be considered to be hindering development of the sector. On the contrary,the abundance of water resources and, in most cases, the ease with which they can be mobilised, areassets.

Therefore, the (surface and underground) water resources assessment shows that abstracting anadditional 1.5 billion m3 from these water resources for agricultural use does not pose any particularproblems other than taking protective measures and setting up monitoring systems. As an indication,if the additional water abstracted is controlled perfectly, it could irrigate between 100 000 and185 000 hectares.


The following scenario has been selected:

� placing a five-year moratorium on new large-scale irrigation schemes and focusing primarily onrehabilitating certain selected irrigation areas, with priority given to training and organisingpeasants on the basis of independent support structures and fostering the development of smallvillage irrigation areas, in a clear legal and land tenure context. This provides a means of identifyingsolutions to the problems of large-scale irrigation schemes, while building capacities.

4 ORGANISATIONAL FRAMEWORK, DECENTRALISATION AND THE NEW WATER GOVERNANCE SYSTEM

4.1 Local level: locally-generated development and local stakeholder structuring with organised support

Future practices and local planning resources centred on rural development (agriculture, fisheries,stock-rearing, small-scale providers, etc.) must be studied. This process must include the sustainabledevelopment of natural resources.

The decentralisation process will be based mainly on adaptive local planning, which must take intoaccount the relationship between use of village/communal land and the use of natural resources,which vary widely with seasonal rainfall. In this context, the effects relating to the location anddevelopment of water points and the allocation of water resources will have critical repercussions inthe following areas: rural populations (subsistence, food, income), conflict prevention (between stock-rearers and farmers) and environment management (land, water, habitats).

For generations, the conditions in which poor rural populations survive have mainly been governedby uncertain access to natural resources. These populations have organised themselves so as to adaptto these variations by frequently changing occupation and moving from one place to another. So thereis, in fact, a long history of local peasant planning.

The transition towards sustainable local development, which creates jobs and income and improvesliving and health conditions, now means integrating regional and infrastructure development into localplanning. This larger dimension has remained beyond villagers’ perceptions up to now. In Chad,notably in the Saharan and Sahelian zones, the water point is the essential pivotal element aroundwhich rural life is structured. It must now be considered in the planning and mobilisation of localresources, at as local an institutional level as possible.

Many aspects of the fight against poverty depend on solving the complex equation between localstakeholders, natural resources and infrastructure. As is the case with education, access to water(drinking or productive) plays a key role in this process.

The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management states that support for this localstakeholder structuring is vital to the economic and social development of Chad, and to theefficient, sustainable management of the physical investments. Consequently, it stipulates that theState and donors will give priority to investing in the human capital of the sector throughaccompanying programmes tailored to the resources required by the subsector strategies definedabove.

4.2 Intermediary and central levels: participation from public stakeholders and services

Decentralisation will be pursued for at least a decade. Because of its approaches based on localcapacity-building and local stakeholder structuring, the SDEA will logically accompany this process andshould help to ensure its success, given the transverse nature of the local issues related to water.

The intersectoral consultative mechanism set up and institutionalised in Chad within the frameworkof the MEE is fundamental to water governance in that country. Coordination of this flexiblemechanism has to continue.



The graph below presents the functional relationships between the main central stakeholders in thewater sector, in view of the new consultative mechanism that has been created. Over the next fewyears this mechanism is set to be extended, in accordance with the existing decree, to levelsincreasingly close to the end user, to ensure good governance of the water sector.

A reminder of how the consultative mechanism functions is given below:

The High National Council for the Environment (HCNE) is presided by the Prime Minister. Theministers in charge of the different bodies involved in or concerned by water resources andenvironmental protection are associated with it. The role of the HCNE is to decide on the mainpolitical options governing the water sector in Chad.

The National Water Management Committee (CNGE) is presided by the general secretary of theministry responsible for water (Ministry of Environment and Water). It comprises general secretariesof the ministries represented at HCNE and representatives of civil society. Its role is to define anddecide on sectoral strategies conveying the main national political options in the water sector.

The Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) is presided by the Technical ServicesManager for hydraulic affairs (Director of Hydraulic Affairs) at the ministry responsible for water(MEE). It groups together the national technical services managers from the various ministriesinvolved in or concerned by the exploitation and management of water resources. Representativesof elected officials, civil society and associations are also represented. The role of the CTIE is to decideon the national action plan to be implemented in accordance with the options and main lines of thewater sector policy.

The Ministry of Environment and Water acts as both permanent secretary of HCNE and presidentof the CNGE and the CTIE. The Ministry of Economic Promotion and Development acts as vice-president of the HCNE and CNGE, thus guaranteeing that the processes are integrated andconsistent, at all levels, with the sectoral policies, national economic targets and regional development.This flexible consultative mechanism, institutionalised by Prime Minister’s decree4, is also intended tobe devolved at a later date, into smaller subsidiary mechanisms for local and regional intersectoralconsultation.

Figure 25: Consultative mechanism

Source: Integrated Plan for Chad’s Water Development and Management, 2001

4 Decree no.034/PM/MEE/99

signed by the PrimeMinister on 3/9/99

concerning the creationand organisation of a

National WaterManagement Committee

politiquessectorielles

politique et stratégiesnationales

stratégiessectorielles

techniquessectorielles

niveau de compétence

HCNEGouvernement

CNGEAdministration et société civile

techniquessectorielles

MINISTÈRE DEL’ENVIRONNEMENT

ET DE L’EAU

DIRECTION GENERALEDE L’ENVIRONNEMENT

PARTENAIRES BAILLEURS DE FONDS

DIRECTION DEL’HYDRAULIQUE

MINISTÈRES

AUTORITÉS GOUVERNEMENTALES

DIRECTIONSGÉNÉRALES

DIVISIONS TECHNIQUES

structures ministérielles sectoriellesopérationnelles domaine de l’eau

structures ministérielles sectoriellesopérationnelles utilisatrices de l’eau

espace de concertationintersectorielle

opérations d’aménagementde l’espace national

National policy andstrategies

Sectoral policies

Sectoral strategies

Sectoraltechniques

Skill level

GOVERNMENTAL AUTHORITIES

HCNEGovernment

CNGEAdministration & civil society

Sectoral techniques

MINISTRY OFENVIRONMENT AND

WATER

DIRECTORATE GENERALOF THE ENVIRONMENT

HYDRAULICSDIRECTORATE

MINISTRIES

DIRECTORATEGENERALS

TECHNICAL DIVISIONS

Operational sectoral ministerialstructures, users of water

Operational sectoral ministerialstructures in the water field

Intersectoral consultative area

Development operations onthe national territory

PARTNERSFUNDING AGENCIES

5 CONCLUSION

At the end of this section concerning water policy and strategies, the main difficulties that have cometo light in implementing water strategies in Chad concern:

� supplies to towns (concessionary area) and sanitation;

� water for agriculture;

� human resources;

� installation sustainability.

The prospects of the general water strategy depend on the success of the diversification policy of theperiod of oil exploitation, the investments to be made and the extent to which the populations haveacquired the ability to manage water and guarantee installation durability.

Supplies to towns

In the field of water (and sanitation), donors tend to pay less attention to towns in the concessionaryarea than to towns in the non-concessionary area or stock-rearers. This is understandable, given theimportant role that agriculture and stock-rearing play in the strategy of diversifying the economyduring the period of oil exploitation.

Another feature of water in towns (concessionary area) is the reverse of what would be expected ofa policy of equity intended to fight poverty: the price of water is higher for the poor than for the rich.This is worsened by the fact that some people with a connection sell water for more than the pricethat they pay.

The solution to this two-fold problem of insufficient international aid and inverted prices involves apolicy which would be partly self-funded:

� increasing the price of water ;

� extending the stand-pipe and connection networks.

Increasing the price of water in line with the price currently paid by stand-pipe users would financeconnections for all those who wish to have one, without requiring them to pay any money onconnection. Increasing the cost to less than that of stand-pipes would finance the extension of thestand-pipe networks, but not of the connection networks. Installing more stand-pipes would have theadvantage of dissuading people from buying water from carriers at a prohibitive price.

Water for agriculture

As recalled above, failure to develop agriculture would probably result in the collapse of the economyas a whole. The limited mobilisation of water is undoubtedly one of the constraints hampering thedevelopment of agriculture. However, on one hand little is known about the nature of this constraint,and on the other hand it is intermingled with other constraints.

Little is known about the exact cost of water for agricultural production in Chad. This is why thisreport proposes to assess the current and future projects. Other constraints are evidently called intoplay and would undermine the effectiveness of agricultural water supply investments unless they areovercome. Numerous constraints have been identified, but many of them have not been studied indepth: transport infrastructure, irregular production, storage problems, peasants’ behaviour patterns,etc.

The Integrated Plan for Water Development and Management is not aimed at dealing with all theproblems of agriculture. Two ideas simply need to be restated at this point:

� the role and cost of water in agriculture have not been sufficiently assessed (excluding the largeirrigation areas, which have proved to be inefficient on several occasions);

� irrigation schemes can only be efficient in the framework of a comprehensive agriculture policy.


Human resources

The need to build capacities at all levels is the main lesson of the SDEA and each subsector has aspecific strategy with this aim in mind. Numerous action plan projects are to be implemented in linewith these capacity-building strategies.

A general plan for training human resources in the sector will have to be drawn up as soon as possible,and will be defined in detail and modified in a few years’ time, once the lessons have been learnedfrom all the projects that are due to start up during the first five years of the SDEA. The results ofthis study will be included when the SDEA is updated in 2008.

Installation sustainability

Setting aside the uncertainty reigning over agriculture (which plays a crucial role in diversifying theeconomy), the prospects of access to water for the populations and livestock of Chad are relativelygood. Funding has been obtained for some of the investments; and the prospects of STEE SA takingon the commercial management of water in accordance with the objectives of equity and povertyreduction are realistic, in as much that the public service defines and regularly follows up targetedresults in accordance with the water policy and the subsector objective (increasing the rate of accessto drinking water in the concessionary area from 40% to 70% by 2015).

On the other hand, there is no guarantee that the populations will take responsibility for theinstallations. Past experience in the field of access to water has shown that modern water points aresoon abandoned as a result of a failure to maintain the installations. Therefore, the new investmentsin the water sector must place a much greater onus on populations taking responsibility for the watersupply infrastructure. If projects are not drawn up bearing this aim in mind, there would be a high riskof a repeat of the scenario described above resulting from poor maintenance. It should be recalledthat the supply rate forecasts are 77% or 46%, depending on whether or not there is an efficientmaintenance programme.

Water and economic prospects

The economic prospects are apparently good. GDP by volume will triple between 2003 and 2020. In2015, oil GDP will represent only 5.9% of total GDP, so this three-fold increase assumes that oilrevenue will have been used to the full to diversify the economy.

However, as stated in the section on “The oil economy” (2.1.2), little may be expected of oil revenuein the field of water, unless the State decides to distribute this revenue in favour of this sector. If itdoes not, this revenue will mainly benefit other sectors. In the future, the two main sources of fundingfor investments in the water sector will be:

� international aid;

� users.

Users’ incomes will increase by about 75% in real terms, but only if the predicted diversification of theeconomy into sectors not related to oil actually comes about. However, the Chadian economy isdeveloping along a narrow road. Water has been clearly identified as being fundamental to severalmajor development sectors:

� health;

� agriculture;

� stock-rearing.

Investments in the different hydraulics subsectors thus appear to be indispensable to thediversification policy, without which the economy will not benefit from the short period of oilexploitation. The effectiveness of these investments is totally dependent on the implementation ofaccompanying measures intended to give the population the capacity to manage water and guaranteeinstallation durability.



1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter lists the ongoing programmes and programmes proposed for each subsector in order toachieve the defined goals, especially the Millennium development goals. In addition, theseprogrammes are in direct relation with the subsector strategies adopted in the SDEA.

The programmes represent “sets” of actions to be undertaken at national level or in the variousgeoclimatic zones. A programme may be broken down into several “projects” funded by differentagencies, provided that the “programme approach” is adopted in such a way that its integratedcharacter is maintained.

Detailed programming of these various activities and the political choices to be made concerning theprojects are the prerogative of the Government via the HCNE, CNGE and CTIE and the competenttechnical departments.

The proposed programmes are spread over an initial period running from 2000 to 2010 and a secondperiod from 2011 to 2015. However, with regard to agricultural water supply and water resources,the action plans are defined for the period 2000-2020.

A financial analysis of each subsector was given in section 2.3 of chapter 3. This analysis summarisesthe funding requirements for each subsector under main topics (construction of physicalinfrastructure, capacity building, improvement of knowledge, institutional strengthening) in order toachieve the aims set. The reader should refer to this chapter for all financial aspects and for a summaryof the programmes proposed in the water and sanitation sector.

Priorities at national level

On the basis of the assessment of needs, strategies and policies, the following main priorities may bedistinguished for action at national level:

� development of physical infrastructure,

� capacity building,

� improvement of basic knowledge in each subsector, in particular concerning water resources,

� strengthening of the institutional, legal and regulatory frameworks,

� introduction of a set of procedures and methodologies for programming and planning actions ineach subsector in compliance with the Water Code, all of this being integrated into thedecentralisation process currently underway.

Priorities in each subsector

The priority actions to be undertaken in each subsector are set out in detail in the thematic volumes.A brief summary of these actions is given below.

In the field of drinking water (village and urban/semi-urban water supply subsectors), while pursuingthe development of hydraulic infrastructure for drinking water supplies, it is of paramount importanceto start a new generation of projects aimed at capacity building at all levels as quickly as possible inorder to guarantee permanence of the investments and long working life of the facilities. In addition,considering hydraulic infrastructure requirements and in conformity with the Water Code’sstipulations concerning equitable access to water, future programmes must be concentrated in theleast privileged areas of Chad in the coming years.

In the field of pastoral water supplies, the main priority at national level is to improve basic knowledgeof each subsector, in particular with respect to livestock numbers and fodder carrying capacities. Withbetter knowledge of these parameters, it will be possible to plan and programme pastoral watersupply structures that are suited to realities in the field while contributing to the development of theentire stock-rearing subsector.

The priority in the field of agricultural water supplies is capacity building with regard to themaintenance and operation of the major irrigation areas. In addition, the development of privateirrigation areas must be encouraged, along with the rehabilitation of certain irrigation areas, givingpriority to the training and organisation of peasant farmers.


With regard to rural sanitation, the priority is to disseminate health education programmes and buildbasic health infrastructure such as improved traditional latrines. In the field of urban and semi-urbansanitation, priority is given to individual sanitation via the construction of latrines suited to the variouscontexts, the introduction of community waste collection systems and programmes to train peopleto take elementary sanitation measures. Depending on the funds available, wastewater andstormwater disposal systems may be developed in the larger towns. With regard to industrialsanitation, the priority is to define legal standards to restrict the various types of industrial effluentdischarged into the environment.

As far as water resources are concerned, the priority is to improve knowledge of the operation ofthe major water-bearing systems and surface water systems, and the manner in which they areinterrelated. To this end, mechanisms must be set up for collecting and processing data from existingand future projects.


Field Action Links with strategies Funding Cost (FCFA) Interventionarea

Anticipated resultsachievements Period Impacts Status

Stre

ngth

enin

g of

lega

l,re

gula

tory

and

org

anisa

tiona

l fra

mew

orks

Cap

acity

bui

ldin

g

Integrated Plan for water development

Strengthening of the legal/regulatory framework

UNDP

For Ref.(Projects

accounted for in water

resources)

National

An approved document to serve asa reference for the developmentand integrated management ofwater resources

National capacity building

1998-2002

Integrated and sustainable management of waterresources and the facilities for their mobilisation and exploitation

National officers trained in water resourcemanagement and monitoring

OngoingSupport for obtaining an organisationalframework for the local management of water

Capacity building

Water Policy Project


FAC

For Ref.(Projects


resources)

National

Institutional and legal frameworksdefinedStrengthened water managementcapacitiesOrganisational framework forhydraulic structure managementdefined and operational

1998-2002

Institutional, legal and regulatory environmentdefined

Strengthened water management capacities

Support for defining operating procedures formanagement of hydraulic structures and the waterservice


Capacity building

Water Policy Project phase 2


FAC

For Ref.(Projects


resources)

National

Institutional and legal frameworksdefined

Strengthened water managementcapacities

2003-2006



Procedures for management of hydraulicstructures and water supply service applied

Underdiscussion

Support for obtaining an organisationalframework for the local management of water

Capacity building

Governance and localmanagement of water


UNDP

For Ref.(Projects


resources)

National

Setting up of local, regional andnational water managementstructures

Knowledge improvement

Support for local economicdevelopment

2003-2007

Existence of local, regional and national watermanagement capacities

Operating procedures for management ofhydraulic structures and the water service definedand applied at full scale over an area

Replication of management methods

Creation of income from water development

Underdiscussion


Capacity building

Total funds obtained or under discussion concerning the support measures for 2000-2010

2 VILLAGE WATER SUPPLY ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for village water supply 2000-2010

List of programmes as of December 2001



Anticipated results/achievementsPeriod Impacts Status

HP1 BSU2 DWS3 Well Reh4

Impr

ovem

ent i

n vi

llage

dri

nkin

g w

ater

sup

ply

Fund

ing

obta

ined

Village water supplyprogramme in Sudanianzone

Improvement of water supplyAFD 4 500 000 000 Sudanian

Zone 265 250 1999-2002

A) Increase in village drinking water supply from17% in 2000 to about 55% in 2008

B) Progressive setting up of an organisationalframework for the local management of thewater service and creation of an environmentfor local maintenance and servicing of drinkingwater supply systems

C) Local and regional capacity building for themaintenance and management of drinking waterpoints


Village water supplyprogramme of the 8thEDF plan in Chad

Improvement of water supplyEU/EDF 12 000 000 000 Western Sahelian

Zone 1 650 0 1999-2004 OngoingSupport for obtaining an organisationalframework for the local management of water

Village water supplyprogramme in theOuaddaï / Biltine

Improvement of water supplyKFW/AFD/EDF 4 000 000 000 Eastern Sahelian

Zone 300 200 2002-2005 OngoingSupport for obtaining an organisationalframework for the local management of water

Village water supplyprogramme in Mayo-Kebbi

Improvement of water supplyKFW 2 250 000 000 Western Sahelian

Zone 300 2002-2004 OngoingSupport for obtaining an organisationalframework for the local management of water

