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Transcript of Hollywood Studio System Hollywood not just a location but a set of industrial and artistic practices...
Hollywood Studio System
Hollywood not just a location but a set of industrial and artistic practices that have dominated film production.
Not only in North America but globally.
Why Hollywood?
Climate and natural light?
- Yes but also the relatively short distance from Mexican border, handy for escaping Edison’s agents.
Primitive cinema marked by patent wars, litigation.
Main players: Thomas Edison and The Biograph Company
France was leading film producer in early years; Germany, Italy, UK also important.
But World War One changed that – from 1916 USA became the world leader in film production and has remained that way until present.
India has more films produced and bigger audience: USA greatest value
Year Admissions (Millions) Value ($US Millions)
1. India 2006 3,997.00 1,600.00
2. US 2007 1,400.00 9,629.00
3. France 2007 177.52 1,472.06
4. China (PRC) 2007 176.20 455.00
5. Mexico 2007 174.20 596.00
6. Japan 2007 163.20 1,675.00
7. UK 2007 162.43 1,642.00
8. South Korea 2007 158.80 1,075.84
9. Germany 2007 125.40 1,051.92
10. Italy 2007 120.00 938.35
11. Spain 2007 116.90 881.78
Pioneers (1) Thomas Ince• 1911 – Introduces assembly line production
• Separation of planning and Production.
• A minute division of labour in film making factories – departments with separate functions.
• Bureaucratic pyramid – “central producer system”. Producers supervised everything – gave jobs out etc.
Pioneers (2) D.W GriffithsWorked with Biograph Pictures
Famous for huge extravaganzas
• Required large sets, casts, costumes etc
•Management Labour Division
•Team work and specialist areas
•Studio Factories.
Biograph first company to make film in Hollywood
“In Old California” (1910)
Pioneers (3) Max SennetInce and Griffiths partnered with Sennet in 1915 to form Triangle Motion Picture Company.
(Griffiths parted from Biograph as they had little faith in the future of feature film)
Sennet “the King of Comedy”
The innovator of slapstick.
Pioneers contIn 1915 Griffiths produced and directed “The Clansman” (later called “The Birth of a Nation”) which was one of the most innovative of American films.
Set during and after the American Civil War, noted for its innovative technical and narrative achievements, its status as the first Hollywood “blockbuster”.
However, provoked great controversy for its treatment of white supremacy and sympathetic account of the rise of the Ku Klux Klan.
In 1919, founded United Artists (one of the “Little Three” studios) together with:
Mary Pickford Douglas Fairbanks
Charles Chaplin
But Griffith’s association with UA didn’t last long.
The Studio System
In the 1920s ‘motion pictures’ became the most popular form of entertainment and leisure activity in America.
As Wall Street invested heavily in film, five major Hollywood studios and three smaller ones consolidated power to dominate the world market.
The Three Elements
• Production – The making of the films
•Distribution – The network that brought the films to the public – promotion, run times
•Exhibition – The “Big Five” initially owned their own theatres
The Development – 1920s
The main film companies move from East Coast to Hollywood
• Self-Regulation and Production Codes
• “industrialisation” of production
Introduction of SoundAl Jolson
The Jazz Singer, 1927
The consolidation of sound ushered in “classic” period (aka “Golden Age”) of Hollywood
Roughly 1930-1950
FinancingHollywood during its Golden Age between the years of 1927 – 1948 operated a mode of production called the studio system.
The studio system was an early form of “vertical integration”
i.e. All stages of production including screenplays, financing, production, post production, distribution and exhibition were owned and controlled by the studios to maximise their profits.
Distribution & Exhibition
Affiliated cinema chains ranged from 200- to 1500 “theatres” in size – accounting for 20% of total US cinemas.
However – these cinemas accounted for 80% of 1st run houses and the most profitable subsequent run houses (generally located in major metropolitan areas).
Thus – these cinemas accounted for 50% – 80% of the Box Office in any given market
Distribution & ExhibitionThe only means of distribution and exhibiting a film was through theatrical release (cinema exhibition)
The Big Five showcased their best films in studio-owned picture palaces
To gain access to the most popular films, small local cinemas had to buy exclusive-run deals from the studio
This block booking meant studios could push out the competition
ExhibitionOnly in largest cities did majors’ theatres compete directly. Elsewhere they pooled their product for nationwide distribution. Thus one company’s hit benefited all theatres.
Production and distribution were only important to the extent they enabled the majors to maintain favoured status in exhibition
Distribution & ExhibitionThe Majors owned substantial theatre (cinema) chains
The Majors raised the cash to acquire these chains through the public sale of bonds and stocks pre 1929 taking on long term debt
This is reflected in presence of investment bankers, businessmen etc. on Motion Picture Company
Distribution & ExhibitionTherefore:
“…The production of films, essentially fluid and experimental as a process, is harnessed to a form of organisation which can rarely afford to be either experimental or speculative because of the regularity with which heavy fixed changes (debt) must be made.”
