Human Motivation

Chapter 5

Arousal, Attention, and Peak Performance

Peak Performance

Peak performance: Doing the very best that we are capable of Ability to fully focus on the task in front of us Persisting in the face of distractions/adversity

One of the main things preventing us from achieving peak performance in our inability to control our attention. Direction and organization seems to be governed by

a large degree by arousal. (When arousal shifts, attention tends to shift.)

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Definition of Arousal

Arousal: the activation of the brain and body; state of readiness so that we are prepared to engage in adaptive behaviors.

Two primary arousal systems: Cortical arousal system- arouses brain systems. Autonomic nervous system- arouses the body.

These two systems often function independently.To conserve energy and reduce wear and tear on the

body, these systems are activated only when needed.

Cortical Arousal

Reticular Activating System (RAS)Reticular formation is the part of the brain where

ascending sensory nerve pathways converge before moving to different sensory areas in the brain. The descending tract influences motor functions.

Electroencephalograph (EEG)- amplifies the electrical impulses generated by chemical processes so that there is a permanent record of the activity of various brain structures.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)- a way of tracing blood flow (activity) of the brain by infusing radioactive material. Shows how various areas of the brain respond to external stimuli and cognitive demands.

Cortical Arousal

Prefrontal Cortex“executive” function of the brain. Involved in

goal-directed behavior- creation of goals, planning the route to a goal, evaluating feedback, and making adjustments.

inhibition of responses to external sources of stimulation and to wide range of emotions.

Highly responsive to novelty.Allows us to anticipate and prepare for a wide variety

of situations.Individuals with ADHD are highly distractible and quick

to respond to external sources of stimulation. Research has shown dysfunctions in the prefrontal cortex.

The Autonomic Nervous System

Responsible for many physiological changes that occur when person is in a state of arousal. Blood flow increases, glucose released for

immediate energy, digestion halts, perspiration increases, saliva/mucous secretion decreases, muscles tense, pupils dilate, senses improve.

Pattern of responses is caused by the hypothalamus- triggers two parallel and complementary reactions: Stimulates activity in the autonomic nervous

system and in the endocrine (glandular) system.

Arousal, Affect, and Performance

Arousal and affect: (inverted U-shape function)Affect is negative or neutral at low levels of arousal,

highly positive at some intermediate level of arousal, and negative (aversive) at very high levels of arousal.

Optimal stimulation theory: motivation to explore, process information, and master the environment is assumed to be governed by a preference for moderate levels of arousal. Individuals come to a particular situation with different

baseline levels of arousal- what is optimal stimulation for one person is not for another.

Arousal, Affect, and Performance

Arousal and performance: (inverted U-shape function)High arousal tends to facilitate performance on easy

or simple tasks whereas low arousal tends to facilitate performance on difficult or complex tasks.

Understanding the U-Shaped Function:Humans find low levels of stimulation aversive.Humans find chronically high levels of arousal

aversive. (studies of anxiety) Intellectual functioning becomes impaired- difficulty

learning, concentrating, and easily distracted.

Arousal, Affect, and Performance

Optimal Stimulation and Individual Goals:Level of stimulation people prefer depends on their

goals.Telic goals- people are motivated by the need for

achievement; they plan activities carefully and tend to complete them. Behavior is marked by efficiency rather than pleasure. Serious minded and future oriented.

Paratelic goals- people are motivated by a desire to experience pleasure in the here and now. Behavior is marked by pleasure. Playful and spontaneous.

Arousal and Attention

Low arousal: attention is broad/inclusive Attend to many things; process a lot of info

High arousal: attention is narrow/exclusive Attend to few things; focus on survival stimuli Can lead to the reorganization of attention

Two Activation Systems:Negative Activation (NA): avoidance system

Inhibits behaviors that might lead to pain, punishment, or some other negative consequence.

Positive Activation (PA): approach system Directs individuals to experiences that offer pleasure or

reward. (Governs most daily behavior- unless threatened).

Arousal Systems

Trait arousal: characterizes the individual more or less independently of the situationHigh trail arousal = anxiety, negative emotionality

- focus on threats and perceived inability to deal w/threats

State arousal: arises out of the individuals’ interaction with the environment

Sensory overloadCognitive dissonanceEvaluation arousal

Trait Arousal (Anxiety)

The Biological Component: Significant genetic componentEysenck’s Theory: extraverts have relatively low arousal

level; introverts have relatively high arousal levelThe Learned Social Component:Barlow’s Theory: high arousal shifts attention to threat

and danger cues; reorganizes attention to process mainly negative information

The Cognitive Component: Anxiety is a personality trait; anxiety depends on how

the individual appraises the world

State Arousal: Sensory Overload

Response to biological rhythms or environmental stimuli (leads to high arousal and stress)

Leads to narrowing of attention; performance failureThe Biological Component: The GABA system: controls neurotransmittersThe Learned Component: We can learn to control arousal (restrict incoming

stimulation, relax, meditate)The Cognitive Component: The way we interpret information can have an effect

on the experience of increased arousal.

State Arousal: Cognitive Dissonance

Encountering new information that is inconsistent to what we already know- often interferes with performance

The Biological Component:Leads to psychological discomfort- tension/drive state;

brain become activeThe Learned Component:Aversive state motivates individuals to take remedial

action; strategies reinforcedThe Cognitive Component:People are inclined to maintain existing beliefs- will

sometimes change attitudes to match behaviors.

State Arousal: Evaluation Arousal: Test Anxiety

Test anxiety exerts negative impact on performance measures; tendency to focus on intrusive thoughts

The Biological Component:Physiological changes- increases autonomic arousalThe Learned Component:Self-preoccupying intrusive thinking interferes with task-

focused thinking- can be reduced when we focus on the task

The Cognitive Component:- When test perceived as threat, problem-focused and

emotion-focused coping strategies may help

State Arousal: Evaluation Arousal: Competition

May lead to deterioration of performanceAchievement predictions linked to mastery and work, not

competitiveness.The Biological Component:Competition creates high autonomic arousalThe Learned Component:Competition is largely learned; does not necessarily

enhance performance.The Cognitive Component:People with strong need to win have fairly negative views

of self/world and lack poor stress coping skills.

Arousal And Performance

The best way to attain peak performance is to learn how to manage arousal- in other words, how to relax.

By learning to manage arousal, we can learn to manage attention.