Village water supplyprogramme of the IX EDF plan

Improvement of water supply

EU/EDF 35 000 000 000 To be determined 3 300 2003-2008 FundingobtainedSupport for obtaining an organisational

framework for the local management of water

Saudi projectPhase III Chad Improvement of water supply Saudi Arabia 3 500 000 000 Sahelian Zone 115 2000-2002 Ongoing

Regional SolarProgramme

Improvement of water supplyEU/EDF 3 500 000 000 Western Sahelian


Chad UNICEFcooperation programme2001-2005

Improvement of water supply and sanitary conditions

UNICEF 3 000 000 000 Sahelian /Sudanian Zones 400 2001-2005 Ongoing

Promotion of basic sanitation measures

Capacity building


Lake Chad development project Improvement of water supply ADB 700 000 000 Western Sahelian

Zone 100 2002-2005 Starting up

Miscellaneous (Esso, NGO, etc.) Improvement of water supply Private 3 500 000 000 National 600 Ongoing

Village water supplyprogramme in Salamat Improvement of water supply AFD 1 000 000 000 Sudanian

Zone 150 2003-2008 Underdiscussion

Funding obtained for the construction of new drinking water points 72 950 000 000 7 180 15 0 0 450 1999-2008 Fundingobtained

Proposed action plan for village water supply 2000-2010 (contd)




HP1 TLU2 DWS3 Well Reh4

Impr

ovem

ent o

f vill

age

drin

king

wat

er s

uppl

yFu

ndin

g to

be

foun

d

Village wellconstructionprogramme in the BET


To be found 3 000 000 000 Saharan Zone 150 2005-2010

A) Increase in drinking water supply to village populations from 17% in 2000 to 70% in 2010

B) Structured environment for the localmanagement of the water service and the maintenance and servicing of drinking water supply facilities

Project to bedefined

and fundingto be found


Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theOuaddaï geographicalarea


To be found 4 200 000 000 Sahelian / SaharanZones 600 2005-2010




Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theBatha


To be found 4 200 000 000 Sahelian / SaharanZones 600 2005-2010




Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theGuéra


To be found 4 200 000 000 Sudanian Zone 600 2005-2010




Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theLogone and Tandjilé






Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theMoyen-Chari






Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theSalamat






Capacity building

Funding to be found for the construction of new drinking supply systems 2005-2010 24 000 000 000 3 000 0 0 0 150 2005-2010

Project tobe defined


1 Borehole with HP : 7 MFCFA/U List of programmes as of December 20012 Basic supply unit: borehole and mini distribution network: 50 MFCFA/U3 Drinking water supply system4 Borehole rehabilitation: 3 MFCFA/U



Anticipated results/achievements Period Impacts Status

Stre

ngth

enin

g of

lega

l,re

gula

tory

and

org

anisa

tiona

l fra

mew

orks

Cap

acity

bui

ldin

g

Support for thecreation of local andregional structures formanagement of drinkingwater supply systems

(Proposed programmemay include severalphases that will befunded by differentfunding agencies)

Capacity building for local management ofwater, the water service and the benefits ofproductive water

To be found 6 000 000 000 National

A) Training programmes devisedand disseminated at all levels:traditional and administrativeauthorities, users, NGOs, designoffices, private companies,craftsmen’s networks, etc.

B) Training of human resources(managers, engineers,technicians, legal and financialexperts, contractors, etc.) inschools, universities and regionalcentres

C) Training of craftsmen,mechanics, electricians, masons,etc. in technical centres

D) Development of micro-lendingprogrammes

2003-2010

A) Human resources trained for efficientmanagement of the water service

B) Operational user associations

C) Role of the State refocused on programming,supervision and regulation activities

D) Private companies and craftsmen’s networkscapable of providing efficient maintenance andservicing of the drinking water supply systems

E) Design offices and NGOs capable of providingadvice and support to users, to lending agenciesand to the Government

F) Private national companies capable of buildinghydraulic structures according to acceptedengineering practice

G) Civil servants trained in the new role of theState




Preparation ofreference manuals andguides

(Proposed programmemay include severalphases that will befunded by differentfunding agencies)



Preparation and distribution ofguides and manuals dealing withsanitation, the participatoryapproach, management andmaintenance of drinking watersupply systems, institutional andregulatory aspects of the watersector

2003-2010

Available tools and a structured environment enabling each stakeholder to fulfil his partnershiprole to the full within the drinking water accesschain


and fundingto be foundSupport for obtaining an organisational


Total amount of funds to be found for support measures in the drinking water field 8 000 000 000


1 Borehole with HP: 7 MFCFA/U List of programmes as of December 20012 Basic supply unit: borehole and mini distribution network: 50 MFCFA/U3 Drinking water supply system4 Borehole rehabilitation: 3 MFCFA/U


Proposed action plan for village water supply 2011-2020

1 Borehole with hand pump List of programmes as of December 20012 Reh.: borehole rehabilitation



HP1 BSU DWS Well Reh2

Villa

ge d

rink

ing

wat

erIm

prov

emen

t of w

ater

sup

ply

Village wellconstructionprogramme in the BET


To be found 2 600 000 000 Saharan Zone 130 2011-2020

Increase in drinking water access rate to 85% ofthe village population in 2020

Operational and sustainable maintenance network

Support for setting up local and regionalstructures for the management of water supplyequipment and the income from productive water

Improvement in living and health conditions of thevillage populations



Strengthening of the organisational frameworkfor local management of water

Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theOuaddaï geographical area


To be found 11 200 000 000 Saharan / SahelianZones 1 600 2011-2020




Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in the western part of theSahelian zone


To be found 7 700 000 000 Sahelian Zone 1 100 2011-2020




Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theGuéra


To be found 2 800 000 000 Sahelian Zone 400 2011-2020




Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theMayo-Kebbi


To be found 7 000 000 000 Sudanian Zone 1 000 2011-2020




Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theBatha






Capacity building






Villa

ge d

rink

ing

wat

erIm

prov

emen

t of w

ater

sup

ply

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theMoyen-Chari



Increase in drinking water access rate to 85% ofthe village population in 2020

Operational and sustainable maintenance network

Support for setting up local and regionalstructures for the management of water supplyequipment and the income from productive water

Improvement in living and health conditions of thevillage populations




Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theTandjilé






Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theLogone






Capacity building

Drinking water pointconstructionprogramme in theSalamat


To be found 1 120 000 000 Sudanian /Sahelian Zones 160 2011-2020




Capacity building

Total cost of projects to be funded between 2011 and 2020 in the field of water supply improvement 60 770 000 000 8 310 130





Villa

ge d

rink

ing

wat

erRe

habi

litat

ion

of d

rink

ing

wat

er p

oint

s to

mai

ntai

n th

e su

pply

rat

e

Borehole rehabilitationprogramme in thewestern part of theSahelian zone

Maintenance of supply rate and improvement ofsanitary conditions


Maintaining the drinking water supply rate ofvillage populations

Maintaining the living conditions of the populations




Capacity building

Borehole rehabilitationprogramme in theOuaddaï geographicalarea and the Guéra


To be found 910 000 000 Sahelian Zone 260 2011-2020




Capacity building

Borehole rehabilitationprogramme in theMayo-Kebbi


To be found 840 000 000 Sudanian Zone 240 2011-2020




Capacity building

Borehole rehabilitationprogramme in theChari-Baguirmi






Capacity building

Borehole rehabilitationprogramme in theMoyen-Chari






Capacity building

Borehole rehabilitationprogramme in theTandjilé and the Logone






Capacity building

Total cost of borehole rehab. projects to be funded in 2011 and 2020 7 273 000 000 0 0 0 0 2 078

Support for andstrengthening ofassociations involved inwater servicemanagement(Proposed programme mayinclude several phasesfunded by different fundingagencies)


To be found 3 000 000 000 National National capacities at all levels capable ofefficiently managing the drinking water service




Capacity building

Total funding to be found between 2001 and 2020 71 043 000 000

1 Borehole with hand pump List of programmes as of December 20012 Reh.: borehole rehabilitation




Cap

acity

bui

ldin

g an

d st

reng

then

ing

of le

gal a

nd in

stitu

tiona

l fra

mew

orks

Integrated Plan forWater Developmentand Management


UNDP

For Ref.(Projects


resources)

National

A document to serve as a referencefor the development and integratedmanagement of water resources

Capacity building for the integratedand sustainable management ofwater resources and exploitationfacilities

1998-2002

Setting up methods of approach, tools and actionplans to allow the sustainable and integrateddevelopment of water resources



Capacity building



FAC

For Ref.(Projects


resources)

National

Institutional and legal frameworksdefinedStrengthened water managementcapacitiesOrganisational framework for themanagement of hydraulic structuresdefined and operational

1998-2002



Operating procedures for management ofhydraulic structures and the water service defined


Capacity building



FAC

For Ref.(Projects


resources)

National



2003-2006




Underdiscussion


Capacity building



UNDP

For Ref.(Projects


resources)

National

Setting up of of local, regional andnational water managementstructures



2003-2007


Operating procedure for management of hydraulicstructures and the water service defined andapplied at full scale over an area



Underdiscussion


Capacity building

Total funds obtained or under discussion concerning the support measures for 2001

3 SEMI-URBAN AND URBAN WATER SUPPLY ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for semi-urban and urban water supply 2000-2010 and 2011-2020





Impr

ovem

ent o

f dri

nkin

g w

ater

sup

ply:

non-

conc

essio

nary

are

a

Village water supplyprogramme in theSudanian zone

Improvement of water supplyAFD 120 000 000 Sudanian

Zone 2 1999-2002

A) Methods for decentralised management of thewater service operational

B) Legal and institutional frameworks defined andadopted

C) Local, regional and national stakeholderstrained

D) Improvement in drinking water supply in thenon-concessionary area to 55% of thepopulation


Village water supplyprogramme of the 8thEDF plan in Chad

Improvement of water supplyEU 1 800 000 000 Western Sahelian


Village water supplyprogramme of the IXEDF plan

Improvement of water supplyEU/EDF 5 400 000 000 To be determined 90 2003-2008 Funding

obtainedSupport for obtaining an organisationalframework for the local management of water

Saudi projectPhase III Chad Improvement of water supply Saudi Arabia 120 000 000 Sahelian Zone 2 Ongoing

Regional SolarProgramme

Improvement of water supplyE.U. 4 200 000 000 Western Sahelian

Zone 70 2002-2005 Starting upSupport for obtaining an organisationalframework for the local management of water

Drinking water supplyprogramme for theDLA

Improvement of water supplyChina Taiwan 11 660 000 000 National 19 1999-2003 OngoingSupport for obtaining an organisational


Drinking water supplyprogramme forsecondary and semi-urban centres


AFD 4 260 000 000 Sudanian /Sahelian Zones 43 2002-2005 Ongoing


Capacity building

Strengthening of the legal and regulatoryframework

Funding obtained for the construction of new drinking water points in the non-concessionary area 27 560 000 000 0 237 19 0 0 1999-2008 Funding

obtained

1 Borehole with hand pump List of programmes as of December 20012 Basic supply unit: borehole and mini distribution network: 60 MFCFA/U3 DWS network with private connection: 250 MFCFA/U4 Reh.: borehole rehabilitation





Impr

ovem

ent o

f dri

nkin

g w

ater

sup

ply:

conc

essio

nary

are

a

Water and ServicesProject in theperipheral districts of N’Djaména


AFD 1 325 000 000 N’Djaména

Construction of five mini DWSsystems in the periruban districtsof N’Djaména

Setting up of appropriate waterservice management structures bythe users


2000-2002Improvement of water supply to the towns ofN’Djaména and Faya

Improvement of sanitation


Capacity building

Repair of DWS system in Faya Improvement of water supply IDB 3 600 000 000 STEE urban

centres

Water tower rehabilitation,network extension, construction of latrines

2001-2002 Starting up

Total amount of physical investments obtained in the concessionary area 4 925 000 000

Upgrading /rehabilitation of DWSsystem of N’Djaména

Improvement of water supply To be found 4 560 000 000 N’Djaména

Rehabilitation, renewal of watermains, reservoirs, well pumps, 600connections per year, provision of23 stand-pipes per year

2001-2010

A) Drinking water supply to 70% of the residentpopulation of the concessionary area

B) Organised and structured water service in theperiurban districts of the concessionary areacentres

C) Economic development centres around themini DWS systems



Extension of DWSsystem of N’Djaména Improvement of water supply To be found 3 550 000 000 N’Djaména

Network extension by 10 to14 km/year, 900 to 1300connections per year and 30 stand-pipes per year

2001-2010



Upgrading /rehabilitation of DWSsystem in othercentres conceded tothe STEE

Improvement of water supply To be found 4 270 000 000 STEE urbancentres

Rehabilitation, renewal of watermains, reservoirs, well pumps, 200connections per year, provision of30 stand-pipes per year

2001-2010



Extension of DWSsystem in othercentres conceded tothe STEE

Improvement of water supply To be found 800 000 000 STEE urbancentres

Network extension by 2 to3 km/year, 200 to 300 connectionsper year, provision of 10 to 15stand-pipes per year

2001-2010



Development of self-contained mini DWSsystems that couldultimately be linked tothe STEE network

Improvement of urban water supply

To be found 15 750 000 000 STEE urbancentres 63 2003-2010



Support for obtaining an organisational frameworkfor local management of the water service

Capacity building and support for localeconomic development

Rehabilitation,upgrading andextension of existingDWS networks

Improvement of urban water supplyTo be found 20 000 000 000 STEE urban

centres 2003-2010


and fundingto be foundCapacity building and support for local

economic development

Funding to be found for physical investments in STEE concessionary area 2003-2010 48 930 000 000

Proposed action plan for semi-urban and urban water supply 2000-2010 and 2011-2020 (contd)




Capa

city

build

ing:

non-

conc

essio

nary

are

a

Support for thecreation of local andregional structures formanagement ofdrinking water supplysystems



A) Training programmes devisedand disseminated at all levels:users, NGOs, design offices,private companies, craftsmen’snetworks, etc.

B) Training of human resources

2003-2010

A) Human resources trained for efficient managementof the water service

B) Operational user associations

C) Role of the State refocused on programming,supervision and regulation activities

D) Private companies and craftsmen’s networkscapable of providing efficient maintenance andservicing of the drinking water supply systems




Preparation ofreference manuals andguides


To be found 100 000 000 National

Preparation and distribution ofguides and manuals dealing withsanitation, the participatoryapproach, management andmaintenance of drinking watersupply systems, institutional andregulatory aspects of the watersector

2003-2010

Available tools and a structured environment enabling each stakeholder to fulfil his partnershiprole to the full within the drinking water accesschain




Capa

city

build

ing:

conc

essio

nary

are

a

Preparation ofintegrated plans fordrinking water supplyto the 11 centres ofthe concessionary area

Improvement of water supply and conditions

To be found 10 000 000 000 Concessionaryarea

Preparation of an integrated planfor drinking water supply to, andsanitation of, the 11 centres of theconcessionary area

2002-2007

Available tools for coherent planning of theactions and investments to be made to ensuredrinking water supply to the population in theconcessionary area




External and internaltraining programme andtraining by technicalassistance for the civilservants responsible forSTEE monitoring(Monitoring Committee)

Capacity building To be found 1 500 000 000 National

A) External training of legalexperts, economists and high-level engineers

B) Technical assistance programmefor making the monitoringcommittee operational

2003-2005

Trained human resources capable of efficientmonitoring of the STEEs and taking decisions inthe best interests of the Chad State and the urbanpopulations



Total investment funding to be found for support measures and training programmes in urban and semi-urban hydraulics 16 600 000 000




Anticipated results/achievementsPeriod Impacts État


Impr

ovem

ent o

f dri

nkin

g w

ater

sup

ply:

non-

conc

essio

nary

are

a

Programme for theconstruction ofdrinking water supplysystems in the BET


To be found 300 000 000 Saharan Zone 5 2011-2020

A) Drinking water supply to 70% of the populationin the non-concessionary area by the year2020

B) Fair and extensive access to drinking water

C) Appropriate water service management by theusers in accordance with regulations




Capacity building

Programme for theconstruction of basicsupply units in thesmall centres of theOuaddaï geographicalarea


To be found 2 050 000 000 Sahelian / SaharanZones 30 1 2011-2020




Capacity building

Programme for theconstruction of basicsupply units in theBatha


To be found 600 000 000 Sahelian / SaharanZones 10 0 2011-2020




Capacity building

Programme for theconstruction of watersupply and sanitationfacilities for the smallcentres of the Guéra


To be found 1 750 000 000 Sahelian Zone 25 1 2011-2020




Capacity building

Programme for theconstruction of basicsupply units in theLogone and Tandjilé






Capacity building

Programme for theconstruction of basicsupply units in thewesterm part of theSahelian zone


To be found 800 000 000 Sahelian Zone 5 2 2011-2020




Capacity building

Proposed action plan for semi-urban and urban water supply 2000-2010 and 2011-2020 (contd)





Impr

ovem

ent o

f dri

nkin

g w

ater

sup

ply:

non-

conc

essio

nary

are

a

Programme for theconstruction of basicsupply units in theMayo-Kebbi



A) Drinking water supply to 70% of the populationin the non-concessionary area by the year2020

B) Fair and extensive access to drinking water

C) Appropriate water service management by theusers in accordance with regulations




Capacity building

Programme for theconstruction of basicsupply units in theMoyen-Chari






Capacity building

Programme for theconstruction of basicsupply units in theSalamat






Capacity building

Funding to be found for the construction of new DWS systemsin the non-concessionary area 2011-2020 20 500 000 000 300 10

Impr

ovem

ent o

f wat

er s

uppl

y:co

nces

siona

ry a

rea

Development of self-contained mini DWSsystems that couldultimately be linked tothe STEE network


To be found 15 000 000 000 STEE urbancentres 60 2011-2020 A) Drinking water supply to 70% of the resident

population of the concessionary area

B) Organised and structured water service in theperiurban districts of the concessionary areacentres

C) Economic development centres around themini DWS systems




Capacity building

Connection of miniDWS systems andstrengthening ofexisting DWS systems


To be found 12 000 000 000 STEE urbancentres

Strengthening and extension ofexisting DWS systems

Connection of mini DWS systemsto the STEE network

2011-2020




Capacity building

Funding to be found for DWS construction and strengthening in the concessionary area 2011-2020 27 000 000 000 60



4 PASTORAL WATER SUPPLY ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for pastoral water supply 2000-2010



Past

oral

wat

er s

uppl

yO

ngoi

ng o

r st

art-

up p

roje

cts

Pastoral water supplyproject in the Kanem

Distribution of pastoral water supplystructures in relation to water requirements oflivestock and making allowance for the naturalcarrying capacity of the pasture land

AFD 4 000 000 000Western part of

Saharan andSahelian Zones

Construction of 88 PWPs

Rehabilitation of 265 PWPs

Strengthening of the traditionalsystem for maintaining PWPs

Support for pastoral organisations

1999-2003

Migration protection

Rational exploitation of the pastoral area

Strengthening of stakeholders involvedOngoing

Equipping of migration routes and stock-rearing trade routes with PWPs


Almy Bahïm project,phase 2


AFD 4 500 000 000

Eastern part ofSaharan, Sahelian

and SudanianZones

Development of 70 ponds

Setting up of PWP managementstructures

Improvement of knowledge onlivestock numbers and fodderproducing capacities

Signposting of moukhals

2000-2003



Strengthening of stakeholders involvedOngoing



Almy Bahïm project,phase 3


AFD 7 400 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Development of 80 ponds

Construction of 25 pastoral wells

Construction of 10 micro-dams

Signposting of 1000 km ofmoukhals

2003-2008



Strengthening of stakeholders involvedUnder

discussionEquipping of migration routes and stock-rearing trade routes with PWPs


IX EDF pastoral watersupply project


EDF 6 300 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Rehabilitation of 60 wells

Construction of 60 pastoral wells

Signposting of moukhals

Setting up management structure

2003-2008



Strengthening of stakeholders involvedUnder

discussionEquipping of migration routes and stock-rearing trade routes with PWPs


Central Chad Project


AFD/EDF 5 300 000 000

Central part ofSaharan, Sahelian

and SudanianZones

Development of about 100pastoral water points, includingconstruction of 70 Sahelian pondsand new wells to replace 30existing wells

Rehabilitation of 43 existingstructures

2003-2006



Strengthening of stakeholders involved.