Economic Control of the Motion Picture Industry”, Moe Huettig (1944)
Production Practice•The Hollywood studio system of film-making to type as genres with stars in the leading roles standardised the filmmaking process
•All film personnel from director to creative, technical crew to actors were employees of the studio
•e.g. actors had a standard 7 year contract; could be fined for refusing a part; could be loaned out to another studio without their consent
Production Practice
Each studio had a uniform style and specialised in a particular genre
Exceptions to the rules were directors such as Alfred Hitchcock, John Ford and Orson Welles who fought to work within the system and establish their own styles
The studiosThe Big Five The little Three “Poverty Row”
(top four of many)
MGM United Artists Grand National
Paramount Columbia Pictures
Republic Pictures
20th Century-Fox
Universal Studios
Monogram Pictures
Warner Bros PRC
RKO
“The Big Five” + “Little Three” = “The Majors”
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM)Established in 1924 from parent company Loew’s Inc (owner of many cinemas)
Leader in stars and glamour
- Gone with the Wind and The Wizard of Oz (both 1939)
Hired top talent directors such as King Vidor, Clarence Brown, Erich von Stroheim, Tod Browning.
Stars included Clark Gable, Jean Harlow, Robert Montgomery, Myrna Loy, Jeanette MacDonald, Nelson Eddy, Judy Garland and Spencer Tracey
ParamountEstablished as distribution company in 1914; acquired by Zukor in 1917, who merges it with his production company
First “vertically integrated” company
Stars included: Marlene Dietrich, Mary Pickford, Bing Cosby, Mae West, Gary Cooper, Claudette Colbert, the Marx Brothers, Dorothy Lamour, Carole Lombard, Bob Hope, Alan Ladd, Veronica Lake, Paulette Goddard
Fox (Later 20th Century Fox)
•Established in 1913 by William Fox
•Known for musicals, westerns and bipics
•During WW2, was third most profitable studio
•Directors included John Ford
•Stars included: Shirley Temple, Marlon Brando, Marilyn Monroe, Spencer Tracy, Betty Grable
Warner Brothers
Established in 1924 by Harry, Jack and Albert Warner
1st Sound film – The Jazz Singer (1927) – profits allowed WB to acquire theatre chain and graduate from poverty row to major status
Musicals, gangster films
Stars included: Bette Davis, James Cagney, Joan Blondell, Edward G Robinson, Warner William and Barbara Stanwyck
RKOBorn from merger in 1928
Stars included: Lucille Ball, Fay Wray, Cary Grant and Katherine Hepburn
King Kong, Bringing Up Baby
Unit production – contracting to directors. Gave Orson Welles – then a man of the theatre and radio, never having made a film – complete control- unprecedented for Hollywood Studios – to direct and star in Citizen Kane (1941)
The Little ThreeThe Big Five dominated the market but how do we account for the success of the “Little Three” – Universal, Columbia and UA – with very few cinemas?
Answer – No one studio had the capacity to produce sufficient films to hill its subsequent run theatres which needed up to 300 films per annum. The little three filled this gap.
Columbia and Universal also made many B-pics for the low end of the market.
UA was purely a distributor for small groups of elite independent producers.
United Artists
Founded by silent film stars Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks in 1919 – married in 1920 and produced films at their studio on Santa Monica Boulevard in Hollywood.
Charles Chaplin and DW Griffiths (briefly) became involved, each of 4 owning 20% state
Functioned primarily as a backer-distributor, loaning money to independent producers and releasing their films
Now part of MGM
ColumbiaFounded in 1919 by brothers Jack and Harry Cohn and Joe Brandt
Released its first feature film in August 1922. it adopted the Columbia Pictures name in 1924 and went public two years later.
Columbia began to grow in the late 1920s, spurred by a successful association with director Frank Capra.
Became one of the primary homes of the “screwball comedy”.
Major contract stars: Jean Arthur and Cary Grant (shared with RKO Pictures).
In the 1940s Rosalind Russell, Rita Hayworth, Glenn Ford and William Holden
Now part of Columbia Tri-Star (owned by Sony)
Universal
Founded by, Carl Laemmle, second oldest Hollywood studio. In 30s/40s, largely run by Irving Thalberg but lured to MGM, leading to downturn in Universal’s fortunes
Sought an audience mostly in small towns, producing mostly inexpensive melodramas, westerns and serials
Films include All Quiet on the Western Front and Imitation of Life.
Created a successful niche with long-running series of monster films, inc. Frankenstein, Dracula, and The Mummy.
The Star System
•Essential element of studio system
•The star system allowed the Hollywood studios to “manufacture” the success of young actors and new films. One of the key means studio used to attract audiences
•Studios would select promising young actors and create personas for them, often inventing new names and even new backgrounds.
•Studios and stars began to specialise in particular styles, genres and roles.
The Star SystemIn early years of the cinema, performers not
identified in films. Two main reasons:
1. Stage performers embarrassed to be in film. Silent film was only considered pantomime, only a step above carnivals and freak shows, and actors afraid that appearing in films would ruin their reputation.
2. Producers feared that actors would gain more prestige and power and demand more money.
The Star System
Florence Lawrence (1886-1938)
Main catalyst for change – public’s desire to know the actors’ names. Film audiences repeatedly recognised certain performers that they liked.
Not knowing performers’ names they gave them nicknames (such as “the Biography Girl”, Florence Lawrence, who was featured in Biography films).
The Star SystemRelatively unknown actors would be groomed for stardom, given new names, personas and lifestyles that would create positive publicity for the industry.
In return, actors were subject to restrictive contracts of up to seven years, with relatively small salaries and few holidays between films
James Stewart and Cary Grant were two of the very few to be independent of studios
Star system part of the process which allowed each studio to put out more than 500 films a year.
