Gurevich v v English Stylistics Stilistika Angliiskogo Yazyk

7/21/2019 Gurevich v v English Stylistics Stilistika Angliiskogo Yazyk

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Part 1 On the Notions of

'Style' and 'Stylistics'

In different situations of communication people use

different manners of expressing their thoughts, which, in the

Russian linguistic tradition, are usually called styles or functional

styles (функциональные стили), and in the linguistic tradition

abroad — reisters of s!eec" (#е$ист#ы #е%и)& Stylistics is a

branch of linguistics that studies the various functional styles of

speech and also the various e'!ressie eans an* *eices (+к

с-#есси.ные с#е/ст.а и -#ие0ы) of language. Apart from that,

some linguists apply the term 'stylistics' to the study of various

stylistic peculiarities of the language of wors of fiction !"#$%

&$"#$( )*+-"#/001 23$4.

5he distinction between a lofty style and a low style of speech

!/6"$1 $ 0$7$1 "#$&$4 was put forward as far bac as in

the 89,h century by :ichail ;omonosov. <owever, stylistics as

a special branch of linguistics was singled out only towards the

middle of the =>?' century. Academician @.@. @inogradov wasamong the first linguists to describe the different styles of speech

in respect to their functions ! aims4. <e distinguished, in

particularB

1) the colloCuial style, which has the function of commu%

nicating (функция общения);

2) the official and scientific styles, which have the function of

informing (функция сообщения);

3) the publicist (публицистический) and belle%lettres (худо-

жественно-беллетристический) styles, which have the

function of producing an emotional impact (функция эо-

цион!л"но#о во$действия) on the listeners.

5his classification undoubtedly reflects certain differences

between speech styles, although its criteria for the opposition of

functions are rather confusing. 5hus, for example, the functions

of informing and communicating are present in any

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style !colloCuial, official, scientific, publicist, belles%lettres4, as

speech always contains some information and is used for

communicating. 5herefore it would probably be more precise

to say that the colloCuial style is characteristic of the situation

of *irect counication !when the listenerDinterlocutor is

present during speech4, while the other, more booish styles

!official, scientific, publicist4 are used in situations of in*irect

counication !without any listenerDinterlocutor presentduring speech4.

:oreover, production of emotional impact on the listenerD

reader is not so much the aim of a special style of speech, but

rather the aim of publicist or fiction !belles%lettres4 wors, which

represent particular literary genres (ж!нр%)& It goes without

saying that such wors !texts4 have also the function of

informing. Ene more point to mention here is that the study of

the language of various wors of fiction constitutes a special

branch in both linguistics and also in literature theory (лите-

р!туроведение)' and that fiction wors themselves generally

comprise samples (обр!$ц%) of both colloCuial style !the speechof the characters4 and of booish style !the speech of the

author4.

Two Types of Stylistic Information

Fvery style of speech brings about with it some additionalinformation about the conditions and peculiarities of communication. 5he choice of style may depend 84 on

particular relations between the participants of communication!interlocutors4 and =4 on a particular attitude of the speaer towhat he says. 5hese two types of stylistic information will beused below as the basis for the classification of styles.

Grom this point of view, functional styles express the firsttype of information, i.e. the relations between the interlocutors.In some situations these relations may be unrestrained (непри-нужденн%е)' friendly, easy%going or intimate, and in that casethe speaer chooses the so called inforal style of speech, viH.

4

the colloCuial style, which is a lower ' (сниженн%й) style of

speech, characteristic of oral communication. In other

situations the relations between the interlocutors may be

restrained (сдерж!нн%е)' strictly official, etc., and then the

interlocutors try to be deliberately polite (подчеркнуто веж-

лив%и)' and they choose the so called foral style !the lofty,

booish style4, which is generally characteristic of written

language. 5he formal style is used in the genres of official or business documents, of scientific or publicist wors. 5hese

genres, in their turn, may be further subdivided into more

particular varieties of genres for example, official documents

may represent an order, instruction, resolution, proceedings of a

meeting (протокол $!сед!ния)' report, application ($!явле-

ние)' etc.

It is natural for speaers to try to avoid any confusion of

formal and informal styles within one text, as such a confusion

might give the wrong idea of the relations between the

interlocutorsB e.g. a letter to a person of higher authority cannot

begin with words lie *' +, ./0 , ,*456' which would bear a sense of familiarity. Jut at the same time it is well worth

mentioning that there may be samples of speech !oral or written4

which are not clearly mared by features of any particular style,

and which can therefore be regarded as a ?neutral? style,

suitable for any communicative situations.

Jesides the formal and informal functional styles mentioned

above !which reflect the relations between interlocutors4, there

are also stylistic characteristics of speech that reflect the attitude

of the speaer to the content of his speech. 5his second type of

stylistic information concerns the emotional character of

speech, viH. the presence or absence of emotional or evaluative

(оценочн%й) elements. In this respect we can distinguishB

84 an emotionally coloured style of speech=4 a deliberately unemotional (подчеркнуто бе$эоцион!л"-

н%й)' or ?cold? style of speechK4 a neutral style of speech

2-i.is



hmotionally coloured speech maybe characteriHed, on theone hand, by a lofty emotional colouring (приподнят!я эо-цион!л"н!я окр!ск!)' such as solemn (торжественн!я)'

passionate (п!тетическ!я)' ironic, wrathful (#невн!я)'sarcastic (с!рк!стическ!я)' etc., or, on the other hand, by alower colouring (сниженн!я окр!ск!)' such as LocularDhumo%rous (7утлив!я)' derogatory (уничижител"н!я)' rude (#ру-

б!я)' disapproving (неодобрител"н!я)' endearing (л!ск!тел"-н!я)' etc.