Underdiscussion






Past

oral

wat

er s

uppl

yO

ngoi

ng o

r st

art-

up p

roje

cts

Integrated Plan for Water Developmentand Management

Strengthening of the institutional framework

UNDPFor Ref.

National

A document to serve as areference for the development andintegrated management of waterresources

Capacity building for integrated andsustainable management of waterresources and exploitation facilities

1998-2002

Setting up methods of approach, tools and actionplans to allow the sustainable and integrateddevelopment of water resources


OngoingStrengthening of the legal/regulatory framework




FACFor Ref.

National



Organisational framework forhydraulic structure managementdefined and operational

1999-2003



Operating procedures defined for the managementof hydraulic structures and the water service

OngoingStrengthening of the legal/regulatory framework




UNDPFor Ref.

National

Installation of monitoring tools andmethodologies for integratedwater resource management

National capacity training

Setting up procedures for themanagement of hydraulicstructures on a local, regional andnational level; support for localeconomic development

2003-2006

Integrated water resource management

Support for the local management of hydraulicstructures and pastoral areas


UnderdiscussionStrengthening of the legal/regulatory framework




FSFor Ref.

National


Support for structuring theinstitutional, legal and regulatoryframeworks

2004-2007

Institutional and regulatory framework defined andharmonised.

Capacities trained for management of structuresand resources

UnderdiscussionStrengthening of the legal/regulatory framework


Total funding obtained for pastoral water supply in 2001 27 500 000 000

PWP = Pastoral Water Point List of programmes as of December 2001




Past

oral

wat

er s

uppl

yPr

opos

als

for

proj

ects

aim

ed a

t im

prov

ing

know

ledg

e

Updating livestocknumbers and rangelandused for migration

Distribution of pastoral water supplystructures in relation to requirements oflivestock and pasture land carrying capacities


Updated livestock censusInventories of nomadic routesInventories of pasture land areas andtheir interconnectionsBetter knowledge of trans-frontiermigration

2000-2010

Basic knowledge improvement

Management capacity building

Coordination, regulation and channelling of trans-frontier pastoral migrations


and fundingto be foundEquipping of trade routes and migration tracks

used by the stock-rearers with water points inorder to make movement safe

Updating pasture landcarrying capacities



Maps of the exhaustive inventory ofpasture lands, their condition and anassessment of their carryingcapacities

2000-2010

Support for planning and programming pastoral water supply structures

Sub-sector management support

Rational exploitation of pasture lands with duerespect for the environment



Equipping of trade routes and migration tracksused by the stock-rearers with water points inorder to make movement safe

Inventories oftraditional waterpoints: wells, permanentand semi-permanentponds, etc.



Exhaustive knowledge of livestockdrinking points in order to obtain amore accurate assessment of theneed for pastoral water points

2000-2010

Planning and coherent programming of the varioustypes of pastoral water supply structures

Improvement of knowledge on water resources

Enhanced exploitation of pasture lands


and fundingto be foundEquipping of trade routes and migration tracks

used by the stock-rearers with water points inorder to make movement safe

Setting up pastoralwater supplymonitoring tools



Establishment of data bases (waterpoints, pasture land, livestock, etc.) coupled with a geographicalinformation system (GIS)

Continuous updating and monitoringof basic data and requirements.National personnel trained andcapable of using the GIS.

2000-2010

Decision-aid

Sub-sector management based on updated, usable,data for coherent planning and programming ofactions to be undertaken while always taking intoaccount the environmental aspects





Study and assessmentof the impacts ofpastoral water supplyprojects



Study of the various pastoral watersupply projects carried out andassessment of their impacts, notablyon PWP management proceduresand on the support given for settlingconflicts between migrating andsedentary stock-rearers

2000-2010

Definition of PWP management methodologiesand procedures adapted to the various contextsof migrational stock-rearing and to specificregional aspects

Support for settling and reducing conflicts





Study and assessmentof trans-frontiermigration



Exhaustive knowledge of livestockentry and exit points in Chad.

Development of livestock importand export “ports” equipped withPWPs

Better control and monitoring ofpastoral migrations and trade flowframing(This study could be carried out withinthe context of the CBLT)

2000-2010

Coordination and control of trans-frontiermigration

Improvement of knowledge on livestock tradeflows





Total funding to be found to improve basic knowledge 1 000 000 000

Proposed action plan for pastoral water supply 2000-2010 (contd)




Past

oral

wat

er s

uppl

yPr

opos

als

for

proj

ets

aim

ed a

t im

prov

ing

lives

tock

acc

ess

to w

ater

Construction ofpastoral water points


To be found 5 000 000 000 Saharan Zone

Equipping pasture lands (100 kmgrid size) and trade routes withabout 150 pastoral water pointsgoverned by the pasture landcarrying capacities and by theactual numbers of livestock

Groups of stock-rearers orcommittees bringing together allthe stakeholders, trained in waterpoint management

2000-2010



Setting up PWP management structures adaptedto the specific aspects of the environment





Development ofpastoral water pointsand signposting of themoukhals in the easternand central parts of theSahelian zone


To be found 15 000 000 000Central and

eastern part ofSahelian Zone

Construction of a maximum of 350pastoral wells and development ofponds after having made a detailedstudy of livestock numbers,carrying capacities and nomadroutes and areas

Resizing and signposting of themoukhals equipped with PWPs, incollaboration with the variousstakeholders

Well-defined stop-over receptionareas equipped with PWPs

Setting up of basic structuresintegrating all the stakeholders forPWP management

2000-2010








Development ofpastoral water points inthe western part of theSahelian zone


To be found 4 000 000 000 Western SahelianZone

Construction of a maximum of 125pastoral wells after having made adetailed study of livestock numbersand carrying capacities

Identification of nomad routes

Setting up management structuresconsistent with the local context

2000-2010








PWP = Pastoral water point List of programmes as of December 2001


Proposed action plan for pastoral water supply 2000-2010 (contd)



Past

oral

wat

er s

uppl

yPr

opos

als

for

proj

ects

aim

ed a

t im

prov

ing

lives

tock

ac

cess

to w

ater

Development ofpastoral water points inthe Sudanian zone

Distribution of pastoral water supplystructures in relation to livestock waterrequirements, and making allowance for thenatural carrying capacity of the pasture lands

To be found 20 000 000 000 Sudanian Zone

Construction of pastoral waterwells (about 500) and developmentof ponds according torequirements and land use

Jointly approved delineation ofmigration corridors and wateraccess points

Setting up management structuresadapted to the various contextsand involving all stakeholders

2000-2010Integrated regional development, especially forthe rural areas

Prevention of conflicts





Development ofpastoral receptionareas equipped withPWPs for herdmovements inexceptional years



Jointly approved identification ofpastoral reception areas forexceptional years

Construction of PWPs

Setting up management structuresadapted to the environment(sedentary area)

2000-2010

Migration protection in exceptionally dry years

Concerted regional development and structuringof the environment

Prevention of sources of conflict




Total funding to be found to improve livestock access to water 49 000 000 000




Past

oral

wat

er s

uppl

yPr

opos

als

for

proj

ects

of a

n in

stitu

tiona

l or

regu

lato

ry n

atur

e

Study of customarylaws and existingtraditional mechanismsfor settling conflictsrelated to access towater resources

Strengthening of the legal/regulatoryframework


Inventory and publication of a“manual” of all customary laws aswell as the traditional mechanismsused for settling conflicts betweenstock-rearers/land farmers inrespect of access to and use ofwater resources.

2000-2010

Pastoral water point management adapted to localcontexts

Prevention or reduction of sources of conflict

Support for promoting local management ofpastoral areas




Strengthening of theWater Code



Definition of the status ofmigratory stock-rearer

Definition and regulation of theconcept of access to water formigrating herdsmen, especially inan area of sedentary farming andlegal acknowledgement of migrationnetworks.

2000-2010Water Code adapted to all water uses

Prevention of conflicts




Capacity building

Drawing up of thepastoral code



Note: The Pastoral Code is part of theregional development framework.

It is mentioned in this action plan purely for reference purposes.

2000-2010

Reduction of conflicts

Strengthening of institutional, legal and regulatoryframeworks

Development of rural areas in Chad giving duerespect to the environment and specific regionalfeatures

Promotion of local management of the pastoralarea




Capacity building

Past

oral

wat

er s

uppl

yTr

aini

ng

External and internaltraining programme andby means of technicalassistance for the civilservants, associationstakeholders, and theprivate sector involvedin the pastoral field

Capacity building(programme that can be broken down intoseveral phases)


High-level training, both internaland external, of engineers,economists, technicians,pastoralism specialists, etc.

Technical assistance programme tosupport the stock-rearing field.

Training programme to supportpastoral organisations and localmanagement of pastoral areas

2000-2010Trained human resources capable of providingefficient management and monitoring of stock-rearing.



Total funding to be found for national capacity building and for strengthening the legal and regulatory framework 1 560 000 000





Impr

ovem

ent o

f acc

ess

to p

asto

ral w

ater

Development of PWPs

Repair of pastoral water supply structuresaccording to livestock needs and pastoralcarrying capacities

To be found 7 000 000 000 Saharan

Development of 400 PWPs

Creation of managementstructures adapted to theenvironment

2011-2020Promote the use of arid rangeland in sectorsendowed with the best fodder resources

Operational management structures



Equipping stock-rearers’ trading and migrationroutes with water points to make migrationmovements safe


Development of PWPs


To be found 10 000 000 000 Sahelian

Development of 500 PWPs

Creation of managementstructures adapted to theenvironment and to specificregional features

2011-2020

Strengthen seasonal pastoral movements bydoubling up the lines of wells installed along themoukhals

Operational PWP management structures





Development of PWPsand pastoral receptionareas


To be found 15 000 000 000 Sudanian

Development of 600 PWPs bydoubling up the moukhals

Development of more pastoralreception areas on the basis ofconsultations between allstakeholders concerned

2011-2020

Strengthen seasonal pastoral movements

Operational PWP management structures

Reduction of conflicts





Mon

itori

ng o

f pas

tora

l hyd

raul

ics

and

capa

city

bui

ldin

g

Maintain and update thedata base and GIS



Continuous updating andmonitoring of basic data andbesoins

National personnel trained andcapable of using the GIS

2011-2020

Management based on up-to-date, exploitabledata in order to be able to plan and draw upcoherent schedules of measures to be taken whilemaking due allowance for environmental aspects






National capacity building To be found 500 000 000 NationalTraining of managerial staff,pastoral organisations

Technical assistance programme2011-2020

Trained human resources capable of providingefficient management and monitoring of stock-rearing.



Total funding to be found for pastoral water supply between 2011 and 2020 32 555 000 000

Proposed action plan for pastoral water supply 2011-2020



5 AGRICULTURAL WATER SUPPLY ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for agricultural water supply 2000-2020



Agr

icul

tura

l wat

er s

uppl

y:on

goin

g or

sta

rt-u

p pr

ojec

ts

Mamdi project(Sodelac)

Rational and sustainable exploitation of thesoil potential

ADB/ADFIDB/BADEA/

GVT.25 000 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Construction of irrigationnetworks over an area of 1800 ha

Construction of a drainagenetwork

On-farm development works

Construction of embankments toprotect polders

Construction of pumping stations

1998-2003 Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisations Ongoing

Development of a policy for farmer trainingand organisation

Doum-Doumdevelopment project(Sodelac)


3 000 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Construction of dams

Development of wadis

Supply of agricultural equipment

1998-2003 Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisations Ongoing


Rural developmentproject for the Lake(Sodelac)


BADEA/ GVT 18 000 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Development of 13 polders

Construction of schools

Construction of public healthcentres

1998-2003Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisationsIntegrated development of rural areas

OngoingDevelopment of a policy for farmer trainingand organisation

Implementation of a regional developmentpolicy

Rural developmentproject for thesubprefecture ofN’Gouri (Sodelac)


BADEA 7 000 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Development of 1000 ha of wadis

Supply of agricultural equipment

Construction of economicinfrastructure (roads, schools,public health centres)

2002-2007

Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisationsIntegrated development of rural areasImproved access to production areas

Starting upDevelopment of a policy for farmer trainingand organisation


Natural resourcesmanagement project in the Sudanian zone


ADB 18 700 000 000 Sudanian Zone

Organisation and empowerment ofproducers

Development of infrastructure

Rehabilitation of 2 500 ha

Construction of 210 km ofprotective embankments

Improvement in the efficiency ofpublic services

2002-2007

Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisationsIntegrated development of rural areasImproved access to production areasNational capacity building

Starting up



Rehabilitation of existing facilities

Project for makingproductive use ofrunoff water


ADB/ADF 11 434 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Construction of 143 km of ruraltracks

Development of 586 ha of land bythe construction of 10 dams and156 wells for market-gardening

Organisational support forproducers

1999-2006

Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisationsIntegrated development of rural areasImproved access to production areas

Ongoing




Proposed action plan for agricultural water supply 2000-2020 (contd)



Agr

icul

tura

l wat

er s

uppl

y:on

goin

g or

sta

rt-u

p pr

ojec

ts

Rural development project in Biltine


ADB/ADF 11 640 000 000 Sahelian / SaharanZones

Development of 10 catchmentareas, six irrigaton areas, and 30wells for market-gardening

Construction of 50 km of ruraltracks

Improvement of 25 000 ha of rain-fed cropping, 300 ha of irrigatedcropping and 700 ha of flood-recession cropping

2002-2007

Contribution to food security and strengthening of peasant organisations

Integrated development of rural areas

Improved access to production areas

Starting upDevelopment of a policy for farmer trainingand organisation


Special programme forfood security


FAO/IDB 787 568 373 Sahelian / SaharanZones

Water control aspect

Diversification aspect

Constraint analysis aspect

Development of irrigation areas,lowland schemes, introduction ofsuitable technologies

2002-2005




Ongoing


Integrated development project of the BET


IDB 2 230 000 000 Saharan Zone

Irrigation and drainage developmentworks for 200 ha of palm groves

Construction of 12 boreholes forwater supply

2002-2004 Contribution to food security Starting upDevelopment of a policy for farmer trainingand organisation

Feasibility study for anintegrated ruraldevelopment project inCameroon/Chad


IDB/CBLT 300 000 000 Sudanian Zone

Development of 2500 ha ofirrigated crops 2001-2002


Contribution to food security

Capacity building

OngoingDevelopment of a policy for farmer trainingand organisation


Rehabilitation of the “C” polders


Taiwan 1 300 000 000 Sudanian Zone

Rehabilitation of 500 ha of “C”polders 2002-2005 Contribution to food security and to the rational

operation of existing facilities Starting upDevelopment of a policy for farmer trainingand organisation


Total funding obtained and under discussion 2000 to 2010 99 391 568 373




Agr

icul

tura

l wat

er s

uppl

y:pr

opos

ed s

chem

es

Rural development ofLiwa


To be found 300 000 000 Sahelian ZoneStudy of the integrateddevelopment of the Liwa sub-prefecture

2000-2010





and fundingto be foundDevelopment of a policy for farmer training

and organisation

Creation of small-scalevillage irrigationschemess



Development of 2000 ha of small-scale village irrigationschemes

2000-2010 Support for local development local and foodsecurity


and fundingto be foundDevelopment of a policy for farmer training

and organisation

Total funding to be found for agricultural water supply between 2000 and 2010 12 300 000 000



Proposed action plan for agricultural water supply 2000-2020 (contd)



Agr

icul

tura

l wat

er s

uppl

y:Kn

owle

dge

impr

ovem

ent,

supp

ort f

or p

lann

ing,

capa

city

-bui

ding

and

sec

tor

stru

ctur

ing

Study of defluencechannel operation andrestoration of theproductive potential ofnatural flood-spreadingon the Chari-Logoneplain

Rational and sustainable exploitation of the soilpotential

To be found 175 000 000 Sudanian Zone

Assessment of the operatingcondition of drainage channelsTechnical recommendations forimproving their operation andoptimising their use

2000-2020Knowledge improvement





Development of a farmer training andorganisation policy

Exhaustive inventoriesof lowlands



Definition of typologyDefinition of technical criteria fortheir developmentDefinition of the terms ofreference for a feasability study foroperating a pilot project

2000-2010 Up-to-date knowledge of the soil potential inChad


and fundingto be foundDevelopment of a farmer training and

organisation policy

Management of a pilotproject for lowlanddevelopment



Full-scale development forexploiting lowlandsRecommendations for continuingthis type of operation

2010-2020Improvement of knowledge on lowland farmingtechniques



and fundingto be foundDevelopment of a farmer training and

organisation policy

Preparation andimplementation of aprogramme for buildingirrigation and drainageschemes with totalcontrol of water