The Star SystemHumphrey Bogart
(1889-1956)
Trade MarkTypically played smart, playful, courageous, tough, occasionally reckless characters who lived in a corrupt world, anchored by a hidden moral code.Almost always played a hard-boiled cynic who ultimately shows his noble side.Low-key, distinctive nasal voice.Often wore bow ties.Roles in film noirs.
Made 77 films from 1928- 1956
The Star SystemFred Astaire
(1899-1987)
Trade MarkTop Hat and Tails.His dancing
Birth NameFrederic Austerlitz Jr.
49 films from 1933-1981
The Star System
James Cagney (1899-1986)
Trade MarkFamous for his gangster roles he played in the 1930s and 1940s (which made his only Oscar win as the musical composer/dancer/actor George M.Cohan most ironic).
Birth NameJames Francis Cagney
Made 66 films from 1930-1984
The Star System
Spencer Tracy
(1900-1967)
His family moved to Hollywood in 1931, and Tracy made 16 films in three years. In 1935 he signed with MGM. He became the first actor to win back-to-back Oscars. A few weeks after completion of Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner (1967), during which he suffered from lung congestion, he died of a heart attack.
Made 78 films from 1930 - 1967
The Star System
Clark Gable (1901-1960)
Birth NameWilliam Clark Gable
Trade MarkPencil thin moustache that hugged his upper lipOften played a virile, lovable rogue whose gruff facade only thinly masked a natural charm and goodness.Distinctive, powerful voice.
81 films from 1923-1961
The Star SystemCary Grant 1904-1986
Birth NameArchibald Alexander Leach
Trade MarkMid-Atlantic accent.Often played a handsome bachelor.Roles in romantic comedies.
Once told by an interviewer, "Everybody would like to be Cary Grant," Grant is said to have replied, "So would I."
Made 73 films from 1932 -1966
The Star SystemJoan Crawford
1905-1977
Birth NameLucille Fay LeSueur
She was so dedicated to her fans that she always personally responded to her fan mail by typing them responses on blue paper and autographing it. A great deal of her spare time and weekends were spent doing this.After her friend Steven Spielberg hit it big, Joan sent him periodic notes of congratulations. The last one came two weeks before her death.
Made 102 films or TV appearances from 1925-1972
The Star SystemRita Hayworth (1918-1987)
Birth NameMargarita Carmen Cansino
Ranked #98 in Empire (UK) magazine's "The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time" list. [October 1997]
Made 66 films from 1926 - 1972
The Star System
John Wayne
1907-1979
Birth NameMarion Robert Morrison
Trade MarkWesterns.Slow talk and deep voice.War movies.
Made 171 films from 1926 -1976
The Star SystemKatherine Hepburn
1907-2003
Birth NameKatharine Houghton Hepburn
Trade MarkPlaying strong independent women with minds of their own.Often wore slacks instead of dresses, decades before it became fashionable for women to do soDistinctive way of speaking, with what many say is a "Bryn Mawr" accent.
Made 52 films from 1932-1994
The Star SystemJames “Jimmy” Stewart
1908-1997
Birth NameJames Maitland Stewart
Trade MarkSoft-spoken, extremely polite and shy manner, with a very recognizable drawl in his voice.Often played honest, average middle class individuals who are unwittingly drawn into some kind of crisis.Roles in westerns.After 1950 he often played tough, cynical and frequently ruthless characters.
Made 99 films from 1934-1991
The Star SystemBette Davis
1908-1989
Birth NameRuth Elizabeth Davis
SalaryWicked Stepmother $250,000Right of Way (1983) $250,000Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964)$200,000Where Love Has Gone $125,000What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)$60,000 + 5% of the net profits.All About Eve (1950)$130,000Juarez (1939)$4,000/weekDark Victory (1939)$3,500/week
Made 121 films from 1931-1989
The Star System
Ginger Rogers (1911-1995)
Birth NameVirginia Katherine McMath
Trade MarkOften starred with Fred Astaire
Made 89 film and television appearances from 1929 - 1987
The Star SystemGene Kelly (1912-1996)
Birth NameEugene Curran Kelly
Trade MarkKnown for his innovative, athletic style of dancing
“If Fred Astaire is the Cary Grant of dance, I'm the Marlon Brando.”
Made 49 films from 1942-1987
The Star System
Burt Lancaster (1913-1994)
Birth NameBurton Stephen Lancaster
Trade MarkA killer smile, which he called "The Grin"A great physique, of which director John Frankenheimer said, "Nobody ever looked like Burt Lancaster in The Crimson Pirate (1952) ."His movies often reflected his very liberal political beliefs.Roles in westerns.Very distinctive, clipped manner of speaking.
