Inclusive Leisure Services

Inclusive Leisure Services:

Grounded in Social Justice

5th Edition

John Dattilo

Power

PowerPower

Power

Physical

Physical

Social

Social

Power

Power

Power

Power

Psychological

FamilyRace

Culture

Ability

AgeLeisure

Ethics

Civil rights

Human rights

Inclusion and social justice

Economic resources

Psychological

Barriers

Facilitation techniques

LeisureGoal

Principles

Considerations

Be an ally and advocate

Encourage self- determination

Provide leisure education

Enhance our attitude

Nurture positive contact

Improve others’

attitudesMake

adaptations

Use sensitive terms

Implement universal design

Inclusive Leisure Services:Grounded in Social Justice

INCLUSIVE LEISURE SERVICES:

GROUNDED IN SOCIAL JUSTICE

5TH EDITION

John DattiloPenn State University

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For Amy, David, and Steven We have so much for which to be thankful.

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ContentsAcknowledgments and Reading Recommendations ............................................. viiAbout the Author ...................................................................................................................ix

IntroductionChapter 1: The Goal of Leisure ....................................................................................... 1

Section A: Inclusive Leisure Principles ..........................................................29Chapter 2: Be Ethical (with Francisco Javier Lopez Frias) .........................................31Chapter 3: Promote Inclusion Based on Social Justice ......................................... 63Chapter 4: Understand and Facilitate the Goal of Leisure (with Francisco Javier Lopez Frias) ...............................................................................91Chapter 5: Uphold Human Rights ............................................................................. 111Chapter 6: Adhere to Civil Rights (with Benjamin Hickerson)............................... 131

Section B: Leisure Barriers ............................................................................................. 159Chapter 7: Recognize the Pervasiveness of Power (with Francisco Javier Lopez Frias) ............................................................................. 161Chapter 8: Understand Influences of Sociological Barriers ............................... 181Chapter 9: Consider Psychological and Physical Barriers .................................203

Section C: Facilitation Techniques for Inclusive Leisure ................................... 221Chapter 10: Enhance Our Attitude ............................................................................223Chapter 11: Improve Everyone’s Attitudes .............................................................. 245Chapter 12: Use Inclusive Terms (with Amy Lorek) ................................................ 265Chapter 13: Nurture Positive Contact ....................................................................... 297Chapter 14: Encourage Self-Determination ............................................................319Chapter 15: Provide Leisure Education ................................................................... 335Chapter 16: Implement Universal Design ................................................................357Chapter 17: Make Adaptations .....................................................................................381

Section D: Leisure Considerations .............................................................................403 Chapter 18: Endorse Culture .......................................................................................405

Chapter 19: Acknowledge Complexity of Race (with Jason Lovejoy Scott) ....... 435Chapter 20: Address Economic Resources (with David Scott) .............................475Chapter 21: Embrace People’s Abilities ..................................................................... 511Chapter 22: Sustain Healthy Aging ............................................................................537Chapter 23: Support Families .....................................................................................569

Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 589 Chapter 24: Be an Ally and an Advocate..................................................................591

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Acknowledgments and Reading Recommendations

Thank you to people whom I have come to know who experience oppres-sion and marginalization. Their comments enrich this book and influence my ideas. This text has evolved over four decades as I teach this content and conduct related research. Suggestions by students influenced content of this book. I ap-preciate support by chapter coauthors Drs. Benjamin Hickerson, Amy Lorek, Francisco Javier Lopez Frias, Jason Lovejoy Scott, and David Scott. Various read-ings influence my thinking I share in this new edition. Although many articles and books help evolve my thinking, some books influence me strongly. If you are interested in pursuing reading on the topic, I recommend these:

• Kareen Abdul-Jabbar’s Writings on the Wall• Aristotle’s Nicomachian Ethics• Mitch Albom’s Tuesdays With Morrie • Michelle Alexander’s The New Jim Crow• Julius Bailey’s Racism, Hypocrisy, and Bad Faith• James Baldwin’s Baldwin: Collected Essays• Ta-Nehisi Coates’ Between the World and Me• Shari Collins and colleagues’ Being Ethical• Robin DiAngelo’s White Fragility• Frederick Douglas’ What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?• W. E. B. Du Bois’ The Souls of Black Folk• Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz’s An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States • Michael Eric Dyson’s Can You Hear Me Now?• Victor Frankl’s Man’s Search for Meaning• Henry Louis Gates, Jr.’s The Stony Road• Ryan Holiday’s The Obstacle is the Way• Ibram X. Kendi’s How to be an Antiracist• Dina Nayeri’s The Ungrateful Refugee• Randy Pausch’s The Last Lecture• Leonard Pitts, Jr.’s Forward From This Moment• Jackie Leach Scully’s Disability Bioethics• Richard Slimbach’s Becoming World Wise• Bryan Stevenson’s Just Mercy• The Dalai Lama’s Ethics for the New Millennium• J. D. Vance’s Hillbilly Elegy • Juan Williams’ Thurgood Marshall: American Revolutionary• Albert Woodfox’s Solitary

I hope this book assists readers in understanding the value of inclusive lei-sure services. I am optimistic readers will apply this awareness and knowledge to develop respectful services welcoming all people so they experience leisure and happiness as they flourish.

J. D.

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About the AuthorJohn Dattilo, PhD, is a professor in the Recreation, Park, and Tourism Manage-ment Department at Penn State University. He has provided leisure services, conducted research on the topic, and taught courses on inclusive leisure services for over 40 years. Dr. Dattilo works to help people provide respectful human and leisure services. Given the numerous opportunities over his lifetime, he consid-ers himself a naive ally to people experiencing opression and marginalization. Since many warn about problems with people of privilege speaking about or try-ing to represent those experiencing oppression, he works to listen closely, learn from others, and then use his role as an educator, researcher, and author to en-courage inclusion and social justice. Dr. Dattilo is humbled when he learns from people who encounter substantial challenges yet act with compassion, kindness, generosity, and forgiveness; they are his role models and heroes.

Introduction

LeisureGoal

Chapter 1

The Goal of Leisure

There is no they, only we.

At age 25, English poet William Ernest Henley (1849–1903) had his leg ampu-tated. While recovering, Henley wrote Invictus, a poem published untitled in his 1888 Book of Verses. Arthur Quiller-Couch added the title Invictus (Latin for un-conquered) when it was included in The Oxford Book of English Verse (1900).

Out of the night that covers me, Black as the pit from pole to pole

I thank whatever gods may be, for my unconquerable soul.

In the fell clutch of circumstance, I have not winced nor cried aloud.

Under the bludgeonings of chance, my head is bloody, but unbowed.

Beyond this place of wrath and tears, Looms but the horror of the shade

And yet the menace of the years, Finds and shall find me unafraid.

It matters not how strait the gate, How charged with punishments the scroll

I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my soul.

Directions Alone: Read the poem presented above and in less than 5 minutes write two brief paragraphs. In the first paragraph, describe your reaction to the poem. In the second paragraph, describe how you think the poem related to the content presented in this book.

Directions With Others: Find another person, share what you wrote in the first paragraph, and learn from the other person what they wrote in their first para-graph. Once you have both shared your ideas, move to the second paragraph and discus that information. Return to the entire group and share highlights of your small discussion group.