Construction of schemes for theirrigation and drainage of 5000 haof landSupport for and training of PeasantOrganisations Construction of rural tracksTraining of personnel

2000-2020



Strengthening of peasant organisations






Preparation andimplementation of aprogramme for buildingirrigation and drainageschemes for flood-recession, catchmentand small-scale villageirrigation areas



Constructionof developmentschemes for the irrigation anddrainage of 100 000 ha of landSupport for and training of PeasantOrganisations Construction of rural tracksTraining of personnel

2000-2020



Strengthening of peasant organisations






Preparaton andimplementation ofstakeholder trainingplans

Development of a farmer training andorganisation policy To be found 2 000 000 000 National

Definition and implementation oftraining plans for personnelbelonging to the Administration,Peasant Organisations, privateoperators, local populations andassociations

2000-2020

Strengthening of stakeholders involved

Support for sector organisation and structuring

Increase in productivity




Drawing up a RuralCode Legal and regulatory strengthening To be found 750 000 000 National

For Reference:The Rural Code must be an integralpart of overall regional developmentand in harmony with the PastoralCode

2000-2020

Strengthening of institutional, legal and regulatoryframeworks

Development of rural areas in Chad whilerespecting the environment and specific regionalaspects

Promotion of local management of rural areas



Total funding to be found between 2000 and 2020 100 045 000 000



6 WATER RESOURCES ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan in the water resources field 2000-2020



Regu

lato

ry a

nd in

stitu

tiona

l fra

mew

orks

Regional strategiesexploiting the NubianSandstone aquifer

Improvement of knowledge concerning waterresources FIDA/CEDARE 750 000 000

Regional (Chad,Libya; Sudan,

Egypt)

Planning tools and documents forthe management and sustainableexploitation of the NubianSandstone aquifer

2000-2003Integrated management of shared water resources

Capacity trainingOngoing

Capacity building



FAC 500 000 000 National

Institutional and legal frameworksdefinedStrengthened water managementcapacitiesOrganisational framework forhydraulic structure managementdefined and operational

1998-2002



Support in defining the operating procedures formanagement of hydraulic structures and the waterservice


Capacity building

Integrated Plan for water development


UNDP 1 500 000 000 National

An approved document to serve as areference for the development andintegrated and sustainablemanagement of water resources


1998-2002

Integrated and sustainable management of waterresources and the facilities for their mobilisation and exploitation

National officers trained in water resourcemanagement and monitoring

Ongoing

Capacity building

Improvement of knowledge concerning waterresources

Integrated management of water resources andaquatic ecosystems



FAC 1 000 000 000 National






Underdiscussion


Capacity building



UNDP 1 875 000 000 National

Setting up of local, regional andnational water managementstructures




Operating procedures for management ofhydraulic structures and the water service definedand applied at full scale over an area



Underdiscussion


Capacity building

Funding obtained and under discussion for institutional and regulatory frameworks and knowledge improvement 5 625 000 000



Proposed action plan in the water resources field 2000-2020 (contd)



Surf

ace

wat

er

Fisheries master plan


ADB 750 000 000 NationalA document and tools for thesustainabale exploitation of fisheriesresources

2001-2003 Contribution to food security and to economicdevelopment Ongoing


Enhancement of themeasurement networkand hydrological studiesper event for localdevelopment(agricultural andpastoral)


To be found 250 000 000 Saharan Zone

Installation of appropriate facilitiesfor monitoring surface water flowsin the Saharan zoneTraining of national technicians andlocal personnel

2000-2010

A) Operational measurement system for collectingbasic data on Saharan hydrology

B) National personnel trained in the installation and monitoring of measuring equipment



Capacity building


Enhancement of themeasurement andmonitoring network forlakes and flood flows,targeting localeconomic developmentin particular


To be found 200 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Rehabilitation of existing facilitiesInstallation of new facilitiesTraining of national technicians andlocal personnel

2000-2010

A Operational measurement system forpermanent monitoring of the operation ofLakes Chad and Fitri, the wadis as well as thecatchment areas of eastern Chad

B) National personnel trained in the installation and monitoring of measuring equipment



Capacity building


Enhancement of themeasurement andmonitoring network forthe surface water ofthe Chari-Logone andMayo-Kebbi basins


To be found 200 000 000 NationalCarrying out hydrological studies of the various surface hydrosystemsTraining of national personnel

2000-2010

A) Knowledge of the main characteristics andoperation of the surface hydrosystems andtheir relationships with aquifers

B) Support for the sustainable exploitation andmanagement of water resources

C) Training of national personnel capable ofconducting and monitoring water resourcesstudies



Capacity building


Preparation of anintegrated plan for theChari-Logone basin andis flood-prone areas

Capacity building To be found 2 000 000 000 Sahelian /Sudanian Zones

Documents and tools for themanagement of surface waterresources in the Chari-Logone basin,reconciling economic developmentand protection of the environment

2000-2010

A) Sustainable development of flood-prone areas

B) Flood control

C) Support for the agricultural sector and for foodsecurity

D) Biodiversity conservation

E) Contribution to economic development



Strengthening andoperationalisation of the flood warningservice


To be found 100 000 000 Sahelian /Sudanian Zones

Structures and equipment forforecasting floods in the flood plainsand areas around lake shores subjectto temporary flooding as well as forLake Chad and Lake Fitri and alsofor riparian towns, especiallyN’Djaména

2000-2010

A) Flood risk forecasting

B ) Support for the agricultural sector and for foodsecurity

C) Contribution to civil protection




Capacity building

Assessment study ofdamage to the riverbanks and theirdevelopment

River water management

500 000 000 Sahelian /Sudanian Zones

Identification of zones or areas tobe developed and the infrastructureto be established

2000-2010

A) Flood prevention

B) Biodiversity conservation

C) Improvement of local navigability

D) Contribution to economic development




Funding obtained and to be found for surface water studies 4 000 000 000




Surf

ace

wat

er a

nd g

roun

dwat

er

Preparation ofstandards forabstraction of waterresources for drinking,agricultural andindustrial usesPreparation of outfallstandards



Definition of standards forabstracting volumes of water fromsurface resources and major aquifersystems(These standards must be defined incollaboration with the CBLT with regardto shared water resources)

2000-2010

A) Sustainable development of water resources

B) Strengthened regulatory framework

C) Conservation of the biodiversity



Capacity building

Strengthening of regulatory framework

Setting up ofmethodologies andprocedures forassessing impacts priorto the implementationof infrastructuredevelopment projects



Writing of a regulatory“methodological guide” for assessingthe impacts of all infrastructureconstruction projects on waterresources and on the environmentin general

2000-2010

A) Provision of tools, methodologies andprocesses to decision-makers in order to beable to define the “added value” of anyinvestment having impacts on water resourcesand on the environment in general

B) Decision-aid

C) Better defined regulatory framework

D) Contribution to harmonious economicdevelopment



Capacity building

Strengthening of regulatory framework

Hydrological andhydrogeological studiesof the mountainouscatchment area ineastern Chad


To be found 500 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Studies on rainfall, surface flows andrunoff, infiltration, evapotranspiration,soils, vegetation, as well as thedimension of catchment areasDevelopment proposals taking intoaccount the impacts on the supply ofgroundwater aquifers and waterpoints operated downstream ofcatchment areas

2000-2010

A) Better knowledge of water resources and theoperation of mountainous catchment areas

B) Development of catchment areas on the basisof reliable, up-to-date data



Capacity building

Setting up a waterquality control andmonitoring structure



Regular monitoring of the quality ofsurface water and the resources inmajor aquifers, notably thoseexploited for agricultural anddrinking water supply

2000-2010

A) Prevention of contamination risks of variousorigins

B) Prevention and management of health risks forhumans and animals

C) Support for biodiversity conservation




Capacity building

Funding to be found 1 100 000 000






Gro

undw

ater

Updating of thehydrogeological map ofChad


To be found 400 000 000 Sahelian /Sudanian Zones

General hydrogeological map ofChad to a scale of 1:1 000 000,established from processing newdata obtained from different projectsand programmes

2000-2010

A) Provision of basic tools for the sustainabledevelopment of groundwater

B) Aids for decision-making and for defining andplanning programmes

C) Support for economic development of Chad




Capacity building

Studies of groundwaterpotential in thebasement zones ofeastern Chad


To be found 1 000 000 000 Sahelian / SaharanZones

Analysis and assessment ofgroundwater potential on the basisof a literature survey, the results ofwater point constructionprogrammes, processing of satelliteimagery, geological andhydrogeological surveys andexploratory boreholes, etc.Recommendations for the locationand exploitation (water abstraction)of water pointsDefinition of mechanisms andrelations between surface water andgroundwater resourcesDefinition of priorities in the use ofgroundwater resources

2000-2010

A) Support for defining and planning groundwaterexploitation programmes

B) Sustainable management and exploitation ofgroundwater resources in the basement zone

C) National personnel trained in the identificationand management of groundwater resources inthe basement zone

D) Decision-aid for regional development

E) Assistance in preventing aquifer pollution

F) Support for regional economic development



Capacity building

Updating of thehydrogeological map ofthe SouthernContinental Terminal



Analysis of existing data

Hydrogeological map of theSouthern Continental TerminalEstablishment of aquifer rechargemechanisms and interrelations withsurface water resources and deeptectonic fossil aquifers

2000-2010

A) Knowledge of the potential and maincharacteristics of the Continental Terminalaquifer

B) Support in planning exploitation programmes of the Southern Continental Terminal aquifer

C) Sustainable management and exploitation of theSouthern Continental Terminal aquifer

D) Decision-aid





Capacity building

Studies of groundwaterpotential in theNorthern ContinentalTerminal aquifer


To be found 800 000 000 Sahelian / SaharanZones

Assessment of groundwaterpotential based on existing data,processing of satellite imagery andgeological, hydrogeological andgeophysical surveys

Recommendations for the locationand exploitation (water abstraction)of water pointsDefinition of mechanisms andrelations between surface water andgroundwater resources, etc.

A) Support for defining and planning groundwaterexploitation programmes

B) Sustainable management and exploitation ofgroundwater resources in the basement zone

C) National personnel trained

D) Assistance in preventing aquifer contamination

E) Decision-aid for regional development



Capacity building




Gro

undw

ater

Hydrogeological studies of the multi-layeraquifer systems of theChad basin


To be found 1 000 000 000 Sahelian Zone

Determination of the maincharacteristics of each aquifer

Establishmentof the relationsbetween the various aquifers, on onehand, and surface water resourceson the other

Assessment of the potential andquality of each aquifer

Note: This programme must be carriedout in close collaboration with the CBLT

2000-2010

A) Sustainable management and exploitation of themulti-layer aquifer systems of the Chad basin

B) Support for planning water exploitationprogrammes in the Chad basin

C) National personnel trained

D) Contribution to economic development of theSahelian zone


F) Support for regional economic development



Capacity building

Studies of the artificialrecharge potential ofalluvial deposits



Carrying out works and studies toestablish the recharge potential ofalluvial deposits in the valleys of theBET

2000-2010

A) Knowledge of the recharge potential of alluvialdeposits

B) Support for defining and planning groundwaterexploitation programmes

C) Sustainable management and exploitation ofgroundwater




Capacity building

Strengthening of thenational piezometricnetwork



Installation of a national piezometrynetwork including the topographicallevelling of observation pointsTraining of monitoring personnel

2000-2010

A) Sustainable monitoring, management andexploitation of groundwater

B) Improvement of knowledge on the operationand recharge mechanisms of the major aquifers

C) National personnel trained in aquifermonitoring

D) Prevention of groundwater contamination




Capacity building

Studies of artesianwells in the Borkou



Assessment-diagnosis of artesianwells in the Borkou

Determination of zones ofartesian activity

Preparation of standards relating tothe exploitation of artesian wells

2000-2010

A) Support for the sustainable management andexploitation of aquifers

B) Improvement of knowledge on water resources

C) Support for defining the regulatory framework



Capacity building






Gro

undw

ater

Studies of the potentialof the deep aquifers inthe tectonic trenches



Identification and delineation ofthese aquifers

Definition of their characteristics,their interactions with the otheraquifer systems and their rechargemechanisms

Assessment of their potential

2000-2010

A) Improvement of knowledge concerning waterresources

B) Training of national personnel

C) Support for the sustainable management andexploitation of groundwater resources



Capacity building

Studies of groundwateremergence zones in theBET (springs)


To be found 100 000 000 Saharan ZoneStudy of the potential of springs,their recharge mechanisms andtheir exploitation potential

2000-2010

A) Improvement of knowledge concerninggroundwater resources in the Saharan zone

B) Support for the sustainable management andexploitation of water resources

C) Training of national personnel

D) Contribution to the economic development ofthe Saharan zone



Capacity building


Assessment of thepotential of thePaleozoic Sandstoneand marineCarboniferous aquifers


To be found 1 000 000 000 Saharan Zone

Improvement of knowledge of theirmain characteristics and theirproductivity potential

Determination of interactionsbetween aquifer systems

Recommendations for measures to ensure sustainable exploitationof these resources

2000-2010

A) Improvement of knowledge concerninggroundwater resources in the Saharan zone

B) Support for the sustainable management andexploitation of water resources

C) Training of national personnel

D) Contribution to the economic development ofthe Saharan zone



Capacity building


Funding obtained and to be found for groundwater 6 875 000 000




Cap

acity

trai

ning


Capacity building To be found 500 000 000 National

A) High-level training, both internaland external, of engineers,economists, technicians, watermanagement specialists,hydrogeologists, hydrologists, etc.

B) Technical assistance programmeto support the integrateddevelopment of water resources

2000-2010 Trained human resources capable of efficientmanagement and exploitation of water resources



Strengthening of theWater Office’s database

Capacity buildingTo be found 350 000 000 National

Centre equipped with the necessaryfacilities for collecting, processingand editing up-to-date documentson water resources

2000-2010 Operational resource monitoring system, capableof providing decision-aids for regionaldevelopment




Capacity-building funding to be found 850 000 000

Wat

er r

esou

rces

and

oil e

xtra

ctio

n

Study andimplementation of awarning system forpollution fromaccidental oil spills


To be found 1 000 000 000Sudanian/Sahelian Zones

Emergency plan available in theevent of accidental pollution due tooil exploitation

2000-2010 Preservation of human health and environmentalbiodiversity


and fundingto be foundIntegrated management of water resources and

aquatic ecosystems

Capacity training planfor monitoring oilexploitation and itspotential impact onwater resources and onthe environment ingeneral

National capacity building To be found 1 500 000 000 NationalTraining of engineers, technicianslegal experts, managers, national environmental specialists

Trained human resources capable of efficientmonitoring of oil exploitation and its possibleimpact on water resources and on theenvironment in general



Funding to be found 2 500 000 000



7 SANITATION ACTION PLAN

Proposed action plan for sanitation 2000-2010



Rura

l san

itatio

n

Village water supplyprogramme in theOuaddaï/Biltine

Promotion of basic village sanitation measures

KFW/AFD/EU 500 000 000 Eastern SahelianZone

Construction of about 12 000improved traditional latrines

Dissemination of health educationprogrammes

Local capacity building

2002-2005

Improvement of sanitation conditions for villagepopulations

Local capacities trained and capable of applyingelementary sanitation measures

Ongoing

Capacity building

Preparation of a “guide”on basic sanitationtechniques in a ruralenvironment


To be found 50 000 000 NationalManuals and practical referenceguides dealing with basic sanitationtechniques in a village environment

2000-2010Tools and methodologies contributing to villagesanitation placed at the disposal of all stakeholdersinvolved

Project to bedefined andfunding to be found

Capacity building

Strengthening of legal and regulatoryframework

Development of basicsanitation infrastructurein a rural environment(latrines, wastewatercollection)

(These schemes couldform one segment of thevillage water supplyprogrammes)



Development of basic infrastructurein the villages

Dissemination of health educationprogrammes among the villagepopulations

2000-2010


Local capacities trained and capable of applyingelementary sanitation measures


Capacity building

Preparation anddissemination ofinformation andawareness-raisingprogrammes onsanitation and the linksbetween water, hygieneand health


To be found 1 000 000 000 NationalVillage populations made aware of,educated and trained in basichygienic practices

2000-2010 Improvement of sanitation conditions for villagepopulations


Capacity building

Training programme forcraftsmen onconstructiontechniques for basicsanitation facilities

Promotion of basic village sanitation measuresTo be found 500 000 000 National

Craftsmen capable of building anddeveloping basic sanitaryinfrastructure

2000-2010Improvement of sanitation conditions for ruralpopulations

Development of income-generating activities

Project to bedefined andfunding to be foundCapacity building

Total funding obtained and to be found forvillage sanitation for 2000-2010 7 050 000 000




Urb

an a

nd s

emi-u

rban

san

itatio

n

Stormwater drainageProgressive equipping of urban centres withsanitation infrastructure AFD 4 500 000 000 N’Djaména,

Moundou, Sarh,Construction of stormwater seweroutfalls 2001-2005

A) Sanitised living environment

B) Improvement in the state of health of urbanpopulations

C) Development of local and national capacities inthe sanitation field

D) Support for the private sector

E) Development of income-generating activities

F) Protection of the environment

OngoingCapacity building

Programme for theconstruction of publiclatrines in the fourbiggest towns in Chad

Progressive equipping of urban centres withsanitation infrastructure

To be found 300 000 000N’Djaména,

Moundou, Sarh,Abeche

Construction of latrines in public centres 2003-2010


Construction ofsecondary and tertiarystormwater collectorsin the four biggesttowns in Chad


To be found 7 000 000 000N’Djaména,


Construction of stormwaterdrainage networks 2003-2010


Development of privatecesspits for wastewater

Progressive equipping of urban centres withsanitation infrastructure To be found 200 000 000

N’Djaména,Moundou, Sarh,

Abeche

Households provided with basicsanitation infrastructure incompliance with recognisedstandards

2003-2010


Setting up of a wastecollection system

Progressive equipping of urban centres withsanitation infrastructure To be found 300 000 000 National Setting up of an urban waste

removal system 2003-2010


Training of humanresources in sanitationat all levels (adminis-tration, civil society,sanitation engineersand technicians,managers, etc.)