Made 86 films from 1946 - 1991
The Star System
Kirk Douglas (1916- )
Birth NameIssur Danielovitch Demsky
Trade MarkGravelly voiceDimpled chin
Made 90 films from 1946 - 2004
The Star System
Jane Russell (1921- )
Birth NameErnestine Jane Geraldine Russell
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953)$400,000
The Outlaw (1943)$50 a week
Made 29 films from 1943 - 1986
The Star SystemJudy Garland (1922-1969)
Birth NameFrances Ethel Gumm
SalaryGay Purr-ee (1962)$50,000 + 10% gross Judgment at Nuremberg (1961)$50,000 A Star Is Born (1954)$100,000 + 50% of profits Summer Stock (1950)$150,000Words and Music (1948)$100,000Easter Parade (1948)$150,000The Pirate (1948)$150,000The Harvey Girls (1946)$3,000/weekGirl Crazy (1943)$29,000For Me and My Gal (1942)$2,000/weekBabes on Broadway (1941)$2,000/weekStrike Up the Band (1940)$500/weekBabes in Arms (1939)$8,900The Wizard of Oz (1939)$500/weekListen, Darling (1938)$500/weekLove Finds Andy Hardy (1938)$300/weekThoroughbreds Don't Cry (1937)$300/weekBroadway Melody of 1938 (1937)$200/weekEvery Sunday (1936)$100/week
Made 32 films from 1936 - 1963
The Star SystemMarlon Brando (1924-2004)
Birth NameMarlon Brando Jr.
Trade MarkBizarrely unique voice with an extreme nasal tonality spoken in mumbles.Frequently played young, somewhat misunderstood rebels in his youth (A Streetcar Named Desire, The Wild One, On the Waterfront) and later powerful criminals (The Godfather, The Formula, The Freshman, The Score).The pioneering use of Method ActingOften improvised his own dialogue.
Made 45 film and TV productions from 1950 - 2001
The Star SystemTony Curtis (1925 - )
Birth NameBernard Schwartz
SalaryThe Boston Strangler $30,000/week Operation Petticoat (1959)$700,000The Vikings (1958)$25,000/weekTrapeze (1956)$150,000Forbidden (1953)$1,500/weekThe All American (1953)$1,500/weekHoudini (1953)$1,500/weekFlesh and Fury (1952)$700/weekKansas Raiders (1950)$225/weekCriss Cross (1949)$75/week
Made 128 film and TV productions from 1949 - 2008
The Star SystemRock Hudson (1925-1985)
Birth NameRoy Harold Scherer Jr.
His size and good looks got him into movies. His name was changed to Rock Hudson, his teeth were capped, he took lessons in acting, singing, fencing and riding
He was the first major public figure to announce he had AIDS, and his worldwide search for a cure drew international attention.
Trade MarkDeep, sensuous voice.Thick black hair.Moved from westerns to sob stories to sophisticated comedies.
Made 74 film and television productions from 1948 - 1985
The Star System
Marilyn Monroe (1926-1962)
Birth NameNorma Jean Mortensen
Trade MarkLisp, breathless voicePlatinum blonde hairVoluptuous figure.
Voted 'Sexiest Woman of the Century' by People Magazine. [1999]
The licensing of Marilyn's name and likeness, handled world-wide by Curtis Management Group, reportedly nets the Monroe estate about $2 million a year.
Appeared on the first cover of Playboy in 1953.
Made 33 films from 1947 - 1962
Aside from her birth name of Norma Jean Mortensen, she was baptized and mainly known throughout her life as Norma Jeane Baker.
The Hay’s CodeDuring the 1920s, Will H. Hays was made president of MPAA (The Motion Picture Association of America). His job was to protect films from state censorship boards.
In 1930, a Production Code was established setting guidelines for what would and could not be shown – no nudity, no profanity, no offensive refs, no “miscegenation” i.e. relationships between people of different races.
The Production Code’s Effects: Films as Ideological Frames
Scripts were screened according to the Code, but by 1933 many standards relaxed.
In 1934, Hays set up the PCA (Production Code Administration) which would place a seal on “approved films”: only these could be released.
General effect – to make films more conventional, closer to the social mainstream, more middle-class, less adventurous
The Production Code’s Effects: Films as Ideological Frames
“1. No picture shall be produced that will lower the moral standards of those who see it. Hence the sympathy of the audience should never be thrown to the side of crime, wrongdoing, evil or sin.
2. Correct standards of life, subject only to the requirements of drama and entertainment, shall be presented.
3. Law, natural or human, shall not be ridiculed, nor shall sympathy be created for its violation.”
The Production Code’s Effects: Films as Ideological Frames
The sanctity of marriage and the home had to be upheld. “Pictures shall not imply that low forms of sex relationship are the acceptable or common thing …”
Portrayals of miscegenation (inter-racial relationships) were forbidden …
“Scenes of Passion” were not to be introduced when not essential to the plot. “Excessive and lustful kissing” was to be avoided, along with any other treatment that might “stimulate the lower and baser element…”
The Production Code’s Effects: Films as Ideological Frames
Film genres affected included women’s pictures (from “fallen woman” to women’s concerns – e.g. family and marriage) and comedies (e.g. cross-class romances)
Hollywood Style
“Hollywood” – not only a set of industrial practices but a particular way of telling stories, especially with regard to
1. Narrative
2.Editing
Hollywood ConventionsThe classical Hollywood narrative organised around one or more goal-driven protagonists whose desires determine the cause-effect ordering of the plot
Often a second, embedded plot line – e.g. saving the western town from the outlaws may also involve helping out and finally falling in love with the school marm, for instance.
Moreover, the time and space serve the story, which is often generic or formulaic
There is clear closure with the protagonists achieving or failing to achieve their goals.
Hollywood StyleNarrative and Narration
“Classic Hollywood narration focuses on an nindividual or small group of individuals who early on encounter discrete and specific goals that are clearly attained or clearly unattained by the film’s end.