Debriefing: The poem brings to mind sentiments of many people who ex-perience oppression, persecution, intolerance, discrimination, and segrega-tion. Nelson Mandela, 1993 Nobel Peace Prize winner, who became president of South Africa in 1994, found this poem to be inspirational during his im-

Orientation Activity: I Am the Captain of My Soul

2 Inclusive Leisure Services: Grounded in Social Justice

prisonment from 1962 to 1990. Later, Mandela shared the verse with Francois Pienaar, captain of the South Africa Rugby Team, to inspire a connection and facilitate reconciliation between Black and White South Africans through ef-forts of the national rugby team. A 2009 film, which took its name from Hen-ley’s poem, depicted Mandela’s story of connecting with the successful rugby team to unite a divided country. As I explored the background of this poem and the connection between Henley’s experience of acquiring a disability and Mandela’s efforts as a human rights activist committed to promoting national reconciliation and global peace, I thought about the intention of this book and my experiences with inclusion.

IntroductionThis book is driven by a sense of optimism, a belief each of us holds the

power to, generally, make a positive contribution to the world, and, specifically, to offer leisure services in which all people feel welcome and respected. There are numerous ways outlined in this book to help us develop and deliver respect-ful, inclusive leisure services based on the premise that each of us needs to ex-pect a great deal from each other. Bryan Stevenson (2015) describes that a wife and husband lost their grandson to suicide and used their love and savings they planned for him to provide support for Charlie, who experienced severe trauma and incarceration at a young age. According to Stevenson, the wife stated:

We’ve all been through a lot, Bryan, all of us. I know that some have been through more than others. But if we don’t expect more from each other, hope better for one another, and recover from the hurt we expe-rience, we are surely doomed. (p. 126)

Many individuals and groups experience oppression on grounds other than ability, age, ethnicity, race, and socioeconomics. As an antidote to negative im-pacts of various social injustices, inclusion involves all of us living or simply being together in the same community or context so that we share experiences and develop appreciation for each other while each of us realizes our view of the good life. Such experiences and appreciation result in us valuing differences and recognizing that each person and their life plans are valuable. Inclusion pro-motes the belief we are all members of humanity, and therefore, we focus on “we” rather than “they.” When we provide inclusive services, we consider each individual’s experiences as well as group relationships and patterns that occur in a diverse society. Within this inclusive society, individuals develop and sustain connections and maintain their valued identities and sense of uniqueness.

Physically including people is an important starting point. Inclusion goes beyond physical proximity to participants developing relationships and connec-tions such as friendships. Central to friendship is that friends attempt to do good things for each other and wish their friends to be happy and flourish. Therefore, friends are concerned about each other and care what happens to one another. Friends spend time together, making similar ethical choices and engaging in cooperative enterprises to pursue common goods, including developing moral

Introduction: The Goal of Leisure 3

character. Friendships generate a sense of belonging and membership in a com-munity. Having a sense of community helps us to feel safe, allowing us freedom to experience meaning and enjoyment associated with our leisure. Inclusion in-volves having choices about with whom we interact and what experiences we pursue such as engagement in enjoyable and meaningful activities.

This book is about connecting to issues of oppression, marginalization, and powerlessness as well as privilege, dominance, and power. To achieve inclusion, as leisure service professionals we create accommodating environments that consider unique needs of each participant encouraging feelings of acceptance and being welcome as we foster reciprocity among participants. The poem In-victus is inspirational in helping me to persist in being ethical by demonstrating respect and promoting inclusion as I consider I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my soul. I also hope the poem sets the stage for understanding the purpose of this book. This chapter addresses the following questions:

• What are central ideas of this book? • What content is contained in this book? • What is the value of reading this book? • How do we make a difference?

What are Central Ideas of this Book?The hope is this book encourages leisure service professionals to develop

and implement programs that are inclusive of all people, regardless of charac-teristics. This book contains information to help readers create opportunities for all citizens to engage in leisure pursuits together. A goal in writing this book is to contribute to others’ education, and I remember the quote by Malcolm S. Forbes “The purpose of an education is to replace an empty mind with an open one.” The following actions represent central ideas throughout this book to help promote inclusive leisure services:

• Recognize oppression and marginalization• Understand possible negative implications of privilege • Demonstrate compassion• Exhibit a commitment to empathy

Recognize Oppression and MarginalizationThe purpose of this book is to educate future and current leisure service pro-

fessionals about conditions, beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors toward people who experience oppression or marginalization. Oppression involves domination and repression of a person or group by another privileged person or group. Such oppression occurs when people exert authority in an excessive and unjust manner with recipients encountering this injustice repeatedly. Op-pression forces some people down to a lower position economically, politically, and culturally by others often experiencing privilege. Frequently, those in an advantageous situation dominate other people; therefore, anyone can be an op-pressor. In Justice and the Politics of Difference, Iris Marion Young (1990) connects the experience of oppression to concepts closely related to leisure,


Systematic institutional processes which prevent some people from learning and using satisfying and expansive skills in socially recognized settings, or institutionalized social processes which inhibit people’s ability to play and communicate with others or to express their feelings and perspective on social life in contexts where others can listen. (p. 38)

It is helpful to consider oppression is not restricted to individual acts; op-pression involves social patterns. As we will see later in the book, negative beliefs and associated attitudes lead to individual intentions and behaviors that influ-ence others negatively. However, oppression goes beyond individual actions. Collins et al. (2017) identifies how oppression embeds in our society that affects everyone’s leisure:

Oppression becomes a social reality when certain groups of people are systemically prevented—at economic, cultural or institutional levels—from learning, expressing themselves, developing their skills, gaining recognition form others is established social settings, having access to safe and healthful social spaces, having free time, having a say in their work, and experiences on social life to others. (p. 222) [Oppression] is this sense is structural, rather than a result of a few people’s choices or policies. Its causes are embedded in the unquestioned norms, habits, and symbols, in the assumptions underlying institutional rules and the collective consequences of often unconscious assumptions and reac-tions of well-meaning people. (p. 72)

In the context of this book, when individuals or groups experience oppres-sion we are focusing on the consequence that these individuals or groups are prevented from experiencing leisure and all the associated benefits. In addition, marginalization infers certain people or groups are insignificant and, there-fore, people use their authority to push them out to the fringes of society. At the fringes, people are away from the mainstream and far from economic, political, and cultural resources. When humans encounter marginalization, often, other people view them as being disposable, an unnecessary aspect of a society.

This book provides details of various barriers associated with: power dif-ferentials strongly influencing other barriers such as sociological interactions, psychological thinking, and physical access as well as strategies to alleviate such barriers. The goal of this book is to provide supportive information to encour-age development and implementation of inclusive leisure services. If we picture an ideal world, part of that world involves inclusion as depicted in Figure 1.1A. However, as seen in Figure 1.1B, when there exists a power imbalance, people experiencing various privileges push others down and to the margins of society away from opportunities and resources.

In addition, the book also draws attention to power differentials in society and implications of experiencing privileges. Privilege occurs when a person en-


Figure 1.1AWhere We Could All Be

Figure 1.1BThe Power of Privilege

counters an exclusive fortunate opportunity, advantage, or benefit not available to other people that often results in the person having a social position more advantageous than others have. Privilege in itself is neither bad nor good; it is simply an unearned advantage. Experiencing privilege in some way, such as be-ing white, does not dismiss the possibility that someone who is white might ex-perience oppression associated with other characteristics such as poverty, sexual orientation, ability level, and religion.


Figure 1.1AWhere We Could All Be

Figure 1.1BThe Power of Privilege

counters an exclusive fortunate opportunity, advantage, or benefit not available to other people that often results in the person having a social position more advantageous than others have. Privilege in itself is neither bad nor good; it is simply an unearned advantage. Experiencing privilege in some way, such as be-ing white, does not dismiss the possibility that someone who is white might ex-perience oppression associated with other characteristics such as poverty, sexual orientation, ability level, and religion.