National capacity building To be found 4 000 000 000 National Human resources trained in allaspects of sanitation 2000-2010




Proposed action plan for sanitation 2000-2010 (contd)



Urb

an a

nd s

emi-u

rban

san

itatio

n

Preparation of“sanitation standards”especially for industrialeffluent and in aregulatory frameworkadapted to the contextof Chad


To be found 1 000 000 000 National Precise regulatory framework 2003-2005









Studies of potentialsites for the disposal ofurban waste

Progressive equipping of urban centres withsanitation infrastructure To be found 580 000 000 Urban centres Recognised sites complying with

urban waste dumping standards 2003-2010


Preparation andimplementation ofsanitation programmesfor other urban centresin Chad


To be found 1 200 000 000 Urban centres Sanitation plan for each urban centre 2003-2010


Sanitation of urbancentres located in theoil extraction zone


Ongoing For Ref. WesternSudanian Zone 2003-2006 Ongoing

Capacity building

Total funding obtained and to be found for urban sanitation for the period 2000-2010 19 080 000 000


Proposed action plan for sanitation 2011-2020



Rura

l san

itatio

n

Development of basicsanitation infrastructurein a rural environment(latrines, wastewatercollection)

(These schemes couldform one segment of thevillage water supplyprogrammes)



Development of basicinfrastructure in the villages

Dissemination of health educationprogrammes amongst the villagepopulations

2011-2020


Local people trained and capable of applyingelementary sanitary measures


Capacity building

Preparation anddissemination ofinformation andawareness-raisingprogrammes onsanitation and the linksbetween water, hygieneand health


To be found 1 000 000 000 NationalVillage populations made aware of,educated and trained in basic healthpractices

2000-2010 Improvement of sanitation conditions for villagepopulations


Capacity building

Training programme forcraftsmen onconstructiontechniques for basicsanitation facilities


To be found 500 000 000 NationalCraftsmen capable of building anddeveloping basic sanitaryinfrastructure

2011-2020Improvement of sanitation conditions for ruralpopulations

Development of income-generating activities


Total funding to be found for village sanitation 2011-2020 8 500 000 000

Urb

an a

nd s

emi-u

rban

san

itatio

n

Construction ofsecondary and tertiarystormwater collectionnetworks in the fourlargest towns in Chad


To be found 20 000 000 000N’Djaména,


Construction of stormwaterdrainage networks 2011-2020








Construction ofwastewater collectionand treatmentnetworks

Progressive equipping of urban centres withsanitation infrastructure To be found 44 000 000 000

N’Djaména,Moundou, Sarh,

Abeche

Construction of wastewatercollection networks and treatmentsystems

2011-2020


Preparation andimplementation ofsanitation programmesfor other urban centresin Chad


To be found 3 000 000 000 Urban centres Sanitation plan for each urbancentre 2011-2020


Training of humanresources in sanitationat all levels

(Administration, civilsociety, sanitationengineers andtechnicians, managers,etc.)


To be found 6 600 000 000 National Human resources trained in allaspects of sanitation 2011-2020



Total funds acquired or under discussion concerning the support measures for 2000-2010 73 600 000 000



1 INTRODUCTION

The Integrated Plan for Chad’s Water Development and Management responds to two guidingprinciples defined by the United Nations (Commission on Sustainable Development, sixth session) in1998, which encompass strategic approaches to the development and integrated and sustainablemanagement of water resources. These guiding principles were restated and refined by theinternational water experts meetings (Harare - January 1998, organised by UNDESA; Paris - March1998, organised by France;The Hague - March 2000, organised by the Netherlands; Bonn - December2001, organised by Germany). The priority placed on the water sector was also restated in thedeclaration on the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) by the heads of State and Governmentduring their meeting at UN Headquarters in 2000. Finally, the World Summit on SustainableDevelopment held in Johannesburg in September 2002 confirmed the role of water as the key tosustainable development.

In order to reach the universal goals of the Millennium Declaration concerning access to drinkingwater and the integration of the principles of sustainable development in national policies, States werenotably requested to achieve the quantified goals by 2015 and draw up integrated plans for themanagement and rational use of water resources by 2005.

In adopting the SDEA in June 2003, Chad broke new ground in the Subsaharan Africa region. It is nowthe Chadian government’s responsibility to organise itself accordingly and the internationalcommunity’s responsibility to take action, in addition to internal financial efforts, so as to ensure thatthe goals that have been set jointly are achieved in full and that they will have long-term impacts.

The first, immediate stage will therefore focus on organisation and fund mobilisation. In parallel,accompanying measures to monitor, assess and update the SDEA will be set up immediately andinitially cover a three-year period.

The First Integrated plan for Chad’s Water Development and Management was aimed atimplementing a short-term action plan, as part of an integrated approach with long-term objectives.However, in practice, both the funding possibilities and the pace of implementation are changing as aresult of external factors which are difficult to predict. Therefore, the “SDEA process” must be capableof adapting constantly to change. For this reason, operation implementation must be accompanied bylarge-scale institutional and organisational strengthening of the ministry of water and a mechanismthat can be accessed by both the supervising administration and all the other “main groups ofstakeholders” in the sector.

The organisational strengthening of the public service responsible for water, at both central andregional level, must take place gradually, on the basis of diagnosis studies and internal debates, asstipulated in the SDEA and its action plan. As long as there are insufficient well-trained managers (thecurrent number being insufficient to meet needs), it will be difficult to contemplate operational reform.Therefore, priority will be placed on training new technical and administrative managers who willbecome operational after three or four years. There are great needs in the areas of programming,contract management, works supervision, financial control, legal aspects, etc. During the first few yearsof SDEA implementation, starting in 2003, support from international experts and consultants forworks execution and supervision will therefore remain inevitable if the proportion of the Chadianpopulation with access to water is to be increased significantly.

As of 2003, with support from the UNDP and UNDESA, special efforts will be made to capitalise onthe skills acquired by the managers who participated in drawing up the SDEA by setting up a unit forplanning and monitoring the implementation and impacts of the SDEA at the current Directorate ofHydraulic Affairs (DHA) level. A training plan will also be prepared, with support from MAE-SCAC,in order to build the capacities of the DHA and DREM (Directorate of Water Resources andMeteorology) managers, mainly to ensure that a first class of future managers and technicians can besent to the regional schools for the start of the 2004 academic year if possible. The injection of newfunds from oil exploitation should contribute to funding this training and action, which are essentialfor the sustainable management of the water sector in Chad.

As regards the monitoring mechanism, based on a national and intersectoral network of focal pointsand on the future regional directorates of water, their purpose will be to:

� monitor physical implementation of the SDEA short-term action plan;

� monitor the impact of implementation;

� monitor the consistency of the work with the methodologies;

� monitor fund mobilisation, notably ensuring that sufficient funds are allocated to accompanyingmeasures in each area of external assistance contributing to the water sector in Chad;

� monitor assessment of the overall impacts of the SDEA in comparison with the expectedperformance;

� update the SDEA regularly.

The five types of monitoring measure listed above will be continuous, while an overall assessmentof the results and impacts of the SDEA is to be carried out every two years (late 2005 and late 2007).Lastly, the basic data (water office data bases for detailed programming of rural DWS, and GIS/SDEAdata bases for the planning and integrated management of all the resources and their uses) will haveto be updated regularly, with the SDEA reference document being updated roughly every five years(2008, 2013 and 2018).

2 FUND MOBILISATION

2.1 Internal fund mobilisation

In Chad, internal funds consist of contributions from users and the State (excluding external aid).

2.1.1 The users’ contribution

It was demonstrated in chapter 3 that village households can, and generally do take responsibility forthe cost of servicing or maintaining drinking water supply equipment. In urban and semi-urban areas,with equipment geared to the different contexts, it has been verified that the end user enjoying amodern service can, in theory, afford the real-cost tariff of the public drinking water service, asintended in the water policy. As a minimum, this tariff must cover all operating charges and costs ofrenewing equipment with a service life of less than twenty years. The tariffs in urban areas withconnections (concessionary area) will have to be gradually increased. This increase is justified ongrounds of equity and the need to invest in extensions in periurban areas currently without watersupplies. For all other costs (first installation of equipment, sanitation, water resource monitoring andmanagement, etc.), additional funds (State subsidies and international aid) must be mobilised in Chadfor many years to come.

As regards pastoral water supply, stock-rearers can generally afford the cost. As far as agriculturalwater supply is concerned, the cost can be afforded by private initiatives, but not for large irrigationschemes, which generally have very high costs. Farmers often have great difficulty affording the cost ofother irrigation schemes, which vary widely in terms of efficiency and profitability.

Monitoring of the price of each “water service level” based on a suitable mechanism (watchdog, forexample) and across the entire country would appear to be very useful for implementing the principleof equity, which is written into the SDEA water policy and the Water Code.



2.1.2 The State’s public investments (excluding external aid)

When the SDEA was completed (late 2002), the distribution of public revenues from oil exploitationhad not yet been drawn up. According to the macroeconomic framework of the SNRP (PovertyReduction Strategy Paper), the State will receive an average of FCFA 118 billion/year during theforthcoming period of the SDEA (2003-2015), of which FCFA 65 billion are to be devoted to priorityspending, which could be broken down as follows:

� FCFA 45.5 billion for operation, and

� FCFA 19.5 billion for additional physical investment, of which about FCFA 3 billion could go tothe water sector.

These budgets show clearly that the public investments planned for the water sector fall far short ofthe total funding needs of the SDEA, an estimated FCFA 23 billion/year for the balanced scenario,including all subsectors. International aid therefore remains essential in order to confirm the firstphysical investments and to ensure that the accompanying measures are on the appropriate scale.

The additional public investments resulting from oil exploitation should logically be allocated to thepriority sectors which are insufficiently covered by international aid, notably rural and urban sanitation.There is real potential here for creating jobs and small local companies.

Part of the additional operating budget should be allocated to the water sector, to support the rapiddecentralisation of its administration and sustainably strengthen human resources in all areas (public,private and associations). These are prerequisites if the SDEA goals are to be reached.

2.2 External fund mobilisation

As explained above, a major effort is required and expected on the part of international aid over thenext twenty years, in addition to internal fund mobilisation.

As soon as the State adopts the final SDEA document, it will be published with support from theUNDP and UNDESA and officially submitted by the Government of the Republic of Chad to thebilateral and multilateral donor community.

A round table of donors interested in the national water sector in Chad will then be organised inorder to collect their expressions of interest in the SDEA short- and medium-term action plan. Itshould be noted that this plan clearly takes account of the basic framework of all the current andplanned actions and calculates the total resources to be mobilised to implement the strategies definedin the SDEA, on the basis of priorities. Each task obviously is yet to be defined in detail in closeconsultation with the MEE and the CTIE.

In the context of its continuing support for implementation of the SDEA and its usual role of aidcoordination, the UNDP has already proposed to foster and contribute to the funding of thisinternational round table.

3 MONITORING OF SDEA IMPLEMENTATION

3.1 Indicator-based monitoring of SDEA implementation

The Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, within the MEE, is responsible for monitoring the implementationof the SDEA (which covers the entire national water sector and not just access to drinking water1).This directorate will regularly (once a year) present a report on the monitoring of relevant indicatorsto the Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE), extended to include donors in thenational water sector. It will also collate opinions on the trends observed and the performancemeasured in terms of physical achievements and actual impacts of projects.

1 Access to drinkingwater in rural and non-concessionary semi-urban areas is, inprinciple, programmedby a specific unit at theDH, backed up by theMAE-SCAC.


Monitoring indicators will be defined when implementation of the SDEA begins, on the basis of workalready carried out in terms of monitoring the development goals set out in the MillenniumDeclaration, and of work in progress internationally on environmental accounting under the aegis ofthe UN. These indicators and their monitoring methods in the Chadian context will be examinedbeforehand in a methodological study. In particular, efforts will be made to measure a number ofdescriptors as accurately as possible (depending on the state of knowledge) and continuously(annually) in order to calculate these indicators. A few examples of physical achievement indicatorsare given below:

� actual permanent rate of access to drinking water in each administrative division in rural areas;

� actual permanent rate of access to drinking water in each administrative division in non-concessionary urban or semi-urban areas;

� actual permanent rate of access to drinking water in each administrative division in concessionaryurban or semi-urban areas;

� actual rate of access to basic sanitation in each administrative division;

� level of physical implementation of the pastoral water supply action plan;

� level of physical implementation of the agricultural water supply action plan.

The basic data required will be collated regularly and inspected before being entered into a data base.The annual report will be published in a standard format in order to enable comparisons to be madefrom one year to the next and to detect any underlying variations in the indicators in relation to theinitial objectives of the SDEA. For the first few years, this report will be published in the form of aprototype in order to collect the users’ (administrators’ and donors’) opinions. Some of the morecomplex indicators will be tested on a smaller area before being published.

This report should enable the decision-makers to highlight the main trends after a few years, and toorientate effort or investments towards the domains or geographical areas that need them the most,in order to reach the objectives set by the SDEA without any major distortion.

Initially, light support will have to be given to the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs (DH) to enable it toimplement its role of monitoring and inspecting the water sector on a sound basis and independently.This support will mainly involve methodological and information technology aspects as well as training.This support for the DH is planned and included in the programme co-funded by the ChadianGovernment and the UNDP and implemented by UNDESA: “Water Governance and LocalDevelopment - GEDEL” (2003-2006).

3.2 Indicator-based monitoring of SDEA impacts

The same principles will be adopted for monitoring and disseminating the qualitative impacts of thephysical achievements of the SDEA, while striving to link them to the strategies adopted. As anindication, a non-exhaustive list of possible impact descriptors or indicators is given below:

� the tariff observed in each department for each quality of service level in terms of drinking wateraccess, and the cost collection ratio;

� the extent to which an IEC accompanying programme targeting schoolchildren and women isincluded in the village and urban water supply and sanitation programmes;

� impacts on variations in water-borne diseases in accordance with progress made in improvingaccess to drinking water, hygiene and basic sanitation;

� measurable impacts on food security, linked to implementation of the agricultural water supplyaction plan;

� measurable impacts on stock-rearers (including conflict reduction), linked to implementation ofthe pastoral water supply action plan;


� measurable impacts on the fight against poverty, linked to implementation of the SDEA;

� the impact of improving basic knowledge and disseminating information for each subsector.

3.3 Monitoring of methodological consistency

Consistency of the tasks carried out by internal stakeholders (public and private bodies andassociations acting as partners providing outside assistance) in the integrated management of waterresources in Chad should be ensured using the single reference document constituted by the SDEA.This document sets out the main principles of the country’s water policy and the subsectoralstrategies involved in implementation.

The Prime Minister’s decree signed on 3/9/99 concerning the creation and organisation of a NationalWater Management Committee2 stipulates that the technical mechanism for intersectoralconsultation overseen by the Intersectoral Technical Committee for Water (CTIE) must regularlycheck methodological consistency, notably starting with the design of major water-relatedprogrammes.

A number of studies, guides and procedures have yet to be set up to make it easier to maintainconsistency with the SDEA, to support implementation of the Water Code and its decrees ofapplication. The new decrees of application of the Water Code and, undoubtedly, the update of thiscode, will smooth the gradual promulgation of these regulations at the appropriate time, once theapproaches selected have been sufficiently tested on demonstration areas or projects.

In order to assist in preparing these studies, guides and procedures and in preparing the CTIE, it wasdeemed necessary to provide technical coordination at a methodological level, starting at an earlystage of project and programme preparation, instigated by the Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs andwith the participation of the donors.

With this in mind, the DH will set up its own internal SDEA strategic planning and monitoring unit.This unit will be trained in and based on international and national expertise. Its main support partnerwill be the UNDP-UNDESA project from 2003 to 2006, because of the continuity that the UNDPand UNDESA intend to contribute to SDEA monitoring and to the national water sector, consideredby the Government and United Nations to be a priority in the fight against poverty. Thiscomplementary UNDP-UNDESA programme to accompany the SDEA, i.e., “Water Governance andLocal Development” (GEDEL), the organisational and legal aspects of which are complemented bythe MAE-SCAC “Water Policy” project, will coordinate the SDEA’s accompanying measures. In thisway, lessons from experience and proposals from major projects being carried out in the field withfunding from the EC, AFD, KFW, GTZ, UNDP, UNICEF, etc. will be constantly used to the full.

Certain institutions such as universities, training centres and the organisations in the United Nationssystem, etc., may be called on to provide structure and resources in specific areas, and might proposemethodological memos in this respect at this monitoring unit’s request, in order to enhance thecorresponding studies.

The DH will gradually formulate a methodological approach framework to be common to all theprojects and, with support from the GEDEL project, will guarantee that the framework is consistentwith the national water policy and the strategies adopted. This framework will be set out in methodguides and procedures, which will be tested prior to obtaining national validation by the CTIE andapproval from the CNGE.

This SDEA monitoring unit will also be able to issue recommendations, propose interventions orformulate accompanying projects, which will be submitted to the donors for approval in theframework of the accompanying measures funding mechanism described below.

2 Decree034/PM/MEE/99,instigated and preparedwith support fromproject CHD/98/04.


3.4 Monitoring the mobilisation of funds

One of the main lessons of the SDEA is the importance of investing sufficiently in accompanyingmeasures in order to provide a human, technical, technological, organisational, institutional and legalenvironment which is sufficient for the development and sustainable, integrated management of thenational water sector as a whole (water resources, equipment and services).

In the past, the major hydraulic equipment programmes concentrated mainly on physicalimplementation, whereas the conditions under which the local populations became owners of thestructures, built up their capacities and consequently took charge of maintenance and sustainability,sometimes fell short of expectations. In spite of financial efforts, this sometimes resulted in failures insome water-related subsectors (notably irrigation) whereas, in other subsectors, the initially-definedproject objectives were not reached in full.

In order to overcome these difficulties, which are diagnosed in detail by the SDEA, and to implementappropriate solutions by following the SDEA strategies, an incentive-based flexible monitoringmechanism should be set up to ensure that the donors in the national water sector fully understandthe need for accompanying measures in the framework of sustainable development and make sufficientfinancial commitments to enable these measures to be implemented.

For this purpose, the intention is to propose that each donor should devote a percentage of thephysical investments (between 5% and 10%) to setting up accompanying measures, which form anintegral part of their own programmes or of the programmes they select from those included in theSDEA action plan, according to procedures to be defined in partnership.

One flexible formula could consist of a general framework agreement to be signed between thedonors and the hydraulic affairs administration, and initiated by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs,acting as the donors’ leading agency for the national water sector in Chad. In association with anagreement of this type, an incentive-based mechanism for monitoring each party’s contributionswould be set up under the aegis of the DH in order to ensure that sufficient funding is actually madeavailable to meet basic needs as they arise and to ensure smooth implementation of the SDEA.