The goals tend to exist in two spheres, and their pursuit is developed along parallel and often interdependent plot lines. One sphere is private, generally a heterosexual romance; the second is public – a career advance, the obliteration of an enemy, a mission, a discovery and the like”
The Classic Hollywood Cinema (1985), BY David Bordwell, Janet Stauger, and Kristin Thompson.
Hollywood Style
Hollywood narrative tended to be straightforward, unambiguous
Action should be in tight chain of cause and effect
Even where there is narrative complexity, there should not be indeterminateness i.e. things should be explained by the end
To ensure this, a high degree of “redundancy” i.e. repetition of important plot information
Hollywood StyleThe Continuity Editing System
One of main ways of delivering “verisimilitude” in classic Hollywood narrative
Developed from early cinema but firmly established before talking era predominant style of editing in narrative cinema and carried over into television
Purpose – to smooth over the inherent discontinuity of the editing process and to establish a logical coherence between shots (“invisible editing”)
Hollywood StyleThe continuity editing system
Main Features
• match on action
•Eyeline match
•The establishing shot
•The 180 degree rule
•Avoiding jump cut (i.e. two sequential shots of the same subject take from camera positions that vary only slightly) by use of
•Continuous diegetic sound
•30%rule
Genre and HollywoodA large part of Hollywood’s output operated within established genres
Genres have “semantic” elements, i.e. images, iconography we expect of a a genre’s “repertoire of elements”
They also have “syntactical” – e.g. story shaped as in “rise and fall” structure of classic gangster film
But genres rarely “pure” – even in classical era tended to merge and mature (but less so than in 1980s on)
Genre and HollywoodMost popular Hollywood genres
Action-adventure
Biopics
Comedy
Detective, gangster,
suspense thriller
Epics and spectacles
Horror, science fiction, fantasySocial problem filmsMusical teen picsWar filmsWesternsFilm noirMelodrama and the “woman’s film”
The end of the Golden AgeIn 1948 the United States government on behalf of MGM brought a lawsuit against Paramount Pictures for blocking booking
The resulting 1948 anti-trust laws in America made this practice illegal. The studios had to sell their cinema interests
The result, effectively brought the studio system and Hollywood’s Golden Age to a close
The end of the Golden AgeOther reasons for the decline:
Post-war – many couples started families (the “baby boom”
Mover to suburbs and new leisure activities
Cinemas tended to be in old city centres
The rise of television
The end of the Golden Age
1948 – Paramount decree
Leads to majors becoming distribution companies
Studios offered finance and use of studio facilities
Rise of independent producers and agents
agents replace studios’ packaging function
“Divorcement”
Transition periodExample
The Searchers (1956)
d. John Ford
Production Company owned by rich businessman CV Whitney
Warner Bros shared investment and profits, distributed film but did not make it
Transition Period
Little three no longer had disadvantage of not owning cinemas
Made transition to new situation more easily than big five
By mid 50s, studios selling back catalogue to television
Making content for TV Networks
Transition to Modern Hollywood
Changing Studios
During the 1980s large multi-national businesses began to include media companies in their practices of merger and acquisition
As a result the major Hollywood studios have gone through many ownership changes
Transition to Modern HollywoodChanging Studios
Columbia
Independent until 1982
Owned by Coca-cola 1982-1987
Independent holding of Coca Cola 1987 – 1989
Owned by Sony 1989 to present
Transition to Modern HollywoodChanging Studios
Universal
Independent to 1982
Merged with International Pictures 1946 -1952
Owned by Decca 1952-1962
Owned by MCA 1962 – 1990
Owned by Matsushita electric 1990 – 1995
Owned by Seagram 1995-2000
Owned by Vivendi (who bought Seagram) 2000-2004
Owned by General Electric 2004 - present
Transition to Modern HollywoodChanging Studios
20th Century Fox
Independent to 1985
Owned by News Corporation 1985 to present
News Corp has controlling interest in e.g. The times and The Sun; Sky
Many media interests in US, UK, Australia, the Far East
Transition to Modern HollywoodChanging Studios
Paramount Pictures
Independent to 1966
Owned by gulf and Western 1966-1984
Owned by Paramount Communications (new Gulf + Western Co) 1984-1993
Owned by Viacom 1993 to present
Transition to Modern HollywoodChanging Studios
Warner Brothers
Independent to 1967
Owned by Seven Arts productions 1967-1969
Owned by Kinney National 1969-1975
Kinney now named Warner Communications 1975-1989
Merger with Time Publications 1989 to present – Time Warner
Transition to Modern HollywoodChanging Studios
MGM
Independent to 2005
Owned by Sony (as part of its Columbia-Tri-star stable) 2005 to present
Transition to Modern HollywoodChanging Studios
United Artists
Chaplin and Fairbanks bought out by financiers in early 50s
“Studio” without actual studio – but fewer overheads. Offered finance to independent producers
Successful: The African Queen (1951) Moulin Rouge (1952)
Also, the James Bond franchise (starting 1962); Beatles Hard Day’s Night (Richard Lester, 1964)
Taken over by Transamerica in 1967
Sunk by Michael Cimino’s Heaven’s Gate (1978) which went enormously over budget
Subsequently absorbed in MGM (now owned by Sony)
Transition to Modern HollywoodRise of the package – unit system
Studios no longer had long term exclusive contracts for creative personnel
Writers, directors, producers and stars able to negotiate their deals with majors using agents
Agencies not studios negotiated “creative personnel packages” with film companies
Transition to Modern HollywoodRise of the package – unit system
Principal Agencies
International Creative
ManagementCreative Artists Agency William Morris Agency
Transition to Modern Hollywood
1960s – Also sees television emerge as substantial market for the studios product (and use of film for drama series)
Shift of TV production from New York to Los Angels
Transition to Modern HollywoodAlso beginning of blockbuster strategy
Classic Hollywood had a few prestige films and runaway hits –
e.g. Gone With The Wind (1939)
-But relied on steady stream of A films for guaranteed profits
Post “Divorcement”, producing blockbusters a conscious strategy
Transition to Modern HollywoodThe Ten Commandments (1956; $43 million)
Around the World in 80 Days (1956; $23 million)
The Bridge Over the River Kwai (1957; $47.2 million)
South Pacific (1958; $17.5 million)
Ben Hur (1959; $36.5 million)
Lawrence of Arabia (1962; $17.7 million)
The Longest Day (1962; $17.6 million)
Cleopatra (1963; $23 million)
Thunderball (1965; $27.5 million)
Dr Zhivago (1965; $46.5 million)
The Sound of Music (1965; $79.9 million)
Transition to Modern Hollywood1950s/1960s saw more segmentation of market including “drive-in movies”, exploitation films
Foreign “art” films also attracting an audience
Away from mainstream
e.g. La Dolce Vita (Fellini, 1960)
But despite enormous success of The Sound of Music 1960s saw biggest slump since WWII – cycle of expensive, heavily promoted commercial flops.