Figure 1.1aWhere we could all be

Inclusion

Marginalization:

powerpushing

people out

Figure 1.1bThe power of privilegeOppression: power pushing people down

Marginalization:powerpushing

people out

Figure 1.1bThe power of privilege


We can use whatever privilege we have to influence people negatively by exploiting them. There is a strong connection between oppression and privilege in that in addition to oppression preventing individuals and groups from many valuable aspects of life, it also acts to privilege other individuals and groups. This is distinctly noticeable associated with leisure. We also can use our privilege positively as we act as an ally to those who experience marginalization. The book concludes with a chapter specifically devoted to identifying ways we can act as an ally and advocate using our privilege for good. Therefore, it is helpful if, rather than viewing privilege negatively, we view it as an opportunity to promote inclu-sive leisure services. In addition, there are many challenges to leisure that occur for people experiencing marginalization and domination.

With overwhelming support of a 407-23 vote, the U.S. House of Rep-resentatives in March 2019 passed a resolution condemning “hateful expressions of intolerance . . . whether from the political right, center or left, bigotry, discrimination, oppression, racism . . . have no place in American political discourse.” (Stolberg, 2019, p. 1A, 3A)

Many cultures view systematic acts of intolerance and bigotry as being im-moral. Bigotry involves stubborn intolerance of a person, belief, or opinion that differs from one’s own. Bigots are people devoted to their opinions and preju-dices, particularly opinions that reflect intolerance or animosity toward people who have different beliefs or people who differ from them relative to race, eth-nicity, nationality, sexual orientation, disability, or religion. Bigots are hostile to such people because of opinions they have about other human beings. Often, a person who is a bigot takes people who have multiple identities and reduces them to unidimensional beings, counter to a fundamental ethical assumptions of this book. Bigotry functions similarly regardless of targets. Bigots often create hate groups that identify target groups experiencing oppression as threatening, inferior, or offensive. Because of these negative evaluations, bigots think those targeted are not entitled to ordinary acts of respect and decency.

According to the Southern Poverty Law Center (Falce, 2017), hate groups in U.S. is on the rise since 2015 with almost 200% increase in anti-Muslim groups. Resentment, feeling irrelevant, and fear of chang-es from increased human diversity may be motivating this.

When oppression and marginalization occur, there is a violation of values or rights of a person or group. Such rights include freedom, justice, and peace. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948 by the United Nations, reflects these rights detailed later in this book. Violations of human rights result in unjust systematic disparities and inequities negatively influencing the health and human development of individuals and groups. This book is about human beings who systematically and regularly experience oppression and marginal-ization. These individuals include those living in poverty, having disabilities, be-ing older, and being a member of a racial or ethnic group not in a privileged po-


sition, and many others. There is a range of different cultural and environmental factors influencing exclusion of individuals and groups. Though we encounter such oppression and marginalization differently, depending on our character-istics and the environments in which we exist, we share experiences of cultural forms of abuse and discrimination.

Oppression and marginalization is extreme in cases such as slavery, genocide, and apartheid, and it is subtle and occurs regularly within any society. Slavery is an unjust system or action of exploitation reducing a people to being property of certain privileged individuals who exhibit domination by owning, buying, and selling other human beings who they can treat with impunity. Impunity, the exception from punishment or freedom from negative consequences, occurs because enslavers and societal systems do not consider slaves human; rather, they are a possession. Genocide involves the horrific, systematic, and deliberate extermination of a racial, political, national, or cultural group. Apartheid sepa-rates people according to color, ethnicity, and similar characteristics, resulting in oppression. The word Apartheid often refers to racial segregation occurring in South Africa, legislated by the National Party from 1948–1994. The end of Apart-heid could have sent South Africa into civil war if not for Nelson Mandela and other humanitarians who promoted peace. Though various countries across the globe enact laws to promote civil rights, laws do not adequately address the in-justices many people experience. In The Virtues of Aging, former President Jimmy Carter (1998) discussed the limitations of laws:

But none of them requires us to be kind, generous, or forgiving, to have a good relationship with other people. The laws help us, but they don’t set the most important parameters of a good life, nor do they establish the highest moral or ethical standards. (p. 123)

Understand Negative Implications of Privilege People possessing different conditions and characteristics resulting in op-

pression and marginalization experience two challenges consistently and per-vasively. Other members of society who encounter regularly various privileges produce several challenges. These challenges include ignorance, selfishness, and superiority. Ignorance refers to a lack of knowledge, understanding, or learn-ing. This challenge often stems from an inability or unwillingness to engage in meaningful dialogue with others who are different in some way. This lack of interaction results in not developing an understanding of people’s common hu-manity. Alcoff (2007) noted that a major challenge for the world is ignorance:

Ignorance is of increasing concern. The public discourse of anti-intellectualism poses ignorance as a positive alternative and antidote to elitism and in polls of the U.S. population reveal alarming ignorance. The problem is not explainable by lack of access to resources


for knowledge and information, nor is it a problem that decreases with the advantage of class. It is, or appears to be, a willful ignorance. (p. 39)

Ignorance exacerbates when discrimination and segregation occur. Exacerbation happens when an already negative situation becomes worse. Pitts (2009) de-scribed this problem specific to the U.S.:

Our level of intercultural dialogue in this country is abysmal . . . a sig-nificant portion of the insult and hurt feelings that pass between races, genders, sexual orientations, [and] religions, probably grows not out of intent, but ignorance . . . The problem is that we go through our days hemmed in by comfort zones, cloistered by our perspectives, sur-rounded by people who look and sound like us. We don’t know the exotic-looking people who live just across the street, just down the block, just around the corner. All we know is that they are, in some highly visible way, Not Like Us. (p. 152)

Ignorance exists especially within those of us experiencing privilege, who are often oblivious to life experiences and living conditions of people encountering oppression. Sometimes we experience injustices at the hands of others who may mean well but have assumptions and associated reactions that cultural stereo-types support. Those of us having access to such power and resources that others do not are often identified as being privileged. Being unaware or not believing we contribute to oppression and marginalization is a product of privilege. When we experience privilege often, we are not fully aware of unjust situations of peo-ple experiencing oppression. Privilege tends to make our lives easier and safer. Bedini and Stone (2016), clarify the notion of safety,

When referring to issues of diversity and inclusion, it is important to understand that the term “safety” refers to more than just physical safe-ty. Psychological safety, whereby individuals know they are free from judgment and exclusion because of their difference, is essential. (p. 288)

When we experience privilege, often we do not to consider factors we pos-sess that advantage us, such as class, ability, gender, race, or ethnicity. As a result, we frequently do not readily detect acts of discrimination and oppression. Often members of groups who receive privilege fail to learn about people less fortu-nate than themselves and at times refuse to recognize their shared humanity. Unfortunately, thinking about problems with dichotomies, many of us experi-encing privilege think that the goals of people who encounter oppression to be in opposition to our goals. In describing white privilege, McIntosh (1988) states,


As a white person, I realized I had been taught about racism as some-thing that puts others at a disadvantage but had been taught not to see one of the corollary aspects, white privilege, which puts me at an advan-tage. I have come to see white privilege as an invisible package of un-earned assets that I can count on cashing in each day, but about which I was “meant” to remain oblivious. (p. 2)

Even though the aforementioned statement focuses on white privilege, Mc-Intosh and others recognize that some of us are advantaged through a variety of conditions such as gender, age, ethnicity, physical ability, nationality, religion, and sexual orientation. In this regard, she discussed heterosexual privilege from her own experiences: “The fact that I live under the same roof with a man trig-gers all kinds of societal assumptions about my worth, politics, life, and values and triggers a host of unearned advantages and powers” (p. 12). Among other suggestions, McIntosh encourages us to ask ourselves several questions:

• What are one or more ways we have unearned disadvantages? • What are one or more ways you have unearned advantages? • What is it like to talk about and hear about experiences of unearned advantage and disadvantage?