3.5 Monitoring the impact of human activities on water resources

Stormwater, surface water and groundwater combine to form a single resource, through the watercycle. Human and economic activities have an impact on these resources, which are both limited andvulnerable to pollution, so it is vital to possess detailed knowledge of the resources and their uses. Onthe scale of a catchment basin and its sub-basins, impacts (abstraction and pollution) propagate fromupstream to downstream. It is important to use a catchment basin-based approach for thismonitoring. It is essential to use mapping tools to locate the influential areas (recharge, flooding, etc.),outfall points, abstraction points and measurement points, for both surface and groundwater. Themore this operational approach is decentralised in the medium term (to the future hydraulic affairsregions), the more reliable and useful this exercise will become. An initial test will be carried out ona pilot sub-basin of the Mayo-Kebbi, involving all the stakeholders and partners concerned, workingwithin a specific consultation mechanism.

In terms of general SDEA monitoring, a number of descriptors and indicators can be given forguidance purposes:

� rainfall for the year compared with the long-term average;

� discharge coefficients for the year ;

� renewable water resource usage rate per homogeneous area;

� quality of water flowing into endoreic lakes;

� biological health of the main aquatic ecosystems;

� efficiency of water resource usage per subsector.

Specific studies will have to be carried out in order to define correctly the indicators which arerelevant and useful to the country.


4 ASSESSING THE PERFORMANCE OF SDEA IMPLEMENTATION

To complement the quantitative monitoring of SDEA programmes, qualitative monitoring of its actualimpacts, the sustainability of its programmes and the consistency of the work carried out by thevarious stakeholders and projects involved in the implementation of the SDEA action plan is essentialin order to provide the decision-makers with complete information.

For this purpose, a mission will conduct an independent, multidisciplinary assessment of SDEAimplementation every two years. The first mission will be conducted at the end of 2005 and thesecond, at the end of 2007.

5 UPDATING THE SDEA

A number of unavoidable factors and actions must be taken into account in updating the SDEA. Theseare:

� trends observed over five years by the three monitoring mechanisms described above;

� the two general assessments to be carried out at the end of 2005 and 2007;

� progress made in the regulatory area (Water Code decrees of application);

� results of the forthcoming census, which will be available in 2008;

� new basic data from the Water Office data bases;

� the new economic and social context;

� the new environmental context;

� the Government’s development policy, and other policies, integrated plans or new subsectorstudies.

The SDEA will be updated on this basis during 2008, keeping the same intersectoral planning andconsultation approach (CTIE-CNGE-HCNE) which has already been tried and tested. The UNDP hasexpressed an interest in funding this procedure, along with the other interested donors.

With the help of more detailed studies, this update should make it possible to fine-tune a number ofrough estimates that had to be made for the first version of the SDEA. It should also be anopportunity, drawing on the lessons learned during the first five years of SDEA implementation, toupdate the remaining tasks required to reach the objectives that have been set for 2015 and 2020,and to channel efforts and funding more effectively into any subsectors or geographical areas that arelagging behind the others. Lastly, in keeping with the technical and administrative decentralisationprocess, notably with regard to the creation of regional directorates of water, this update will aim atmaking full use, across the country, of institutional achievements and progress made in terms ofmethodology and participatory planning, on the basis of “best practices” observed at regional and locallevel in the integrated, sustainable management of the national water sector in Chad.

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

APPE

NDI

X1


PART A

Persons responsible for implementing the Integrated Plan for Chad’s Water Development andManagement, CHD/98/004

NAME POSITION

Oumar Kadjallami Minister of the Environment and Water

Manuel Dengo Head of UNDESA water management section

Hamidou Diawara UNDP resident representative

Modibo Touré UNDP resident representative

Giuseppina Mazza Assistant resident representative

Michel Balima Assistant resident representative

Antoinette Dedjoguere Laokolé UNDP programme manager

Dounia Sandjéma National coordinator (1998-2001)

Zakaria Husky National coordinator (since 2001)

Moussa Mustapha Terrap Director of hydraulic affairs, CTIE chairman

Mahamat Kher Salah Director of hydraulic affairs, CTIE chairman

Zakaria Fadoul Kitir Assistant director of hydraulic affairs

Djougoun Abdoulaye Mourra Director of hydraulic affairs (since 2003)

Oumar Mahamat Oumar Assistant director of hydraulic affairs (since 2003)

UNDESA project staff

NAME POSITION

Jean-Michel Chéné UNDESA interregional technical advisor (head office),responsible for methodology and technical monitoring

Luis Dichtl (06/1998-2000) Resident principal technical advisor, groundwater consultant

Paul Hansbury (11/2000-2003) Resident principal technical advisor ; village water supply and ruralsanitation consultant

Mouhyddine Mahamat Saleh Technical coordinator

Hassan Adoum Katchalla Administrative manager

Oursingbé Passal Wegoré Data processing/GIS

Falamata Mahamat Kara Secretary - documentation

Mahamat Abakar Driver

Mahamat Ahmat Driver

Mahamat Tahir Zakaria Driver

Ortangar Babane Orderly

UNDESA international consultants

NAME POSITION

Mahamane Bako Data processing/data base/GIS

Jean Charles Clanet Pastoral water supply

Jean Donnay Agricultural water supply

Jacques Lemoalle Surface water resources and environment

Jean Mathis Economist

Lionel Robaux Urban water supply and sanitation

Pierre Walraevens Data processing/data base/GIS


UNDESA national consultants

NAME POSITION

Abdelkerim Nedjim Urban and semi-urban sanitation

Abdelmadjit Saleh Pastoral water supply

Abderamane Seidou Data processing and village water supply

Ache Nabia Institutional and legal aspects

Ahmed Dorsouma Agricultural water supply

Ali Abdou Urban and semi-urban sanitation

Aminou Bouba Pastoral water supply

Bambe Dansala Facilitator

Daïra Djoret Groundwater resources

Djibrine Nadingar Pastoral water supply

Ermanna Delacroix Village water supply

Guealbaye Manasset Economics

Hamid Bahar Haggar Urban water supply

Jean-Louis Schneider Groundwater

Koroua Kodjo Agricultural water supply

Kouka Jean Roger Training

Lotogingaou R Data processing

Mahamat Gabi Village water supply

Mahamat Lamine Kosso Village water supply and rural sanitation

Mahamat Nour Idriss Urban water supply

Miagoto Boniface Rural and urban sanitation

Nelngar Younane Surface water resources

Ngoniri Joël Demographics

Vaïdjoua Guinéo Agricultural water supply

Yombombe Théophile Madjitolum Urban water supply

Youssouf Abdoulaye Training

Zoulfikar Ahmat Barka Urban water supply

Evaluation team

NAME POSITION

Gabriel Gabella International evaluator

Ngolonna Goundou National evaluator

Youssouf Maïna National evaluator


PART B

List of participants at SDEA validation workshops

Chad government members

NAME POSITION WORKSHOPS

Haroun Kabadi Prime Minister, President of the HCNE HCNE

Djimrangar Dadnadji Minister of Planning, Development and Coopération HCNE

David Houdeingar Ngarimaden Minister of Agriculture HCNE

Mahamat Allaou Taher Minister of Stock-Rearing HCNE

Abderamane Moussa Minister of Regional Administration HCNE

Mocktar Wawa Dahab Minister of Communications HCNE

Idriss Ahmed Idriss Minister of the Economy and Finance HCNE

Mahamat Abdoulaye Minister of Trade, Industry and Crafts HCNE

Tchonai Elimy Minister of Public Works and Transport HCNE

Mamadou Addy Minister of Mines and Energy HCNE

Oumar Kadjallami Boukar Minister of Environment and Water HCNE

Bichara Ringo Rural Development Advisor at the Prime Minister’s Office HCNE

Outman Oumar Rural Development Section at the Prime Minister’s Office HCNE/national

Khadidja Ouangbi Ministry responsible for decentralisation National

Ahmat Mahamat Bachir Assistant Secretary General, Ministry of Planning National and regionall

Langarsou Anoueye Directorate of Planning, MPDC1 National

Belty Rarikingar Directorate of Cooperation, MPDC National

Bakary Ousmane Directorate of Programme and Project Monitoring, MPDC National

Djimtibaye Ngaringaye Direction of Regional Development MPDC National

Sanoussi Hadjoro INSEED National

Oumar Tahar MPDC - Abéché National

Ibrigaye Djabaye ETMS coordinator - Ati Regional

Akoina Tchangtord ETMS coordinator - Mongo Regional

Djimasnodji Makobeï ETMS coordinator - Mao Regional

Goundoul Vikama ETMS coordinator - Gounou Gaya Regional

Ngaryanmal Morkemngar ETMS coordinator - Lai Regional

Boitiga Yilabab ETMS coordinator - Kélo Regional

Darby K Assistant general manager, MEE Regional

Moussa Tchitchaou Manager of DREM HCNE/national

Dominique Durlin Technical advisor, MEE National/Subsector

Demoulin Jean Claude Technical advisor, DH National/Subsector

Abakar Ramadane Head of maintenance unit - Moundou Regional

Abbo Youssouf Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector

Abderaman Seidou Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector

Ahmat Agala Manager of the DPFLCD, MEE National

Alifa Mahamat Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector

Bechir Mahamat Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector

Betolum Neasmiangodo DREM, MEE Regional/Subsector

François Guillet DREM, MEE National/Subsector

Haroun Mahamat Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE HCNE/nat./Subsector

Laossi Issa Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture, MEE Subsector

1 MPDC : Ministry of Planning, Development and Cooperation


Chad government members (cont.)

Mahamat Moussa Hilew Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector

Moussa Doumdarial Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector

Ndomalbaye Bessomadji Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector

Nodjiban Nadjyo DREM, MEE National/Subsector

Reouembmel Noe Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE HCNE/nat./Subsector

Smail Musa Mohamed Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector

Vaimbi Gao Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector

Bardoum Djekourbian DPFLCD, MEE Sector

Kafou Mahamat Seid DPFLCD, MEE Sector

Mme Hamat Zara DPFLCD, MEE Sector

Ouatouroum Doring Y DPFLCD, MEE Sector

Behera Commando DPFLCD, MEE Sector

Misabaye Djabaye Inspector of Water and Forests, MEE - Ati Regional

Korbayom Banda CTNSC National

Guihini Chahaï Seconded to MEE - Abéché Regional

Yamanh Bangueid Head of Zakouma Park - Am Timan Regional

Mme Damnadji R. Seconded to MEE - Massenya Regional

Kedela Batam Inspector of Water and Forests - Mao Regional

God-Hanth Naïpadja Seconded to MEE - Sarh Regional

Netol Tob-Woie Inspector of Water and Forests - Kyabé Regional

Pascal Ndingambaye Seconded to MEE - Moundou Regional

Kadeau Laokara Inspector of Water and Forests - Doba Regional

Ali Afti Seconded to MEE - Bongor Regional

Tchouadang Kadjonga Director of rural engineering and agricultural water supply Subsector

Keleyo Golnday Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply Subsector

Kississou Etienne Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply Subsector

Mahamat Gomy Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply Subsector

Belembaye Togongar ONDR manager Regional

Djamal Ahmat ONDR sector head - Adré Regional

Abdel-Kerime Brahim ONDR sector head - Oum Hadjer Regional

Ahmadaï Abderaman ONDR sector head - Ati Regional

Gasserke Daboubou ONDR sector head - Biltine Regional

Mahamat Djamaladine Adoum ONDR district head - Mongo Regional

Djimanbe Beyaloum Sub-Manager of ONDR - Abéché Regional

Kyal Kagnar Head of Rural engineering subdivision - Abéché Regional

Issa Ousman Wadi ONDR sector head - Am Timan Regional

Mbaïramadi Amdri ONDR sector head - Goz-Beida Regional

Djibrine Abdoulaye ONDR sector head - Bokoro Regional

Hissein Djibrine ONDR sector head - Massakory Regional

Belembaye Tongongar ONDR district head - Massenya Regional

Mbangossoum Roger SODELAC technical manager - Bol Regional

Naïm Kadallah Head of SODELAC development department - Bol Regional

Abakar Ousman ONDR district head - Mao Regional

Mrangaye Koudror ONDR district head - Sarh Regional

Amine Ousmane ONDR deputy manager - Moundou Regional

Mahamat oumara Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE Subsector


Chad government members (cont.)

Andrim Manda-an Rural engineering subdivision - Moundou Regional

Djelassem Ngon-Dingomian ONDR sector head - Doba Regional

Koulna Samuel ONDR sector head - Koumra Regional

Sidick Djarouli ONDR sector head - Bongor Regional

Guiradoum Nandingar Head of Rural engineering subdivision - Pala Regional

Lam Tchiroue ONDR district head - Pala Regional

Asnalbaye Ngarhigta ONDR sector head - Baibokoum Regional

Masrabaye Dotolou ONDR sector head - Lai Regional

Adoum Mahamat ONDR sector head - Kélo Regional

Dr Haessler Technical advisor Subsector

Barlet F. Technical advisor DPAP Subsector

Brahim Seid General manager of stock-rearing National

Djibrine Nadengar DOP, Ministry of Stock-Rearing Subsector

Taboye Outman Head of stock-rearing sector - Oum Hadjer Regional

Issaka Abba Idriss Head of stock-rearing sector - Ati Regional

Ali Bourma Head of stock-rearing sector - Biltine Regional

Moussa Tassi Head of stock-rearing district - Mongo Regional

Ndouba Djirangaye Head of stock-rearing district - Abéché Regional

Hassan Zakaria Head of stock-rearing subsector - Goz-Beida Regional

Zakaria Atim Head of stock-rearing sector - Moussoro Regional

Dokone Awadia Head of stock-rearing sector - Bokoro Regional

Akouya Torna Head of stock-rearing sector - Massakory Regional

Mme Djarkem Ronel Head of stock-rearing district - Massenya Regional

Maï Mahamat Tchari Head of stock-rearing sector - Bol Regional

Al-Bachar Hamit Head of stock-rearing district - Mao Regional

Boyalgar Head of stock-rearing district - Sarh Regional

Mbaïlaye Ndouba Gullro Head of stock-rearing district - Moundou Regional

Mahamat Saleh Ali Head of stock-rearing subsector - Koumra Regional

Tchingouta Robert Head of stock-rearing district - Pala Regional

Abderaman Ahmat Head of stock-rearing sector - Baibokoum Regional

Ahmat Chacra Head of stock-rearing sector - Kélo Regional

Abdelkerim Nedjim Assistant manager of Sanitary Activities, MSP Subsector

Saleh Ramadan Malick Directorate of Sanitary Activities MSP Subsector

Peka Mallaye Directorate of Sanitary Activities MSP Subsector

Djimait Ignane Hygiene and sanitation, town hall, - Moundou Regional

Barka Mahamat Barka Hygiene and sanitation, town hall, - Abéché Regional

Garbaroum Richard General secretary, Ministry of Mines and Energy National

Mahamat Gali Mallah Ministry of Regional Administration National

Oumar Soumadji Head of highways department, N’Djaména Subsector

Aboukar Ndolengar Directorate of Trade National

Nokour Chouguy Director general of urban planning and housing National

Sanodji Bidjalo Directorate of Urban Planning Subsector

Modam Andigue-Marty Directorate of Urban Planning National

Moussa Olkoumgué Directorate of Urban Planning Subsector


Representatives of foreign aid and regional organisations


Abdelkerim Adoum B. CNT UNESCO National

Ahmet Seddick Hydrologist/LCBC National

Dr Batakao Grégoire WHO programme manager National

Eric Descotes AFD Subsector

Hertkorn Nicolas AFD programme manager National/Subsector

Hilke Roeder GTZ rural development coordinator National

Louis l’AOT AFD manager National/Subsector

Christophe Prévost World Bank programme manager National

Talansadi Djogoye African Development Bank representative National

Togola Soungalo UNICEF programme manager National/Subsector

Valérie Schmit European Union programme manager Subsector

Water distribution network managers


Abdel-Aziz Fasserir Chairman, water tower management committee, Oum Hadjer Regional

Bourma Abdissi A. Chairman, water tower management committee, Ati Regional

Adam Mahamat Issa Chairman, water tower management committee, Biltine Regional

Barka Attitallah Chairman, water tower management committee, Mongo Regional

Djido Ali S.G. Chairman, water tower management committee, Am Timan Regional

Dabayamsou Ngueou Chairman, water tower management committee, Goz-Beida Regional

Zakaria Tchomoko Chairman, water tower management committee, Moussoro Regional

Adoum Acyl Moussa Chairman, water tower management committee, Bokoro Regional

Mahamat Abdelkerim Chairman, water tower management committee, Massakory Regional

Hassan Abdoulaye G. Chairman, water tower management committee, Massaguet Regional

Youssouf M. Affono Chairman, water tower management committee, Bol Regional

Takada Fabili Chairman, water tower management committee, Kyabé Regional

Daboulaye Ban-Ymary Chairman, water tower management committee, Koumra Regional

Tadjion Makissi Chairman, water tower management committee, Pala Regional

Bangam Daye Madeou Chairman, water tower management committee, Lai Regional

NGOs and associations


Madjadoum Ngon K CEFOD representative National

Oyal T. Medard CILONG representative in N’Djaména National

Ngoniri M. FONGT representative in N’Djaména National

Mahamat Brahimi Vice-chairman, Plateforme paysanne National

Abakar Youssouf Zaid Representative of Mayors’ Association of Chad National

Siri Baina SECADEV representative Subsector

Allamine Mahamout World Vision representative Subsector

Djimlelngar Naim World Vision representative Subsector

Ibrahim Mihedi Representative, Nomadic Breeders’ Association Subsector

Koroua Kodjo UNAD National


NGOs and associations (cont.)