Studios no longer connecting with audiences, especially the young
Combined industry losses 1969-71: $600 million (Variety)
The American New WaveBrief Period of transition to New Hollywood
Commercial losses led to new strategy – with blockbuster strategy stalling, Hollywood saw period of widespread and unprecedented innovation
With the collapse of the old studio system, producers and executives no longer had the power to control creative film-making
Influence of a new wave of filmmaking from France (Nouvelle Vague), encouraged Hollywood independents to experiment and develop their own unique styles.
The American New WaveBrief Period of Transition to New Hollywood
Nouvelle Vague introduced new production arrangements, new directors, new actors, new shooting styles
Francois Truffaut
Agnes Varda
Jacques Demy
Jean-Luc Godard
Claude Chabrol
Alain Resnais
The American New Wave
The Graduate (d. Mike Nichols, 1967) also showed influence of New Wave in its editing
It also indicates that it is post-Hays Code (which broke down in 1967) to be replaced by modern rating system by MPAA in 1967
Catching up with changes in public attitudes
Without overthrowing rules of continuity system, these directors “loosened up” the rules
The American New WaveFlowering of American filmmaking for few years from late 60s – early 70s
Studios – in desperation – financed films they did not have much sympathy for but which found youthful audience
The Graduate (1967)
d. Mike Nichols
Five Easy Pieces (1970)
d. Mike Rafaelson
Easy Rider (1969)
d. Dennis Hopper
The American New WaveNot independents – (unlike, e.g. John Cassavetes)
They relied on studio finance – but given independence by desperate studios and absorbed spirit of independents
According to Peter Biskind (“Down and Dirty Pictures”), following traits characterise mainstream and independent films:
The American New WaveHollywood Mainstream Independent
Fantasy and escapism Realism and engagement
Avoided controversial subjects
Embraced controversial subjects
Expensive Cheap
Stars Unknowns (even non-actors) Final cut for director
Genre-based and formulaic Personal vision, unique and sequel-proof
Made by committee
Director no right of final cut
Individual sensibility (often writer-director) with right of final cut
The American New WaveHollywood Mainstream Independent
Director as craft person- for-hire
Director as creator of art
Spectacle, action, special effects
More intimate, privileging script and mise-en-scene
Avoided challenging popular tastes (preview screenings etc)
Made films without audience in mind – if they found one, more likely to be niche rather than mass audience
Finances cushioned by ancillary markets
Not much thought to distribution
Conventional wisdom and mainstream ideology
Challenged both
Hollywood made “movies” Indies made “films” (or Cinema)
Transition to Modern Hollywood1970s – recovery of the industry
1972 – The Godfather (Paramount) revives box office
1974 – Hollywood’s total earnings surpass post war peak (1946) for first time.
New wave experimentation over by mid – 70s
1975- present – The New Hollywood
The New HollywoodUnprecedented box-office success jumpstarted Hollywood’s blockbuster mentality
Effectively ended reign of smaller, idiosyncratic, stylistically adventurous films.
(Coppolla’s The Conversation (1974) – one of the last)
“Megapictures may have saved the major companies but they also shrank the auteur aspirations of the early 1970s” David Bordwell
The New Hollywood1975 – Jaws establishes modern blockbuster prototype:
• pre-sold property
•Packaged by agency
•Saturation booked (“Frontloading”)
•Heavy marketing
•Commercial tie-ins/merchandising
•A summer hit
•Discovers new baby-boomer audience
1977 – Star Wars cements Jaws model
1978 – Jaws 2 released creating franchise
Hollywood “High Concept”
“High concept” an expression coined to describe tendency identified from 1980s (and associated in particular with Producers Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer) – a kind of filmmaking dominated not only attempt to maximise box-office but film shaped to needs of wider marketing, tie-in etc.