Although many of us experiencing privileges are often unaware of such priv-ileges, those encountering oppression are keenly aware of such disadvantage. One reason such an awareness occurs is that those of us fortunate enough to have such advantages often remind others of their disadvantage. Kimmel and Messner (1998) use the following example of a conversation between two wom-en, one who is Black and the other white, to illustrate ignorance of privilege. The black woman begins,

When you wake up in the morning and look in the mirror, what do you see? I see a woman, replied the white woman. That’s precisely the issue, replied the Black woman. I see a Black woman. For me, race is visible every day, because it is how I am not privileged in this culture. Race is invisible to you [because it is how you are privileged].

Across the world and throughout history, people experience oppression and marginalization extensively because of ignorance. Oppression often occurs be-cause people possess a particular characteristic that people who are in power do not embrace or accept. Yes, there is a problem within society, and it stems from ignorance. This ignorance leads some of us to view others as having an inferior status, resulting in oppression and discrimination. Many of us believe injustice and oppression no longer exist or have no impact on our lives. Therefore, it is valuable to confront naiveté, denial, and ignorance as encouraged by Pitts (2016):


The less you know, the more fearsome and confounding the world can seem, and the more susceptible you are to authoritarian figures who promise to make everything right again. Education must be rescued from the anti-science, anti-history, anti-logic, anti-intellect agendas . . . Knowing things is important. Facts matter. (p. 6A)

Because when we experience privilege in many ways, we benefit from op-pression and marginalization of others, we often consciously or unconsciously want to have existing systems continue. For instance, white people do not need to be a white supremacist to benefit from white supremacy. Such injustice of-ten results from people being selfish. Selfishness occurs when we lack consid-eration for others as we primarily focus on our personal ability to have positive experiences and acquire desired resources that benefit us. As selfishness extends beyond individual behavior to a collective occurrence, injustice happens. This injustice resulting in power differentials has implications for the ability of vari-ous individuals to experience leisure.

Another aspect of privilege is associated with a sense of superiority. Being superior involves being situated or ranked higher in quality or importance than others. A sense of superiority is often associated with arrogance based on as-sumptions resulting in a sense of self-importance. Pumla Gobado-Madikizela is a professor at Stellenbosch University, South Africa, and an authority on forgive-ness. In an interview with David Marchese (2020), she provided an example of how a sense of superiority creates challenges across two different countries,

For young white people who want to hold on to their sense of superi-ority, this is a challenge: not being able to reclaim their sense of iden-tity as superior white people. They don’t like it when Black people are successful or they have to compete with Black people. These issues are playing out in both our countries, and they have to do with what did not happen. In South Africa and even in your country [U.S.], this issue of equality, of equity, has not been adequately addressed. And this prob-lem of white people not being able to embrace this new phase of social developments is yielding negative results. So they are drawing on what their white identity knows best how to do, which is reclaim their sense of superiority. (p. 15)

As described in more detail later in the book, power involves actions that occur in situations in which we can choose as we engage in social relationships. Some power relations result in people experiencing choices contributing to their well-being. However, for some people, their choices influencing their well-being become constrained.


Marion enjoys playing soccer. However, recently, she encountered bullying by other youth playing on her team with no intervention by the coach. Her peers are targeting her because she shared with them that she is gay. Even though Marion finds she experiences leisure often when playing soccer, she stops playing to avoid ridicule and feels as if she has no other choice.

When power relationships result in some people’s leisure being restricted, Amy Allen (1998) identifies this occurrence as power-over. Unfortunately, leisure contexts create situations in which people execute power-over other individuals resulting in social control. Leisure connects to demonstrating social class, race, ability, sexual orientation, gender, and many other characteristics that create hu-man hierarchies reflecting power differences. The framing of leisure by domi-nant groups and their creation of practices and institutions around leisure help perpetuate their dominance.

Demonstrate Compassion

The Dalai Lama advised, if we want others to be happy, practice com-passion. If we want to be happy, practice compassion. In describing the degree to which the Dalai Lama embraces compassion, Krueger (2013) stated, “His view of the basic sameness of all things resonates in a world wary of strife and threatened by conflict. His moral code reduces to a single word: compassion.” (p. 33)

Compassion is our ability to understand another’s challenges, distress, or suffering accompanied by the desire to alleviate or remove these negative condi-tions or to be helpful in some way. Such compassion occurs when we consider our commonalities grounded in the belief that we are all human. At different points in all of our lives, we encounter negative conditions and can benefit from compassion. Remembering words of the Dalai Lama above, it is valuable to con-sider that people who send, receive, and observe compassionate acts all benefit. When we attempt to alleviate others’ distress and demonstrate compassion, we feel a sense of purpose and are uplifted. By acting compassionately, we work to achieve a goodness greater than our own sense of self-interest and pleasure. Pitts (2013) described how the Pope practices compassion:

The former Jorge Mario Bergoglio managed to surprise and impress the religious and irreligious alike by living a brand of faith seldom seen on the public stage. One of the earliest acts of his papacy was to wash and kiss the feet of a dozen young prisoners, two of them girls, at least one of them a Muslim. His vision of a more compassionate and inclu-sive church has won him rave reviews across the cultural spectrum. [He] models humility, inclusion, and unpretentiousness. We see this new pope declaring the dignity of the poor, the inclusion of the mar-ginalized, the denial of self. (p. A8)


Although demonstrating compassion is an ethical way to interact with oth-ers, not all community members or even professionals are motivated to do the right thing. Fortunately, as identifi ed in subsequent chapters in this book, we base provision of inclusive leisure services on logic supported by research. Re-search identifi es such services as being mutually advantageous to all involved. People motivated to be compassionate support inclusion and embrace diver-sity recognizing there is shared benefi t to welcoming individuals experiencing oppression into programs. As we support compassionate acts and inclusion, we contribute to our collective success.

Exhibit a Commitment to EmpathyDeveloping positive attitudes toward all people is important because nega-

tive attitudes are a diffi cult barrier to overcome. If we do not address negative attitudes properly, such attitudes result in stigmatization, discrimination, seg-regation, and isolation. We develop empathic understanding of injustices that various oppressed groups experience in a variety of ways. Empathy is the ability to understand, share, feel, or identify with another’s experiences, emotions, or thoughts: the ability to place oneself in another person’s position. With empathy, we try to feel with a person rather than feel for that person. As we develop a sense of empathy as pictured in Figure 1.2, we tend to act in ways that demonstrate respect for human dignity, understood as the ability to pursue one’s life plans. Empathy involves imagining ourselves as others, imagining their situations and attitudes, and what it would be like to be them. Although we attempt to imagine people’s circumstances, we can never truly occupy another individual’s experi-ences not understand exactly their plight.