Oumar Mahamat Magra CAL2 representative Subsector

Zara Abakar BCCA representative Subsector

Mahamat Saleh Seid CARE representative Subsector

Ali Mahmoudi ACTT representative National

Mariam Kanika CELIAF representative National

Achta Selguet Representative, Sahel Women’s Network National

Toromgue Nasson SECADEV representative - Adré Regional

Abderamane Yaya ADA representative - Adré Regional

Mme Fatouma Issakha Representative,Women’s Group - Adré Regional

Younous Idriss SECADEV representative - Oum Hadjer Regional

Yacoub Djonouma SAWA representative - Ati Regional

Bourma Harba Chairman,Well Operators’ Group - Ati Regional

Djasrangar Ratangar SECADEV representative - Biltine Regional

Seid Gaye Alexis ACOR representative - Mongo Regional

Gadam Yassine NAGDORO representative - Mongo Regional

Mahamat Abbo Chairman, NINONTE association - Mongo Regional

Boguel Baradji P. SECADEV representative - Abéché Regional

Ahmat Moussa AFRICARE representative - Abéché Regional

Defallah Abdalah Chairman,Well Operators’ Group - Abéché Regional

Taher Abdoulaye Chairman, ADIB - Moussoro Regional

Moussa Babaye Chairman, Agropastoral Group - Moussoro Regional

Ousmane Seid A. ACORD representative - Bokoro Regional

Katir Méné SECADEV representative - Bokoro Regional

Hisseine Adoum Chairman, ALAFIA association - Bokoro Regional

Ifassou Jean Marie ACRA representative - Massaguet Regional

Saleh Mahamat Ali G. Chairman, ADEMA - Massaguet Regional

Al Hadj Dougous Chairman, Berim Polder Management Committee - Bol Regional

Al Taher Moussa Chairman, Lake Fishermen’s Group - Bol Regional

Abdel-Kader M. Chairman, Group Federation - Mao Regional

Abay Moussa Chairman, Stock-Rearers’ and Farmers’ Association - Mao Regional

Ali Lamine Alifa Chairman,Traditional Chiefs’ Association - Mao Regional

Abakar Gedick Chairman, Peasant Forum - Mao Regional

Heriata Moussa Chairman, Working Women’s Association - Mao Regional

Batna Sokolli Roland Representative, Peasant Forum - Gounou Gaya Regional

Samgue Hiera Victor BELAC representative - Moundou Regional

Djarabeï Ribar C. Chairman, BCCA - Moundou Regional

Boulabe Daniel Representative,Traditional Chiefs’ Association - Moundou Regional

Ganda Abdallah B. GRAPA representative - Koumra Regional

Pudems Yoh Job API-BASE representative - Bongor Regional

Djimleingar Naïm World Vision representative - Lai Regional

Moussa Pascal Chairman, Sategui Deressia Producers’ Association - Lai Regional

Lamalamou Ngaïdam Chairman, Guidaoua - Bongor Regional

Djimngueyeng Job GDS Federation - Kélo Regional


Private and parapublic sector


Abdel Madid Haggar SODELAC general management Subsector

Abdallah Adam SODELAC general management Subsector

Boïssou Djerem SODELAC general management Subsector

Maim Mahamat SODELAC technical management - Bol Regional

Mahamat N.I.Haggar Technical manager, Hydraulic Affairs, STEE Subsector

Boukar Ndedjion STEE operations manager - Moundou Regional

Ahmat Damgoto STEE operations manager - Mao Regional

Ousman Tchoutcha STEE operations manager - Abéché Regional

Souleyman Abdoulaye STEE operations manager - Moussoro Regional

Ramadan Madani Manager, Entreprise ECCA - Bokoro Regional

Doundarial Moussa Carlo Lotti (consultants) Subsector

M.Yombombe T. Directeur CIAT (Chef d’exploitation STEE) Subsector

Ahmat Mbodou Agritchad representative National

Adoum M’Bodou Agritchad representative - Bol Regional

Yoalngar Joseph JASRA representative - Sarh Regional

Nayalta Natigar D. SONASUT (CST) representative - Sarh Regional

Artomas Diatene BDL representative - Moundou Regional

Abdoulaye Manignan STH representative - Moundou Regional

Mahamat Altolna ITRAD BEBEDJIA representative - Doba Regional

Mansour Mahamat S. ECAT representative - Abéché Regional

Hassan Amabi ONC representative - Am Timan Regional

Alladoum Sainibi Sogec representative - N’Djaména National

Mayane Yadimadji Manager, BECON - Massaguet Regional

Ali Haroun ACF representative - Mao Regional

Mahamat Issa ANTEA office manager - Moussoro Regional

Idriss Ali Malloum ANTEA office manager - Mao Regional


Project representatives


Alainaye Djogromel Water policy project coordinator National

Ahmat Mahamat Saleh Mining project manager Subsector

Guirbaye N. PIDR project representative National

Mahamat Matar PASEP project representative National

Romain Ndouba PRSP project representative National

Aboubakar. Ourdé ENIP/PSAOP project representative National

Bechir I. Khalil REPA/FEM project representative National

Djimtebaye N. Prodel project representative National

Bardoum D. PNAE representative National

Ali Abdoulaye Traore Almy Bahaim project manager - Abéché Regional

Ismail Moussa Almy Nadif project manager - Abéché Regional

Souleyman Baba GTZ project coordinator - Abéché Regional

Tahir Brahim Adouma PVERS project manager - Abéché Regional

Mara Moussa Lake Rural Development Project - Bol Regional

Djoukamla Gouakreo Doum Doum Development Project - Bol Regional

Sebey Boutna FIDA project manager - Mao Regional

Dalil Nouradine PHPK project manager - Mao Regional

MACRO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF THE PRSP

APPE

NDI

X2


EXTRACT FROM NATIONAL POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGY PAPER

Details of macro-economic context

A few economic and financial indicators, 2003-2015

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

(annual variations in % unless otherwise indicated)

National income

GDP at current prices 16.5 58.1 12.9 7.0 6.4 6.3 3.5 0.9 4.2 3.9 6.8 7.0 7.7

GDP at constant prices 11.2 42.4 15.3 4.4 4.3 4.1 1.1 -2.1 1.1 0.5 3.7 3.8 4.5

Excluding oil production 3.7 6.5 6.8 6.7 6.6 6.1 6.2 6.2 6.3 5.9 5.7 5.8 5.9

Oil production 539.0 34.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 -10.4 -24.0 -18.1 -25.3 -9.9 -12.6 -9.2

GNDI at current prices 11.3 16.7 13.4 10.4 9.4 10.1 12.3 6.0 7.6 8.3 8.0 8.5 8.4

Consumer price index (average) 4.3 4.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0

Currency and credit

Net foreign assets 1/ 20.3 36.4 36.1 30.3 21.6 24.7 41.9 17.1 8.5 5.4 2.5 0.3 -1.6

Net domestic assets 1/ -8.9 -25.2 -20.4 -14.2 -7.8 -11.2 -27.2 -7.9 3.0 3.5 4.3 6.7 9.2

including: domestic credit -7.8 -24.6 -19.9 -13.7 -7.0 -11.1 -26.8 -7.6 3.5 3.6 4.5 6.9 9.6

net receivables from central government -12.5 -29.1 -24.4 -18.1 -10.9 -14.7 -31.3 -10.7 0.4 0.0 1.0 2.3 3.0

credit to private sector 4.7 4.5 4.5 4.4 3.9 3.6 4.4 3.1 3.1 3.6 3.6 4.6 6.6

Money supply 10.3 11.3 15.7 16.1 13.8 13.4 14.8 9.2 11.5 8.9 6.8 7.0 7.6

GNDI/money supply (M2) 2/ 7.4 7.8 7.6 7.3 7.0 6.8 6.6 6.4 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.3 6.4

Foreign sector (in FCFA billion)

Exports, FOB 67.8 388.6 13.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 -7.8 -18.3 -12.2 -16.0 -3.4 -4.1 -1.0

Imports, FOB -21.7 -25.4 -18.6 8.6 5.1 8.0 9.3 10.0 8.5 7.2 6.6 6.2 6.0

Volume of exports 37.0 244.8 26.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 -7.3 -17.1 -11.3 -14.8 -3.3 -4.0 -1.3

Volume of imports -29.9 -30.6 -17.8 6.9 3.3 6.3 7.5 8.3 6.7 5.3 4.8 4.3 4.1


2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

(in GDP points)

Basic ratios

Gross investment 42.1 18.2 13.1 13.6 13.3 13.7 14.6 16.1 17.1 18.0 18.4 18.8 19.1

Central government 10.9 7.6 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.8 8.4 9.0 9.5 9.7 9.9 10.0

Private sector 31.2 10.6 5.9 6.5 6.1 6.4 6.8 7.7 8.1 8.4 8.7 8.9 9.1

including: oil sector 22.8 5.8 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Gross domestic savings 10.5 37.0 38.1 36.2 34.2 32.7 29.1 23.6 20.4 16.8 15.8 14.6 14.1

Central government -0.8 2.9 3.5 3.2 3.5 4.4 7.1 5.6 4.9 5.5 5.8 6.0 6.3

Private sector 11.3 34.1 34.6 32.9 30.8 28.2 22.0 18.0 15.5 11.3 9.9 8.6 7.8

Gross national savings 6.7 8.1 9.4 9.7 9.9 11.0 14.1 13.0 12.7 13.1 13.1 13.3 13.5

Central government -0.2 3.3 3.8 3.5 3.7 4.7 7.3 5.9 5.2 5.8 6.0 6.1 6.3

Private sector -0.2 3.3 3.8 3.5 3.7 4.7 7.3 5.9 5.2 5.8 6.0 6.1 6.3

Private sector 6.9 4.8 5.6 6.2 6.2 6.3 6.8 7.1 7.6 7.3 7.1 7.2 7.2

Public finances

Revenue 8.3 9.2 9.9 10.1 10.7 11.8 15.2 14.5 14.3 15.3 15.6 16.2 16.7

including: oil revenue 0.5 3.2 3.5 3.2 3.2 3.7 6.3 4.4 3.2 3.1 2.6 2.5 2.3

Total expenditure 20.0 13.9 13.6 14.0 14.4 14.8 15.9 17.3 18.4 19.3 19.5 20.1 20.4

Current primary balance (- = deficit) 3/ -0.1 3.4 3.9 3.7 3.9 4.8 7.5 6.0 5.3 5.9 6.2 6.3 6.6

Basic primary balance, exc;luding oil revenue 3/ 4/ 5/ -3.4 -2.3 -2.2 -2.5 -2.4 -2.4 -2.8 -2.8 -2.9 -2.6 -2.1 -2.1 -1.9

Basic primary balance 3/ 4/ -2.8 1.7 2.0 1.6 1.5 2.0 4.1 2.1 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

Overall budget deficit (commitment basis) 3/ -11.7 -4.7 -3.8 -3.9 -3.7 -2.9 -0.7 -2.8 -4.1 -4.0 -3.9 -3.9 -3.8

Overall budget deficit (cash basis) 3/ -12.5 -4.9 -3.9 -3.9 -3.8 -2.9 -0.7 -2.8 -4.1 -4.0 -3.9 -3.9 -3.8

Domestic funding -0.3 -1.5 -1.0 -0.7 -0.4 -1.0 -3.1 -1.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6

Foreign funding (already secured) 12.8 6.1 4.9 4.6 4.2 3.9 3.8 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.6 3.5 3.2

Funding requirements (-) 0.0 -0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Overall budget deficit (commitment basis, inc. gifts) -7.0 -1.6 -1.0 -1.3 -1.3 -0.6 1.6 -0.5 -1.9 -1.8 -1.8 -1.9 -1.9

1/ Percentage variation in money supply at start of period2/ Ratio3/ Excluding gifts4/ The basic primary deficit is the total budget deficit minus debt servicing and investment funded from foreign resources5/ In GDP points, exc. oil


A few economic and financial indicators, 2003-2015 (contd.)

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

(in GDP points)

Foreign sector

Current account (- = deficit)

including public transfers -35.4 -10.2 -3.7 -3.8 -3.4 -2.7 -0.5 -3.2 -4.4 -4.9 -5.3 -5.5 -5.6

excluding public transfers and importsconnected with Doba project -13.3 -4.7 -3.3 -3.3 -3.5 -2.8 -0.6 -3.2 -4.5 -5.0 -5.3 -5.5 -5.5

NPV debt-to-exports ratio 6/ 221.9 86.6 52.9 40.3 40.9 43.1 46.7 53.8 65.1 80.8 94.8 107.7 115.0

Gross foreign assets in months of imports (excluding Doba project) 7/ 6.3 7.5 9.2 10.6 11.3 12.4 15.0 15.3 15.2 14.8 14.2 13.3 12.4

(in millions of USD unless otherwise indicated)

Nominal GDP 2 654.6 4 200.5 4 751 2 5.096 6 5.431 2 5 779.2 5 983.5 6 034.9 6 285.7 6 528.7 6 976.0 7 463.4 8 035.5

Nominal GDP (in billions of FCFA) 1 600.1 2 529.1 2 856.0 3 056.6 3 251.2 3 456.6 3 578.8 3 609.5 3 759.5 3 904.9 4 172.4 4 464.0 4 806.1

including: oil GDP (in billions of FCFA) 104.5 862.9 1 007.5 1 005.2 1 003.3 1 002.5 898.5 682.4 559.0 417.5 376.0 328.6 298.4

FCFA per USD (average for period) 602.8 602.1 601.1 599.7 598.6 598.1 598.1 598.1 598.1 598.1 598.1 598.1 598.1

FCFA per USD (end of period) 668.0 665.5 663.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Population (mid-year, in millions) 8.1 8.3 8.5 8.7 8.9 9.1 9.3 9.6 9.8 10.1 10.3 10.6 10.8

Nominal GDP per inhabitant 329.6 508.9 561.6 587.7 611.0 634.3 640.7 630.4 640.6 649.2 676.7 706.3 741.9

Nominal GNP per inhabitant 315.9 360.7 399.6 430.9 460.7 495.3 542.2 560.4 587.2 620.7 654.8 693.4 734.2

Nominal GNP 2 544.3 2 977.2 3 380.8 3 737.0 4 095.4 4 512.8 5 063.6 5 364.3 5 761.7 6 242.7 6 750.3 7 326.8 7 951.9

6/ Calculated from the average exports of non-factor goods and services over the previous three years7/ In months of imports of non-factor goods and services


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GENIK G.J. (1993). Petroleum Geology of Cretaceous-Tertiary Rift Bassins in Niger, Chad, and Central African Republic.AAPG bull.V77, nº. 8, August 1993, 29 p.



GEPIS – Groupe d’experts sur les plaines d’inondation sahéliennes (2000). Vers une gestion durable des plainesd’inondation sahéliennes. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, United Kingdom, 214 p.

GKW CONSULT (1974). Étude pour l’alimentation en eau potable des six centres secondaires (Mao, Moussoro, Kelo,Doba Fianga, Bongor).

GKW CONSULT (1996). Étude pour la réhabilitation des systèmes d’alimentation en eau potable existants (Mao,Moussoro, Kelo, Doba Fianga, Bongor).

GKW CONSULT (1988). Alimentation en eau potable des centres secondaires n°III (Mongo, Ati, Biltine, Bokoro, Pala,Gounou-Gaya, Léré).

GKW CONSULT (1993). Amélioration de l’alimentation en eau potable et de l’assainissement de la ville d’Abéché :Études d’exécution, Programme d’observation de la nappe phréatique du ouadi Bithé., Final report.

GKW CONSULT (1994). Amélioration de l’alimentation en eau potable et de l’assainissement de la ville d’Abéché :Programme d’observation de la nappe phréatique du ouadi Bithéa et campagne sismique réfractaire. Report ofOctober 1994.

GKW CONSULT (1996). Amélioration de l’alimentation en eau potable et de l’assainissement de la ville d’Abéché :Modèle mathématique de l’eau souterraine du ouadi Bithéa. Report of October 1996.

GROUPE HUIT (1996). N’Djaména, Plan de référence, Final report, 210 p.

GROUPE HUIT (1990). Éléments pour une stratégie de développement du secteur urbain au Tchad.

GROUPE HUIT-BCEOM (1997). Projet de développement urbain au Tchad. Étude de faisabilité, Final report, 176 p.

HASKONING (1991). Projet d’Ingénierie Pétrole et Électricité. Étude des effets sur l’environnement, 29 p. plus annexes.

HYDROPLAN (1985). Étude des petits périmètres irrigués proches de N’Djaména.

HYDROTECH (1996). Projet « Maternité sans risque ». Rapport d’implantation géophysique de 28 sites de sondagesde reconnaissance dans le Guéra, 20 p, ann., N’Djaména.

IGIP (1986). Mission d’élaboration AEP de Biltine et Pala.

ILTIS A., et J. LEMOALLE (1983). The aquatic vegetation of Lake Chad, pp. 125-143 in Lake Chad, Carmouze J.P.,J. R Durand et C. Lévêque (eds), Monog. Biologicae vol. 53, Junk,The Hague, 575 p.

IMRICH KUSNIR (1993). Géologie, ressources minérales et ressources en eau au Tchad.

IWACO (1990). Étude sectorielle eau et assainissement.

KINDLER J., P.WARSHALL et E.J. ARNOULD (1990). Le bassin conventionnel du lac Tchad : une étude diagnostiquede la dégradation de l’environnement. The lake Chad conventional basin : a diagnostic study of environmentaldegradation, 177 p.

LAHMEYER INTERNATIONAL (1997). Désengagement de l’État du Secteur Eau et Electricité au Tchad, Étudediagnostique.

LAMINE MAHAMAT,YOUNOUS KOSSO, MAHAMAT GABI, ERMANA DELACROIX, ABDRAMANE SEÏDOU(2000). Situation actuelle sur l’approvisionnement en eau potable et l’assainissement en milieu rural du Tchad.

LANGSDORF W. (1997). Réalisation de forages à N’Djaména et Sarh. Final report.


LAVALADE J.L. (1993). Projets de points d’eau au Salamat et au BET. Modélisation du fonctionnement du systèmeaquifère de la palmeraie de Faya-Largeau, Unpublished report, BRGM. Orléans. nº 0510 INT/4S/93, 14 p

LEMOALLE J. (1978). Application des données Landsat à la courbe bathymétrique du lac Tchad. Cah. ORSTOM, sér.Hydrobiol. 12, 1, p. 83-87.

LEMOALLE J. (1979). Biomasse et production phytoplanctoniques du lac Tchad (19681976), Relation avec lesconditions de milieu. ORSTOM, Paris, 287 p.

LEMOALLE J., et J.J.TROUBAT (1989). Application des données satellitaires à l’hydrologie du lac Tchad : année 1988-89, Rapports ORSTOM, Montpellier 89-02, p., multigr.

LEMOALLE J. (1989). Le fonctionnement hydrologique du lac Tchad au cours d’une période de sécheresse (1973-1989,. Rapport ORSTOM, Montpellier 89-03, 27 p.

LOUIS BERGER INTERNATIONAL (1994). Étude des possibilités de stockage des eaux de ruissellement superficieldans 4 préfectures du Tchad (Biltine, Batha, Guéra et Ouaddaï).