Hollywood “High Concept”
Essence of high concept film, which can be condensed into one simple sentence that inspires marking campaigns, lures audiences, and separates success from failure at the box office
Films can be expressed in terms of other films, e.g.
Alien = Jaws in space
Top Gun = Star Wars on earth
Hollywood “High Concept”High concept films became fully integrated with their marketing so that a single phrases-
e.g. “Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water ..”
-Could sell the film to studio executives and provide copy for massive advertising campaigns
single image or a theme song could instantly remind potential audience members of the film, and tie-in merchandise could generate millions of dollars in additional income.
Hollywood “High Concept”Top Gun
d. Tony Scott, 1986
Produced by
Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer
Classic “high concept” film
Hollywood Today: StardomHollywood filmmaking still dependent on the strong relationship between the hero(ine) in the film and audience identification with the hero(ine)
Stars have always been important vehicles by which a film is financed and marketed
Hollywood Now: StardomActors and their agents, not studios manage their own careers
Actors can negotiate their own salaries often earning millions per film
Some stars can “open” or “tentpole” a film, but star presence in a film cannot guarantee box office success alone
Hollywood Now: Stars
Dustin HoffmanBirth NameDustin Lee Hoffman
Trade MarkFamous for taking a wide range of difficult roles, such as a crippled street hustler in Midnight Cowboy (1969); an actor pretending to be a woman in Tootsie (1982) and an autistic in Rain Man (1988).Has a reputation for being difficult to work with.
SalaryRain Man (1988)$5,800,000+% of grossPapillon (1973)$1,250,000John and Mary (1969)$425,000Midnight Cowboy (1969)$250,000The Graduate (1967)$17,000
So far has made 65 films since 1961
Hollywood Now: Stars
Warren Beatty
Birth NameHenry Warren Beaty
SalaryIshtar (1987)$5,000,000The Only Game in Town (1970)$750,000Bonnie and Clyde (1967)$200,000 + 40% grossAll Fall Down (1962)$60,000The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (1961)$30,000Splendor in the Grass (1961)$15,000
29 film and TV productions since 1957 (Actor)
12 productions since 1956 (producer)
6 productions as a writer since 1975
5 productions as a director since 1978
Hollywood Now: StarsAl Pacino
Birth NameAlfredo James Pacino
Trade MarkVolcanic tirade, smoke-burnished voice.Frequently plays men of power and/or authority.
45 films from 1968
Hollywood Now: StarsRobert De Niro Birth Name
Robert Mario De Niro Jr.
Trade MarkOften played characters that were often prone to brutal violence and/or characters who were borderline psychotics.Known for method acting techniques with his characters by heavily studying their backgrounds.
Actor – 80 films since 1965
Producer – 31 films since 1989
Hollywood Now: Stars
Meryl StreepBirth NameMary Louise Streep
Trade MarkKnown for being a perfectionist when preparing for rolesKnown for her ability to master almost any accent.
Made 63 since 1977
Awards:Won 2 Oscars. Another 73 wins & 82 nominations
Hollywood Now: StarsJulia Roberts
Tom Cruise
45 films since 1987
Birth NameThomas Cruise Mapother IV
Actor – 35 since 1981
Producer – 15 since 1996
Hollywood Now: StarsBrad Pitt
Angelina JolieBirth NameWilliam Bradley Pitt
Trade MarkHis laugh
Actor – 62 films since 1987
Producer – 17 films since 2006
Birth NameAngelina Jolie Voight
Trade MarkHusky voiceHer full lips
Actor – 39 since 1982
Producer – 3 since 2005
Hollywood Now: StarsNicole Kidman
Bruce Willis
Birth NameNicole Mary Kidman
Trade MarkOften plays cold, emotionally vacant characters.
Actor – 54 since 1983
Producer – 4 since 2003
Birth NameWalter Bruce Willis
Trade MarkFrequently plays a man who suffered a tragedy, had lost something or had a crisis of confidence or conscience.Shaven head.Headlines action-adventures, often playing a cop, hitman or someone in the military.
Hollywood Now: StarsKate Winslet
Leonardo Di Caprio
Actor – 33 since 1990
Producer – 12 since 2004
Awards:Nominated for 3 Oscars. Another 20 wins & 46 nominations
Awards:Won Oscar. Another 37 wins & 59 nominations
Actor – 33 since 1991
Hollywood Now: StarsTobey McGuire
Daniel Day LewisTrade MarkIn-depth and exhaustive preparations for roles.Frequently collaborates with directors Jim Sheridan and Martin Scorsese.
Daniel Day Lewis
Birth NameTobias Vincent Maguire
Hollywood Now: Stars
Johnny Depp
Birth NameJohn Christopher Depp II
Trade MarkHighly defined cheek-bonesFrequently plays freakishly eccentric outcasts whose oddities are misunderstood by society, and usually have a flamboyant appearance and mannerism. Frequently works with director 'Tim Burton'.Frequently bases his performances on rock stars.