Figure 1.2Exhibit Empathy


Figure 1.2Exhibit empathy

EMPATHY

Cripps and Hood (2017) identifi ed common threads in the literature identifying that empathy involves the capacity to: recognize emotions in others, be sensitive in the moment, understand others’ condition as they experience it, be present with another’s emotions, purposely re-


flection and focus on being aware of other people’s experience to in-crease understanding of their perspective.

We distinguish empathy from sympathy. Sympathy tends to indicate feel-ings of sorrow and pity we feel as we commiserate within someone or a group experiencing a misfortune. Empathy is about listening, learning, and trying to understand the lived experience of another human being. We do not know how another person is feeling or what they are encountering but we can listen to them and try to understand their position as best we can, we try to feel like them. To empathize with a person, we listen. As we listen, we work to be nonjudgmen-tal making a distinction between a person’s actions and the individual. We avoid interpreting statements made by others as attacking us personally so that we neutralize our tendency to be defensive. We must check in with ourselves and determine our reactions by asking, “What am I doing or saying?” “Am I focusing on the needs of the person or on my needs?” “What am I doing to encourage people to feel as if I am hearing, seeing, and valuing them?

Some U.S. leaders demonstrate empathy toward certain oppressed groups and advocate for them. Franklin Delano Roosevelt described those living in poverty as people with dignity experiencing a catastro-phe rather than as people just being lazy.

One way to acquire empathy is to experience directly the plight of a per-son who is experiencing challenges. Another way to develop empathy is by ex-periencing indirectly what it is like to encounter injustice. Indirect experiences include conversations with people who have experienced oppression and mar-ginalization regularly and deeply about their life experiences, including their leisure pursuits. An element of such conversations is listening intently to these individuals. It is valuable to engage in dialogue about topics that we might typi-cally avoid because talking about them makes us uncomfortable; however, we learn a great deal when we are uncomfortable. It is important for us to engage in thoughtful discussions with others about topics such as sexism, racism, ageism, homophobia, and religious intolerance.

Armstrong et al. (2016) surveyed over 2,000 children and recommend-ed creating opportunities for contact between diverse individuals in in-clusive contexts to reduce anxiety and increase empathy.

Reading about lives of individuals, watching films and videos presenting ex-periences of injustice, and hearing lectures and speeches that clarify violation of moral values, are helpful in developing a sense of empathy. Molly Worthen (2020) interviewed Sarah Levine and Andie Horowitz who stated, respectively:


Literature is an empathy tool, and reading literature widely can actual-ly make you an empathetic person. (p. 4) When you understand people behind the movement, it becomes more personal. That’s where empa-thy comes into critical thinking and being motivated to learn more. (p. 5)

When trying to develop empathy we engage in critical self-reflection ex-amining our beliefs, feelings, and thoughts about characteristics and situations. When we examine our assumptions, we often experience humility by our lim-ited understanding, and this awareness promotes empathy. Though being em-pathetic requires effort, as we develop a sense of competence associated with being empathetic, we are more likely to behave empathetically and feel posi-tive emotions. Although empathy increases our awareness of injustices others experience and our connection to them, next we must require ourselves to be responsible by committing to social justice and taking action against injustice. Social justice is the ongoing daily occurrence of collective actions based on fair-ness and solidarity valuing human rights and equity. Such justice supports the dignity of individuals at multiple social levels including access to economic, po-litical, health, education, cultural and leisure opportunities and resources.

If we pursue such a commitment to improve people’s lives, it becomes a part of our identity. Commitment involves an agreement or pledge to follow a course of action involving a devotion to do something in the future; commit-ment requires intention and a plan. As we commit ourselves to help others to engage in dialogue, increase awareness, demonstrate respectful behavior, and change policies, we act in ways consistent with our identity and gain satisfaction that contributes to our sense of happiness. To help us commit to inclusion, it is helpful to consider it is our choice about how we view our experiences and the world around us. We have control over our perspective. We can choose to view promoting inclusion as too difficult or we can take it one-step at a time and focus on having confidence that each day we can make a difference and help people be included. We remind ourselves continuously that we can and do make a dif-ference. We believe being ethical, compassionate, empathetic and inclusive is always within our grasp.

In our attempts to be empathetic, we must guard against making assump-tions about individuals, being condescending, or engaging in any form of domi-nation over others. Condescension occurs when we assume we are superior to others. Therefore, we consider our shared humanity for those for whom we demonstrate empathetic behaviors, so that we connect with them as equals. In Against Empathy: The Case for Rational Compassion, Paul Bloom (2016) warns that our biases can guide our efforts to be empathetic and direct our support to only those people who are similar to us and, thus, perpetuate injustice. Such misdi-rection of empathy can result in developing an alliance with people in positions of authority resulting in further marginalization and discrimination of people finding themselves outside the mainstream of society. To guard against possible negative influences of empathy, we must logically analyze our beliefs and behav-iors and ensure we are supporting and uplifting others as if they are close friends or loved ones.


Figure 1.3 illustrates the notion if we recognize oppression and marginaliza-tion and understand possible negative implications of privilege, demonstrate compassion, and commit to being empathetic, we are likely to decrease our ignorance and selfishness as well as increase our understanding of the lives of diverse people who encounter oppression. We are then in a better position to provide meaningful and enjoyable inclusive leisure services.

Figure 1.3Central Ideas of This Book

What Content is Contained in this Book?

Once I send a draft of this book to the good people at Sagamore-Venture Publishing, I immediately begin the next edition as I continue to collect ideas, reflect on various readings, conduct research, and listen to students and other people’s perspectives and suggestions. As a result, additions and alterations to this book occur over several years. I was completing revisions to this fifth edi-tion of the book in spring and summer of 2020, as the COVID-19 arrived in the U.S. As so many others, I understood by collectively experiencing this global pandemic, life would never be the same, for any of us. However, as I continued working on this book, I realized, along with various other people, that the cir-cumstances in which we found ourselves, at that moment in time, served to ac-centuate inequities and effects of privilege occurring in our world. For example, Linda Wiggins-Chavis (2020, p. 5B) stated,

Be Ethical 5

Figure 1.3Central ideas of this book

Recognize Oppression and Marginalization

Demonstrate Compassion

Understand Possible Negative

Implications of Privilege

Exhibit a Commitment of

Empathy

++ ==

Promote Inclusion

Decrease Ignorance and Selfishness

Use Privileges to Act as an Ally

and Advocate


The onslaught of a global health pandemic COVID-19 has brought out the best in many of us and the worst in others. It has also exposed the ugly truths of racism, white privilege, and white supremacy . . . Xeno-phobia against Asian Americans is on the rise. Health care disparities among African Americans have worsened during the pandemic due to systemic racism. Black and Brown people are being disproportionately arrested for not properly following social distancing guidelines.

Xenophobia occurs when a person fears, dislikes, or has prejudicial views of people from other countries. More generally, xenophobia refers to people fear-ing anything or anyone they perceive to be strange or foreign. Such fears and prejudices promote social injustices and inequities and inhibit inclusion. There is a need, more than ever, to understand ideas presented in the previous section of this chapter and contained throughout the entire book. Ronald Filippelli and Jesse Barlow (2020, p. 5A), made their plea,

In addition to the universal impact of the pandemic on daily life, it has also exposed existing inequalities and biases in our communities, and placed additional unique stresses on specific populations. In particu-lar, Asians, Asian American, and Pacific Islanders across the nation are dealing with an uptick in bias and hate crimes directed toward them.These prejudicial and hostile acts have caused additional stress to all these communities, even as they fulfill a service role in COVID-19 re-sponse efforts as medical professionals, researchers, engineers, educa-tors and workers in grocery stores, restaurants, farms and other agen-cies. We ask citizens to choose humanity, compassion, and solidarity in facing these new challenges.