LOUIS BERGER INTERNATIONAL (1996.) Étude du projet de Développement Rural de la Préfecture de Biltine.

L’HOTE Y., et G. MAHE (1996). Afrique de l’Ouest et centrale. Précipitations moyennes annuelles (période 1951-1989). Carte au 1/6 000 000. ORSTOM Editions.

MABILLOT, A., (1980). Le forage d’eau. Guide Pratique.

MAHAMAT L.Y.K., Gabi MAHAMAT GABI, E. DE LA CROIX, ABDERAMANE SEIDOU (2000). Situation actuellesur l’approvisionnement en eau potable et l’assainissement en milieu rural. Projet UNDP/UNDESA-CHD-98-004,N’Djaména, 157 p.Tchad.

MAHAMAT NOUR IDRISS HAGGAR, MADJITOLOUM YOMBOMBE (2000). Assainissement en milieu urbain,semi-urbain et industriel. Projet UNDP/UNDESA-CHD-98-004, N’Djaména, 134 p.Tchad.

MAIRIE DE N’DJAMÉNA (1998). Le plan d’action de gestion durable des déchets urbains et de l’assainissement dela ville de N’Djaména.

MAIRIE DE N’DJAMÉNA, DST (1997). Service et équipements urbains dans les quartiers périphériques deN’Djaména. Étude de faisabilité. Interim report.

MAIRIE DE N’DJAMÉNA,ATETIP-TECSULT (1996). Ville de N’Djaména Études du schéma général de drainage deszones situées au Nord/Est de la voie de contournement, Preliminary design.

MAIRIE DE N’DJAMÉNA (1989). Programme d’Assainissement et d’entretien de la voirie. Commune de N’Djaména.Services Techniques Municipaux,Winter season 1989.

MOREAU R.E. (1972). The Palearctic-African bird migration systems. Academic Press, London, New York. 384 p.

MOTT MACDONALD INTERNATIONAL, ORSTOM, SOGREAH (1991). Évaluation hydrologique de l’Afriquesubsaharienne. Pays de l’Afrique de l’Ouest :Tchad, 326 p, ann, Cambridge.

MOTT MACDONALD INTERNATIONAL (1991). Water transfer from the Ubangui River to the lake Chad basin;NEPA proposals.

MOTT MACDONALD INTERNATIONAL (1993). Mathematical model of the hydrological behaviour of Lake Chadand its feeder rivers. UNDP-DTCD/ Lake Chad Basin Commission.

NAAH E. Hydrologie du grand Yaéré du nord Cameroun. Doctoral thesis, University of Yaoundé, 1992, 327 p.


NAOURA D. (1999). Rapport de mission de formulation du Projet d’Aménagement des ressources Naturelles dans laZone Sahélienne.

NDINGAMBAYE P. Rapport d’activité année 1999. Cellule Régionale d’Appui à la Maintenance de Moundou.Directorate of Hydraulic Affairs, MEE.

NEDJIM A., et A.ABDOU (2000). Situation actuelle et problématique du secteur de l’assainissement en milieu urbain,semi-urbain et industriel.

NELNGAR Y. (2000). Synthèse actualisée des ressources en eau de surface, project CHD98/004 266 p.

NEILAND A., M. T. SARCH., S. MADAKAN, B. LADU (1996). Fisheries research priorities for international inland waters in West and Central Africa : a case study of the Chad Basin. ACP-EU Fisheries Research Report no. 2,Brussels : 85-97.

NIASSE M., and E.J.P. DE NOOY (1987). Schéma directeur pour la mise en valeur des petits aménagements au Tchad.

ONDR (1998). Rapport annuel d’activités appui à la gestion des petits périmètres irrigués 6ème FED.- N’Djaména.

ONDR (1999). Rapport d’activités des petits périmètres irrigués 6e FED au nord de N’Djaména.

ONDR (1996). Travaux de réhabilitation du casier « B » de Bongor (Tchad). Project description leaflet.

ONDR (1996). Projet relance casier « B » de Bongor (Tchad).

UNDESA (1998). Dialogue sur la gestion de l’eau en zones défavorisées : quels appuis aux options durables ? Minutesof an international workshop organised in N’Djaména (Chad).

UNO (2000). Bilan commun de pays au Tchad, 83 p. plus annexes.

OUALBADET M. (1997). Évolution de la gestion des pêches dans les eaux intérieures en Afrique intertropicales.Une analyse comparative. ENSA, Rennes, 73 p.

OXFAM (1994). L’assainissement et l’hygiène dans les quartiers de N’Djaména. Round table.

PAOLETTI P., et J. LEMOALLE (1991). Rapport de la mission d’actualisation des données de base socio-économiqueet d’environnement. Projet RAF/88/029, UNDP, UNO-DDSMS, LCBC, N’Djamena.

PIQUEMAL A. (1995). République du Tchad, Ministère de l’Agriculture et de l’Environnement : Le cadre juridiqueenvironnemental. Examen et propositions.

UNDP (1998). Human Development Report.

UNDP (2000). Human Development Report, 290 p.

POINT P. (1999). La valeur économique des hydrosystèmes, Paris, Economica/GIP Hydrosystèmes, 211 p.

POLET Gert Water Management Issues in the Hadejia-Jama’are-Yobe river basin, northern Nigeria, IUCN WetlandsProgramme, Newsletter no. 14, no. 14 Winter, Gland, Switzerland.

PRET Pierre-François (1993). Les palmeraies du Borkou. CNAR.

RASSEM Edmond (1999). Gestion des eaux usées dans les unités industrielles à N’Djaména : cas des Boissons etGlacière du Tchad (BGT), Course report, 11 October -22 December 1999.

REMADJI B., and O.C. HASSANTY (1991). Évaluation agro-socio-économique des quatre petits périmètres irrigués(Mara, Ambédane, Midekhine et Sagour) au nord de N’Djaména, 6th EDF Project. Report.

RIGAL D. (1989). Crue et décrue au lac Tchad. Veille climatique satellitaire, ORSTOM/CMS, 27, p. 71-76.

RIMNELY MARCEL. Urbanisation de la ville de N’Djaména : Mémoire de fin d’études.

SAGUA, V.O. (1993). Consultation on the socio-economic data. 24 p + Annexes in King, Definition of thedevelopment strategies of the water resources of the Lake Chad Basin, Projet RAF/88/029 N’Djaména (TD), 185p.

SALEH M.A. (1994). Bibliographie géologique du Tchad 1903-1994. UNDP. Projet CHD/91/007 de la Direction desRecherches Géologiques et Minières. Occasional publication.

SALEH RAMADAN; NODDJIOROUM ISSAC; PEKA MALLAYE (1998). Étude rapide du milieu environnementdans six districts sanitaires.

SATOM (1996). AEP de la ville de Mongo.

SATOM (1998). Dossier de recollement AEP de la ville de Pala.

SCHNEIDER J.L. (1969). Carte hydrogéologique de la République du Tchad, éch. 1/1.500 000, BRGM, Orléans.

SCHNEIDER J.L. Géologie et hydrogéologie de la République du Tchad. Doctoral thesis. Univ. of Avignon,28 April 1989, 3 vol.

SCHNEIDER J.L. (1992). Le Tchad depuis 25 000 ans. Masson, Paris, 134 p.

SCHNEIDER J.L. (2000). Géologie, archéologie, hydrogéologie de la République du Tchad. Mém. 2 vol. Groundwaterdevelopment map of the Republic of Chad, 1/1 500 000 scale, to appear.

SCHNEIDER J.L. and J. P.WOLFF (1992). 1/500 000 geological and hydrogeological maps of the Republic of Chad.Explanatory report. BRGM document no. 209. 2 vol.

SIGHOMNOU D. et al. (1996). Restauration hydro-technique de la plaine du Logone dans l’Extrême Nord duCameroun, Pilot reflooding scheme, 141p.

SIGHOMNOU D. et al., (1996). Restauration hydro-technique de la plaine du Logone dans l’Extrême Nord du Came-roun. Pilot reflooding scheme, Second measurement campaign,126 p.

SGI-STUDI (1998). Plan directeur du sous-secteur électricité du Tchad. Rapport définitif de phase 2 – Volume 3. Plande développement de la production d’énergie électrique.

SGI-STUDI (1998). Études pour l’AEP de Faya. Phase B report.

SGI (1997). Cahier des clauses techniques générales- Chenal de Bol-Polder de Mamdi.

SGI-STUDI (1988). Étude du Plan Directeur du Sous-secteur Électricité, Final report of the Master Plan for theElectricity Subsector in Chad, 6 volumes plus summary report.

SOCIÉTÉ TCHADIENNE D’ÉNERGIE ÉLECTRIQUE (1973). Note d’information sur les problèmes relatifs à l’ali-mentation en eau des principaux centres du Tchad.

SOCIÉTÉ TCHADIENNE D’EAU ET D’ÉLECTRICITÉ (1988). Rapport annuel d’activité, Exercice.- STEE 1988.

SOCIÉTÉ TCHADIENNE D’EAU ET D’ÉLECTRICITÉ (1990). Contrat pour l’Appui à la Gestion de la STEE.

SOCIÉTÉ TCHADIENNE D’EAU ET D’ÉLECTRICITÉ. Rapport d’activité 1995-1999, Direction TechniqueHydraulique.

SOCIÉTÉ TCHADIENNE D’EAU ET D’ÉLECTRICITÉ-IGIP. Mesures d’accompagnement du projet de réhabilitationdes six centres secondaires.



SODELAC (1998). Étude de faisabilité d’aménagement des polders du Lac et de la zone insulaire – Rapport de l’étude de faisabilité. Final report.

SODELAC. Schéma directeur de développement socio-économique de la région du Lac, 3 tomes, N’Djaména.

SODETEG. Schéma directeur de développement socio-économique de la région du Lac.

SOGEC (1998). Evaluation report concerning integrated development of the Borkou palm groves, summaryno. 1.

SOGREAH, SCET TUNISIE, BIEP (1998). Étude du développement intégré de la région du Salamat.

SOGREAH (1987). Étude d’un projet de réhabilitation du casier « A ».

SOME B., R. WRIGHT and M.F. MAHADI (1999). Report of the joint CILSS/FAO preliminary evaluationassignment of the 1999/2000 farming season in Chad.

STUDI (1998). Désengagement de l’État du Secteur Eau/Électricité : Enjeux et Perspectives.

TAMIATTO (1999). Rapport de mission. Appui à la maintenance et à l’animation de la direction du PHV Koros-2ième phase.

TEUTSCHER F., and C. BREUIL (1989). Le cas de la transformation et de la commercialisation du poisson dans leBassin du lac Tchad; JEFAD/FAS/89/48, 46 p, plus annexes.

THOMON DJIMBATINAN, (1999). Gestion des eaux usées au niveau de l’Hôpital Général de Référence Nationale(HGRN) rapport de stage 15-26 nov. 1999.

TILHO J. (1910). Documents scientifiques de la mission Tilho (1906-1909). Imprimerie Nationale, Paris, Vol. 1:412 p.,Vol. Il, 598 p.

TILHO J. (1928). Variations et disparition possible du lac Tchad. Ann. Géogr. Fr. 37 238-260.

TOUCHEBEUF DE LUSSIGNY P. (1969). Monographie hydrologique du lac Tchad. ORSTOM, Paris, 169 p.

TOUTAIN Bernard, Oussouby TOURE et Frédéric REOUNDJI (2000). Étude prospective de la stratégie nationalede gestion des ressources pastorales au Tchad. CIRAD-EMVT, Montpellier, France.

TRAORE ALI ABDOULAYE (1995). L’artésianisme au Tchad dans la région du Borkou. Final course report.

TRAORE Aminata. L’eau potable et l’assainissement à faible coût. Manuel de formation participative. Centre régionalpour l’Eau Potable et l’Assainissement à Faible Coût. CREPA.

IUCN (1984). Waza Logone flood restoration study, Delft Hydraulics, CML, Leiden.

IUCN. Conservation et développement de la région de Waza-Logone, République du Cameroun, CML, Leiden, TheNetherlands, 40 p.

IUCN (2000). Plaines d’inondation sahéliennes, enjeux et perspectives. Proceedings of the Yamoussoukro meeting,Ivory Coast, 7-9 October 1999, 88 p.

UNEP (1999). Singh A., A. Dieye, M. Finco, M. S. Chenoweth., E.A. Fosnigh. and A. Allotey. Early warning of SelectedEmerging Environmental Issues in Africa : Change and Correlation from a Geographic Perspective. UNEP/DEIAEW/TR.99-2.

UNICEF (1997).Water, sanitation and environmental health programme, 1999-2000.

UNICEF (1994).Water, sanitation and environmental health sector programme.


VAIDJOUA GUINEO,AHMED DORSOUMA (2000). Situation actuelle et problématique du secteur Hydro agricoleau Tchad, Projet UNDP/UNDESA-CHD-98-004, 173 p.

VAÏDJOUA G. (1997). Bilan-diagnostic de la gestion intégrée des eaux et les contraintes environnementales dans leBassin du lac Tchad.

VAÏDJOUA G. (1993). Problématique de fonctionnement du casier « B » de Bongor, Journées Inter-Africainesd’Irrigation du CIEH, Ouagadougou.

VALFREY B. (2000). Atelier pour la définition d’une stratégie nationale des projets d’hydraulique rurale. N’Djaména19-23 June 2000, provisional version, Hydroconseil, 135 p.

VAN OIJEN I., et B. HABERLAND (1991). Une digue en terre. Effets socio-écologiques de la digue de Zilim. Series:Environnement et Développement au Nord Cameroun. 121p.

WELCOMME R.L. (1979). Fisheries ecology of floodplain rivers. Longman, London. 317 p.

WESSERLING H. (1995). Restauration hydro-technique de la plaine du Logone, Mission Report, Delft Hydraulics,T0508.

WOLFF J.P. (1964). Carte Géologique de la République du Tchad, éch. 1/1.500 000, BRGM, Orléans.

YEMADJI N’DIEKHOR, ITS. L’Eau et la vie urbaine à N’Djaména. Doctoral thesis.

YEMEDJI N’DIEKHOR, GOUA NDO ODANSOU (1991). Étude sociologie, Sommaire du milieu pour le projetPADS, INSH.


GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (1987). Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply.Aménagement du bassin du Logone par les barrages réservoirs : conséquences sur les activités du secteur rural.International seminar.- LCBC.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT (1993). Consultations sectorielles sur le développementrural, la sécurité alimentaire et les ressources hydrauliques, volume 1 Synthèse; volume 2 Diagnostic et stratégies;volume 3 Programme d’action. Annexe Fichier des projets en cours; volume 4 Cadrage macro-économique.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT (1994). Actes du séminaire national sur la pêche auTchad. N’Djaména 31 May – 1 June 1994, 43 p.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (1998). Directorate of Agricultural Statistics, Annuaire des statistiques agricoles,N’Djaména.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (1999). Directorate of Agricultural Statistics, Annuaire des Statistiques agricoles.N’Djaména.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (1997) Directorate of rural engineering and agricultural water supply. Rapportd’exécution du projet de Développement Intégré des Palmeraies du Borkou(2ème phase).

MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT (1992). Liquidation de la rizerie de Laï, Problématique propositions derelance des activités rizicoles régionales.

MINISTRY OF STOCK-REARING (1998). Réflexion prospective sur l’élevage au Tchad. Main report, 77 p.

MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND WATER (1999). Loi 016/PR/99 du 18 août 1999 portant Code de l’Eau, 50p.

MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND WATER (1999). Analyse de gestion des zones humides au Tchad etproposition des textes réglementaires.

MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND WATER (1999). Plan national de lutte contre la désertification.

MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND COOPERATION (1990). Plan d’orientation : Le Tchad vers l’an 2000.

MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND COOPERATION (1994). Consultation sectorielle sur l’Environnement et la luttecontre la Désertification, Cellule Technique d’Appui, 12 p.

MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT / UNDP/UNDESA (1998). Enquête sur laConsommation et le Secteur Informelle au Tchad. ECOSIT 1995-1996. Final report., CHD/91/006 « Appui à lagestion du développement ».

MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, Central Census Office, 1998. Enquêtedémographique et de santé.Tchad 1996-1997.

MINISTRY OF PLANNING AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT-UNDP (1999). Rapport National sur le Dévelop-pement Humain au Tchad, 1997.

MINISTRY OF ECONOMIC PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT (2002). Directorate of Planning andDevelopment. État de la population du Tchad en 1999 : Croissance démographique et dégradation de l’environnement.

MINISTRY OF ECONOMIC PROMOTION AND DEVELOPMENT (2003). Document de Stratégie Nationale deRéduction de la pauvreté. N’Djaména, Chad.

MINISTRY OF NATIONAL RECONSTRUCTION AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1980). DécennieInternationale de l’Eau Potable et de l’Assainissement : Rapport du Tchad.

MINISTRY OF PUBLIC HEALTH (1999). Plan National de Santé.

MINISTRY OF PUBLIC HEALTH, 1996. Directorate of Sanitary Activities. Afrique 2000 Documentation Technique deBase pour une consultation nationale.

MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS, TRANSPORT AND URBAN PLANNING (1999). Document sur la StratégieNationale du Logement.

REPUBLIC OF CHAD. Plan d’orientation révisé « Préparer le Tchad aux défis du XXIième siècle ».

REPUBLIC OF CHAD (1998). Round Table conference. Summary document. Geneva, October 1998,16 p. Basic document. Options stratégiques de développement 1998-2001. Geneva, 60 p. plus annexes. Programmed’appui au renforcement des capacités de gestion (PARC). Geneva, 41 p. plus annexes.

REPUBLIC OF CHAD (1999). Geneva-IV Round Table. Sector meeting on rural development l. 4 volumes. Diagnosticet stratégies. 63 p. Action programmes, 23 p. plus annexes. Summary document, 20 p. plus annexes.

REPUBLIC OF CHAD. Plan d’Orientation – Le Tchad à l’Horizon 2000/Plan d’Orientation Révisé (POR).-1998-1999.

OTHER DOCUMENTS CONSULTED

Proceedings of the 21st session of the Chad-Cameroon Mixed Commission – N’Djaména, 18 Nov. 1998.

Agence – Coopération – Aménagement, l’Eau et la Ville. ENTP documentation.

Ministry of Cooperation and Development. La construction de puits en Afrique tropicale. Techniques rurales enAfrique. July 1992.


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Documents

Transcript of Integrated Plan for Chad's Water Development and Management (SDEA) -- (Avril 2003)