Hollywood Now: Narrative in modern Hollywood
Some commentators argue that we are in a “post-classical” age, especially with regard to Narrative
David Borwell and Kirsten Thomson, however, highlight the essential continuity between Classic Hollywood Narrative and the present period, while accepting there have been stylistic shifts
Hollywood StyleHollywood narrative became more self-conscious from 70s/80s
Classic era screenwriters aware of structure but rarely codified
More recently, large number of how-to books on screenwriting, seminars etc
“Screenwriter’s Handbook” by Nash and Oakley (1978)
“Screenplay” by Syd Field (1979)
Hollywood Style: NarrativeScreen-writing manuals tended to identify a three act
structure in classic Hollywood film
e.g. Syd Field
(assumes 2 hour film script of 120 minutes, one page = one minute if screen time)
I. The Set up: 30 pages – plot point A
II. The Conflict: 60 pages – plot point B
III. The Resolution – final act- 30 pages where problem established by plot point A is resolved.
Hollywood Style: Narrative
Kirstin Thompson argues that a four-act structure is more useful, being more solidly based on character motivation,
i.e. structured around ways in which goals defined
Based on four more or less equal parts plus epilogue
(based on typical 110/120 minute film)
I. The setup – 25-20 mins
II. Complicating action – 20-30 mins
III. Development – 20 – 30 mins
IV. Climax
Hollywood Style: Narrative
I.The Setup
-Establishes characters’ world, defines main character’s purpose, culminates in near 30minute mark
E.g. Who’s Afraid of Virginia Wolf (d. Mike Nicols, 1966) opens by presenting central couple and introduces younger couple as their guests
About 30mins in Martha’s goal of torturing George crystallizes and she changes into sexy outfit to seduce younger male
Hollywood Style: NarrativeII. Complicating Action
Focuses/recast film’s central goals
Protagonist changes tactics of achieving goal or faces entirely new situation
At first turning point in Witness (d. Peter Weir), boy Samuel identifies killer, but this action precipitates attempt on book’s life, in complicating action, book flees to Amish farm where he must adjust to very different circumstances
Hollywood Style: NarrativeII. Complicating Action (cont)
Often event ending complicating action arrives half way through film.
Kramer v Kramer, complicating action consists of Ted and Billy’s accommodation to each other in film’s second section
“countersetup” - formation of new family- disturbed by Joanna’s demand to take Billy back
Occurs at mid-point: 50 minutes
Hollywood Style: Narrative
III. Development
Where protagonist’s struggle towards goals typically occurs, often involving many incidents that create action suspense and delay
Often shows protagonist making little progress towards main goals
Development serves to postpone main action and to present delays or dwell on subplots, montage sequences, comedy interludes etc fills out this act
Hollywood Style: Narrative
IV Climax
Often following “darkest moment” (scene in which crisis forces protagonist to take action) section revolves around whether or not protagonists’ goals can be achieved (mostly they will be)
Flashback- Alex mist revaluate life after mentor Hanna dies and after Jenny becomes stripper, Nick has pulled strings so that Alex gets audition to ballet school and now she must choose one path or another. Decides not to use acrobatic show-dancing skills on judges, and wins admission
Hollywood Style: NarrativeV Epilogue
Confirms stability of narrative
Settles sub-plots and tying up motifs
Can be v. brief – last 50 seconds of Flashdance shows Alex running out of her audition to meet Nick at kerbside with her dog
Lord of the Rings: Return of the King must wrap up three feature-length films – lasts about 11 minutes
Hollywood StyleAccording to David Bordwell:
“the new screenplay manuals’ reliance on act structure, page counts, character arcs and the mythic journey did not overturn the Classic Hollywood dramaturgy. Rather, these procedures filled it in, fine-tuned it, left less to trial and error” (2006)
Hollywood Now: Some ConclusionsDistribution & Exhibition
Film revenue is no longer solely dependent on box office receipts
The increasing importance of distributing films through many windows is now what secures as film’s financial success
From 1950 to mid 1970s, the film majors exploited the popularity of television selling films to networks and syndicates
Hollywood Now: Distribution and Exhibition
In 1975, the introduction of Time Inc Home Box Office TV and Sony’s Betamax VCR provided the film industry with new outlets for their products
Video, DVD, television, cable, satellite, internet and digital channels are new “alternative distribution windows”
Hollywood Now: Typical Distribution Sequence
Initial theatrical release of six months
DVD window for an indefinite period – many of the majors now have own DVD labels and rental companies so they do not need to sell video rights to another company
Pay/ subscription/ digital television window for approximately one year
Terrestrial television window
Hollywood Now: Distribution and Exhibition
Today a major financier-distributor stands between the producer and the exhibitor
For most part the distributor dictates the terms of its deal with the exhibitor as well: the nature of the run, the length of the engagement, the advertising to be employed and the financial split of box-office receipts between various parties
Hollywood NowThe six Hollywood majors – each owned by large media- effectively dominate international film industry.
Individual studios involved in fierce competition with each other – but outside USA and in courts etc they stick closely together.
Hollywood is in effect the MPAA, controlled by the six majors.
Hollywood NowCustoms and Practices
• self-censorship through MPAA certification of films
•General agreement on average budget for mainstream film ($70 million + $30 million for marketing and P&A) (“print and advertising”)
•Importance of script development
•Use of test screenings and audience feedback before release
•Maintenance of technical quality through professional bodies
•Industry awards such as the Oscars to confirm “standards”
Hollywood NowHollywood operates an “oligopoly” – a market controlled by group of powerful organisations.
Cost of entry to market very high – each studio spends $1 billion + on “slate” of films.
NO guarantee they will make money – have enough resources to sustain losses in one year and make back losses in next.
Corporations also have range of other media products generating income at same time.