As discussed in more detail later in the book, solidarity involves develop-ing a sense of unity bonding people together often based on common interests resulting in mutual support. Specifically related to inclusive leisure services, the book contains examples of inequities related to access and opportunities associ-ated with leisure engagement. COVID-19 has highlighted these inequities prod-ding the Director of Urban to Wild, Yvette Lopez-Ledesma (2020), to explain the need for the conservation movement to support park equity,

The response to the pandemic is exposing systemic inequities that have left black and Latino populations the most impacted. As we think of a post COVID-19 world, it’s crucial that we move forward in a way that supports racial, environmental and overall social justice. (p. 1)

This book encourages readers to develop empathetic understanding of the lives of people who often experience oppression, those people who others ig-nore, marginalize, or do not include in community life. The hope is to motivate


readers to engage in responsible and respectful actions. To achieve this inten-tion, the book contains suggestions to facilitate meaningful leisure participation for everyone while respecting each person’s rights. The book contains quotes to present perspectives of individuals in their words. Some quotes are lightly edited for brevity to fit within the context of the book. To read the full quote, article, or book, follow the reference list to the original source. Throughout this book, the word “we” is used often associated with, for example, people experi-encing oppression and those experiencing privilege. The intent of this dual use is to avoid creating an us-them dichotomy and instead promote an orientation to unity. Apologies if this creates confusion as you read; I believe the message of inclusivity is worth an occasional muddled narrative. Many of us share the expe-rience that we exist in duality, encountering privilege and oppression depending on circumstances.

The book also provides details of a model for promoting inclusive leisure services; a depiction of this model is in Figure 1.4. The book begins with an intro-duction that clarifies the overall goal of our services to help people experience leisure, as highlighted in the center circle of Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4Educational Model to Promote Inclusive Leisure Services

The first section of the book focuses on creating an awareness of fundamen-tal principles of inclusive leisure services contained in the shaded circle imme-diately outside the goal of leisure depicted in Figure 1.4. Such ideas include eth-ics, inclusion and social justice, leisure, as well as human and civil rights relevant to leisure involvement. The second section details barriers to leisure highlight-ing the pervasiveness of power and addressing additional sociological, psycho-logical, and physical challenges. In the figure, the larger, darker circles represent

Inclusive Leisure Services:

Grounded in Social Justice

5th Edition

John Dattilo

Power

PowerPower

Power

Physical

Physical

Social

Social

Power

Power

Power

Power

Psychological

FamilyRace

Culture

Ability

AgeLeisure

Ethics

Civil rights

Human rights

Inclusion and social justice

Economic resources

Psychological

Barriers

Facilitation techniques

LeisureGoal

Principles

Considerations

Be an ally and advocate

Encourage self-determination

Provide leisure education

Enhance our attitude

Nurture positive contact

Improve others’

attitudesMake

adaptations

Use sensitive terms

Implement universal design


� e � gure presented on the front cover of this book depicts a model for inclusive leisure services grounded in social justice. � e model identi� es the overall goal of our services–to ensure people experience leisure, as highlighted in the center circle of the � gure. Fundamental principles of inclusive leisure services are contained in the shaded circle immediately outside the goal of leisure. Such principles include ethics, inclusion and social justice, leisure, as well as, human and civil rights relevant to leisure involvement. � e model also identi� es unique challenges associated with selected characteristics. � e � gure illustrates these considerations by a white circle in the middle of the model. One characteristic is our culture, broadly used to include ethnicity, religion, nationality, and sexual orientation, among other variables. Another consideration is race and the extensiveness of racism locally and globally, in� uencing all of us every day. Also highlighted is the in� uence of economic resources available to us, which income strongly e� ects. Since our age in� uences our leisure, the model identi� es the value in developing strategies to sustain healthy aging. � is portion of the model also addresses the characteristic of ability, encouraging us to welcome people of all abilities into our agencies and programs. � e model identi� es the balance families must achieve as they encounter barriers when one or multiple family members experience oppression.

Barriers to leisure are included in the model, highlighting the pervasiveness of power and addressing sociological, psychological, and physical challenges. � e larger, darker circles in the � gure represent barriers that enclose the inner circles. Given the extensiveness of these barriers, they appear multiple times in the circles. Facilitation techniques are included in the model that help reduce barriers to leisure and create opportunities for leisure. Although multiple strategies shi� power structures, some strategies emphasize promoting social engagement by focusing on ways to enhance and improve attitudes, use sensitive terminology, and encourage positive contact with diverse participants. To help address psychological barriers, there are suggestions to enhance participants’ self-determination and a model to provide leisure education. � e model identi� es ways to alleviate physical barriers by applying principles of universal design and making adaptations to activities, materials, the environment, and ways we teach, as well as supporting participants. � e model includes a facilitation technique strongly connected to ethical practice, encouraging us to be allies and advocates for equity. � e � gure portrays the starred facilitation techniques in the outside circle of the model working to break through the barriers. Arrows moving through the barriers toward the inner circles highlight that the facilitation techniques help permeate barriers, encouraging people to experience leisure.

� ere are di� erences in considerations of various groups as we attempt to facilitate leisure for them; however, there are o� en strong similarities across members of groups who regularly deal with marginalization. Because of these similarities, there is value in considering ways of providing inclusive leisure services across various participants. Ultimately, we deliver inclusive leisure services so that all people experience leisure and happiness as they � ourish.

ISBN: 978-1-95281-532-4


5th Edition

Dattilo


barriers that enclose the inner circles. Given the extensiveness of these barri-ers, they appear multiple times in the circles on the figure. The third section of the book presents various facilitation techniques to help reduce barriers to leisure and create opportunities for participants to experience leisure. Although we use all strategies identified to shift power structures, some strategies identi-fied emphasize promoting social engagement by focusing on ways to enhance and improve attitudes, use sensitive terminology, and encourage positive con-tact with diverse participants. To help address psychological barriers, there are suggestions on ways to enhance participants’ self-determination and a model to provide leisure education. The final chapters of this section describe ways to al-leviate physical barriers by applying principles of universal design and making adaptations to activities, materials, the environment, and the way we teach, as well as providing necessary supports for participants.

Figure 1.4 portrays these starred facilitation techniques in the outside of the model working to break through the identified barriers. Arrows moving through the barriers toward the inner circles highlight that facilitation techniques help permeate the barriers, encouraging people to experience leisure. The final sec-tion of the book identifies unique challenges associated with selected character-istics, accompanied by strategies designed to address these, sometimes, unique considerations. Figure 1.4 illustrates these considerations by the white circle in the middle of the model. One characteristic is our culture, which in this book we use broadly to include ethnicity, religion, nationality, and sexual orientation among other variables. An entire chapter is devoted to race and the pervasive-ness of racism locally and globally that influences all of us every day. Another consideration is the economic resources available to us, which income strongly effects. Since our age also influences leisure engagement, this chapter includes strategies to sustain healthy aging. This section also addresses the characteristic of ability, while encouraging everyone to welcome people of all abilities. The book also discusses the balance families experience when one or multiple mem-bers of a family unit encounters barriers associated with power, social, psycho-logical, or physical aspects. Finally, the book concludes with a chapter devoted to a valuable facilitation technique strongly connected to ethical practice, encour-aging readers to be allies and advocates for equity.

Many books and much research address construction of and experiences as-sociated with oppression and marginalization by focusing only on the lives of specific groups of people such as people who are gay, Muslim, and older, as well as those who have a disability, or live in poverty. Though there is value in ex-ploring the unique nature of domination and resistance of particular groups of individuals, there is a risk of creating information silos that may limit sharing of knowledge and advancements. Yes, there are clear differences in considerations of various groups as we attempt to facilitate leisure for them; however, there are often strong similarities across members of groups who regularly deal with oppression and marginalization. Because of these similarities, there is value in considering ways of providing inclusive leisure services across various partici-pants, many of us who may possess a variety of characteristics viewed negatively by those in privileged positions. Rosenblum and Travis (2016) speak to this issue,


Although there are certainly differences of history, experience, and im-pact, we believe that similar processes are at work when people “see” differences of color, sex and gender, social class, sexuality, and disabil-ity, and we believe that there are similarities in the consequences for individuals’ lives. [They] “frame” how people are seen by others—espe-cially strangers—as well as how they see themselves and much of what they experience in the world [such as leisure]. (p. 2)

Each chapter begins with an orientation activity to familiarize the reader with the chapter and provide a chance to interact with others about the topic. Debriefings follow the orientation activities consist of a discussion about the activity and a few questions to stimulate reflection. Try to answer these ques-tions designed to assist in processing the orientation activity. Next, each chap-ter has an introduction providing an overview of topics covered in the chapter. The content of each chapter follows the introduction and comprises most of the chapter. Final thoughts offer additional examples and a chance for reflec-tion. Chapters conclude with several discussion questions to encourage a review of the material, identify important points, and problem solve. Throughout the chapters there are boxes containing examples of best practices occurring in various communities and research studies supporting positions expressed. The book contains several theories to help us understand our behavior patterns and strategies to alleviate leisure barriers and promote inclusive leisure. Although, unfortunately, many people use the word, theory, to describe their hunches or hypotheses that are often incorrect, actual theories have grounding in system-atic observations providing plausible and scientifically accepted explanations of a principle that improves and clarifies our understanding. Researchers who have conducted numerous studies testing their assumptions and refining their clari-fications propose theories in this book to improve our understanding and guide us to develop inclusive leisure services.

To conclude, this book has evolved considerably since the first four editions. Specifically, this edition differs from the previous edition in several ways. First, given publication of the recent book Inclusive Leisure Services for People with Dis-abilities, several chapters specifically addressing inclusion of people with differ-ent types of disabilities are not included in this edition to avoid duplication. Next, several chapters have been added and expanded as a result a keynote address I delivered at a conference in Bilbao, Spain, soon after publication of the fourth edition of the book. I shared with the attendees the structure of the Education Model to Promote Inclusion Leisure Services. During the subsequent discussion of the presentation, colleagues suggested that in addition to considering physi-cal, psychological, and social barriers, I incorporate the barrier of power into the model. They also encouraged me to read writings of various European authors. I valued their input and consumed books and articles written by European schol-ars. Together with my colleague from Spain, Francisco Javier Lopez Frias ( Javi), beginning during my sabbatical in Spain, we honed our ideas associated with leisure, power, inclusion, and social justice. We critically examined current views of leisure as we rejected interpretations concerning the instrumental nature of leisure and embraced connections between leisure and ideas of living well and


flourishing. Further, we explored the pervasiveness of power and implications to inclusive leisure. We also explored the synergy of the social justice and inclusive leisure continuum. Therefore, this edition of the book contains a new version of the model. To clarify the nature of the model, Javi and I added several additional chapters to describe a more thorough model.

Finally, I recognize my orientation to the content of this book is limited in various ways. For instance, I engage in this dialogue about inclusive leisure ser-vices often relying on Euro-Northern American perspectives since I learn about many of these concepts from this orientation. I also acknowledge that my per-sonal and professional history, including those associated with being a writer, scholar, and academic influences content of this book. As a white, adult, hetero-sexual, male United States citizen, raised in a supportive home, who has earned a PhD, and has sufficient funds to consider retirement, I experience many privi-leges in my daily life that influence my thoughts and the way I see the world. To address many of these limitations of my perspective, I continuously read about, listen to, watch, study, and reflect on experiences of people encounter-ing oppression and domination to help improve my incomplete understanding of their enduring challenges. Similar to other scholars and activists concerned with social justice, such as Iris Marion Young, I do not claim to speak for people and movements associated with being, for example, Black or Native American, a member of the LBGTQ+ community, having a disability, or living in pover-ty; however, I cannot speak without them. Collectively, these individuals and groups share the experience of oppression that occurs from systemic structures of domination and injustice that, unfortunately, permeate our society and world. I rely and lean on them to increase my awareness and help me to communicate messages of social justice, inclusion, and equity.

What Is the Value of Reading this Book?With each passing day, many communities across the world are becoming

more diverse. In addition, there has been an increase in international awareness of discrimination, oppression, and marginalization, especially as it relates to rac-ism. In response to incidents occurring in the U.S. and across the world, Kristine Stratton (2020), president and CEO of the National Recreation and Park Associa-tion, stated that there is an:

. . . urgent need for real and substantive dialogue about systematic inequality and racial bigotry facing people of color in communities throughout the United States. I believe park and recreation profession-als, who champion inclusiveness, fairness and social equity, share my sentiments when I say—society has no place for racism, intolerance or divisiveness. The goal of parks and recreation is about making parks and green spaces accessible to all, regardless of race, gender, religion, or socioeconomics. [We need] broader discussions about our collective differences and challenges regarding race and culture, the changes that must be made moving forward, and what we can do as a park and recre-ation community to create solutions that will help us heal as a country


and overcome our pain and prejudices. It has never been more impor-tant for our industry to be a leading voice for social equity and inclu-sion. As we follow our path to recovery, let’s make sure we are opening our spaces and rebuilding our programs in service of our fundamental belief that everyone deserves a great park.

Many of us view increasing diversity as a sign of the health and vigor of cul-ture, but the broad range of linguistic, cultural, ethnic, and ability differences challenges today’s professional. As a result, leisure service professionals provide programs to individuals with a variety of interests and characteristics. We must work with and understand those from many cultural backgrounds. Miller and Schleien (2006) spoke to the status of inclusive leisure:

We are on the verge of the “tipping point” when provision of inclusive services becomes state-of-the-art across North America. It is likely that inclusive recreation will transform from a legally mandated service that agencies address primarily because it’s the law, to an embraced and genuine philosophy that welcomes and accommodates people of all abilities. We have that power to make a difference. (p. 10)

To facilitate inclusion, we develop an awareness of and appreciation for diversity and an interest in involving all citizens in our programs. Experiences educating others about inclusion include information about diversity, specific conditions, and relevant legislation, as well as encouragement of positive at-titudes and skills needed to promote inclusion. Professionals are calling for the hiring of personnel with these characteristics and continued training of these professionals.

• Roth (2018) described the National Recreation and Park Association survey of 512 U.S. park and recreation professionals about inclusion; 90% report trying to address challenges preventing inclusion such as lack of resources including insufficient funding (62%), inadequate staffing (51%), need for staff training (29%), or scarce supplies and equip-ment (11%). Reaching underserved community members and under-standing their needs are barriers with 26% indicating their agency does not sufficiently reach these populations and 23% acknowledge their agency does not fully understand these individuals’ needs.

• Lehto et al. (2014) conclude it is becoming critically urgent to develop future leaders and workers with global and multicultural competen-cies so we embrace increasingly diverse societies and connect within complex global environments.


• Responses of almost 350 members of the California Park and Rec-reation Society to the Entry-Level Competency Framework resulted in identifying the highest rated competencies with many reflected in this book. The #1 desired competency was to make ethical deci-sions. Another competency in the top 10 was inclusion skills involv-ing openness to serve all community members.

Leisure service professionals identify a need to train staff on issues related to diversity and disability awareness, sensitivity toward all people, and methods for modifying programs so they are inclusive. Research findings support observa-tions that we perceive leisure service personnel are not yet equipped to conduct inclusive programs, in terms of knowledge regarding programming techniques and practices.

• Park and Recreation Inclusion Report (2018) describes results of 497 park and recreation professionals completing a 26-question survey asking how park and recreation agencies meet needs of all individuals in their community, and tools they need to better sup-port their communities. The report identifies many agencies are facing significant challenges with inclusion, including limited staff and funds, with some lacking a clear understanding of the needs and desires of members of the community (Mummert, 2020).

• Sanson (2017) surveyed 400 leisure service professionals in Ontar-io, Canada, and conducted interviews; many leaders commented on the staff’s need to know more about how to work with diverse youth.

• Bedini and Stone (2016) conclude that recent research supports the contention there is a need to assist leisure service providers to gain proper insight to provide inclusive services for all citizens.

• Using focus groups with leisure services providers and participants, Anderson and Heyne (2000) conclude relative to inclusive leisure, service providers lack awareness, acceptance, and information, and they need help promoting social inclusion, physical access, com-munication, and networking between agencies and consumers.

• Staff at two urban national parks described the importance of re-sponding to diverse participants, yet identified many employees do not have necessary competencies to engage with diverse popula-tions effectively (Herbert, 2000).

As leisure service providers, we are in an excellent position to enhance lives of community members experiencing oppression and marginalization by designing services that improve participants’ sense of competence and self-determination. The ability to make choices and take control of our lives al-lows everyone to match their skills to the challenges presented in community


recreation opportunities. Once we recognize our ability to enhance the quality of life for all people, we develop strategies to promote inclusive leisure services. We build on everyone’s talents and opportunities and know that each individual brings important contributions to community life.

How Do We Make a Difference?I hope that those who read this book will value including everyone in com-

munity leisure services. As leisure service providers, we realize each of us makes a difference in each other’s lives and each of us must seize the opportunity to influence others and our environment positively. When we believe we have such influence, we tend to move toward becoming can-do people—that is, people who believe obstacles are challenges to overcome. As we become can-do people, together we resist blaming individuals and work on how we can respectfully and assertively, not aggressively, change the world. To follow through on such a com-mitment, I remind myself of the words of Rosling et al. (2018, p. 221):

Resist blaming any one individual or group of individuals for anything. Because the problem is that when we identify the bad guy, we are done thinking. And it’s almost always more complicated than that. It’s almost always about multiple interacting causes—a system. If you really want to change the world, you have to understand how it actually works and forget about punching anyone in the face.

Such beliefs place responsibility on us to create situations that are respect-ful of everyone. This is a similar sentiment expressed by Sir Winston Churchill, British prime minister and Nobel Prize winner, as he discussed the nature of optimists: “A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; an optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty.” Although this book contains suggestions on how to relate to people, one idea helps most to guide my interactions with oth-ers, including those who experience some form of oppression.

I ask myself these questions depending on the situation: When I en-counter a man older than me, I think to myself, if that were my father, Marty, how would I want others to treat him? When I encounter a wom-an older than me, I think to myself, if that were my mother, Gloria, how would I want others to treat her? When I encounter a child, I think to myself, if that were one of my sons, David or Steven, how would I want others to treat that child? When I encounter a woman about my age, I think to myself, if that were my wife, Amy, how would I want others to treat her? When I encounter a man my age, I think to myself, if that were me, how would I want others to treat me? I use my answers to help determine my actions toward all individuals. When I do this, I am more likely to act toward others with kindness, dignity, and respect.


Thus, there is value for each of us to think of those whom we love and to see the faces of those people in the faces of each person we serve. As we interact with each other we try thinking about someone we love and then respond to this person the way we would if this individual was the person we love.

Final Thoughts: Valuing Actions Based on Optimism

Chapter titles and various headings used throughout this book begin with action verbs. These verbs are included to encourage us to take action and im-plement what we learn. When we gain knowledge about inclusion, we have a responsibility to advocate for empowerment of people who experience oppres-sion and be their ally. We are responsible for promoting their inclusion into the community and, more specifically, to promote their inclusion in leisure oppor-tunities within communities. To emphasize this point, Fulghum (1989) stated,

I do not want to talk about what you understand about this world. I want to know what you will do about it. I do not want to know what you hope. I want to know what you will work for. I do not want your sympathy for needs of humanity. I want your muscle. As the wagon driver said when they came to a long, hard hill, “Them that’s going on with us get out and push. Them that ain’t, get out of the way.” (p. 107)

Although there is tremendous potential for leisure to enhance lives of all individuals, people experiencing oppression regularly do not fully realize this potential. One solution is to educate leisure service professionals on ways to promote inclusion. The broad issues of social justice and human rights are con-cerned with reconfiguring how society views those experiencing marginaliza-tion by recognizing that these individuals are foremost human beings who have legal and moral rights and responsibilities, the same as those who experience privilege on a regular basis. The hope is that by getting to know some people through this book, we will avoid creating stereotypes and value providing inclu-sive leisure services. Values that all of us should strive to develop include mutual respect, concern for the rights of individuals and the community, recognition that each individual is part of our society, critical self-reflection, and a commit-ment to civil and logical dialogue. There may be some information presented in this book that might make the reader uncomfortable; often discomfort leads to change. The saying, necessity is the mother of invention has relevance here. If we are uncomfortable, we then are motivated to change. When we want things to be different, we have many options of what to do, including changing our perspective about particular ideas. I agree with Julius Bailey (2020) regarding the importance of empathy and more to help us move forward with optimism, as he states:

Though it is difficult, particularly in this chaotic new social landscape, we must deal with the fire of hatred not by further stoking its flames but


by quenching them with a commitment to empathy and brotherhood, to fidelity and reason, and to calm, peaceful discussion, even when those around us seem compelled to feed themselves with fury. (p. 113)

Because I have spent some of my life interacting with, befriending, and pro-viding services to those of us experiencing challenging conditions, I have been asked, “How do I know if a person will respond to me, that the person even knows I am there, or if my efforts to include that person work?” My response to this question is always the same. I explain that sometimes I am not sure whether a person is aware I am there or appreciates my efforts. Yet, during those inter-actions, it is best if I try to improve a person’s life in some way and assume the person is aware of me and my contact positively influences the person. I would prefer to be optimistic and assume people benefit by my actions and be wrong than to assume they could not, and not give them the chance.

Discussion Questions

1. What is the association of the poem Invictus to this book?2. What is relevance of the concept of oppression to this book, and how

does it relate to respect?3. What are three primary needs addressed by self-determination? 4. What is the relationship between intolerance, tolerance, and

embracement?5. How do we avoid being paternalistic?6. How might a global perspective influence our humility?7. What is the relevance of critical and constructive thinking to developing

inclusive leisure services?8. What is the relationship between ignorance and discrimination?9. Why is poverty a consideration when providing leisure services?10. What are ways leisure service providers include everyone in their

services?

References

Alcoff, L. M. (2007). Epistemologies of ignorance: Three types. In S. Sullivan & N. Tuana (Eds.), Race and epistemologies of ignorance (pp. 39–58). State University of New York Press.

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