5he lofty emotional colouring is characteristic of the publicistDoratory style, while the lower emotional colouring istypical of colloCuial style. 5he deliberately unemotionalcharacter of speech is typical of the formal !'cold'4 styles, suchas scientific, official or business speech, where the speaer tendsto mae his speech impersonal and avoid any emotional or evaluating elements.

Apart from the two directly opposed styles — theemotionally coloured and the deliberately unemotional — theremay also be intermediate, stylistically neutral speech, which is

neither emotionally coloured nor deliberately devoid of emotion. 5hus, there may be samples of speech that are neutral

both with respect to the relations between the interlocutors andwith respect to the speaer's attitude toward what he says.

Stylistic differences of any ind can be expressed by variouslanguage meansB phonetic, lexical or grammatical. Ene of themost vivid means is, naturally, the choice of vocabulary.

Stylistic !haracteristics of "n#lish $oca%&lary

Mith respect to the functional styles, vocabulary can besubdivided into booish !literary4, which is typical of formalstyles !scientific, official, business, publicist4, and colloCuialvocabulary which is typical of the lower style !colloCuial4. Inaddition, there is always present in the language a stylisticallyneutral vocabulary, which can be used in all inds of style. Nf.B

8+*9 !neutral4 — :* !colloC.4 — *4.4< !e.g. *4.4< =8+,,9= > official, booish4 — ,=?/*45 !also booish, used in scientificwors4 .<+0/ (4<@A&) — . !coll.4 — B.90

?./04<C.480=<,/ !formal4 90.D0C5, .. !neut.4 — E0 ,C50<,<C50< ..C50< 9,=< !coll.,

or familiar% colloCuial4 — /0<*/0C*<+/. !booish48,4<*40 !neutr.4 — 5, ,4' 8.// ,4 !coll.4 — ?/,800 !booish,

formal4 E05*4C=<./< !neutr.4 — 50< 5,*45C50< =<./<0CF,B0,4G !coll.4 —

8,BB0480 !formal4Stylistically neutral words usually constitute the main

member in a group of synonyms, the so%called synonymicdominant (синониическ!я доин!нт!)H they can be used inany style, they are not emotionally coloured and have noadditional evaluating elements such are the words 8+*9' .<+0/'E05*4' 90.D0C5, ..' 8,4<*40 in the examples above.

Onlie neutral words !synonymic dominants4, which onlydenote (обо$н!ч!Iт) a certain notion and thus have only adenotational meaning (денот!тивное $н!чение' обо$н!чение

некоторо#о понятия)' their stylistic synonyms usually containsome connotations (коннотации), i.e. additional componentsof meaning which express some emotional colouring or evaluation (оценк!) of the obLect named these additionalcomponents may also be simply signs of a particular functionalstyle of speech. Ebserve, for example, the followingconnotationsB

an endearing connotation (л!ск!т&) > e.g. in the words :*'.' BBB !as different from the neutral words 8+*9'

.<+0/' B,<+0/); derogatory (пре$рит& > уничижит&) con%notation — e.g. in /,<' </.=+' =< (.= different from the neutral'something worthless or silly'4 LocularDhumourous — e.g. in8,B0=<*E90= (J,,)' E0.: ( 4,=0)' <, :*8: <+0 E8:0< (J <, *0);rude or vulgar, e.g. in =+< ?C=+< ,/ </.?; ironical or sarcastic — E/.*4-.=+ ! P2Q6/( Q7/4, . ?/0<< :0<<90 ,*=+ (J anembarrassing situation4, 4,<,/*,= ! P2"&/*#61 +*=4,<,/*,= K,:0=; +0 *= 4,<,/*,= ,/ +*= E. E0+.D*,/ > Lсл!-

2( )



витсяL' #.. Lпеч!л"но и$вестенL); approving evaluationMодобрител"н!я оценк!) > e.g. in the word /04,40 (./04,40 ?,0< J P2"&(/&0061 N*=,4 *= /04,40 ,/ +*=

5/0.< *4D04<*,4=)H on the other hand, its synonyms lie 099-:4,4' .B,= are neutral in this respect !have noconnotations4.

It should be noted that we do not include into the stylistically

coloured vocabulary words that directly express some positiveor negative evaluation of an obLect — хоро7ий' плохой' кр!си-в%й' некр!сив%й' прекр!сн%й' уродлив%й; 5,,' E.' ?/0<<'59& <ere the evaluation expressed maes up their denotationalmeaning proper !it represents the notion expressed by the word4,

but not an additional connotation. Also, it is easy to notice thatwords lie 59' .9' E0.<*9' ,40/9' =?0/E denote a highdegree of Cuality !negative or positive4, but this component of degree !of intensity4 is again part of their denotational meaning,not a connotation !which is understood as an additional elementaccompanying the denotational meaning of a word4.

As connotation proper !a special colouring4, negative

evaluation is present e.g. in the word =8./ (. =8./ 5*/9 > cf.the Russian стр!7ненк!я; both words have an ironic or derogatory colouring4 or ?/0<< > when it is used in phraseslie . ?/0<< E,CB.4 !humorous, ironical or derogatoryconnotations cf. also the Russian кр!с!вчик' кр!сотк!)' or .

?/0<< =<.<0 (O<= . ?/0<< =<.<0 , ..*/= +04 O 8.4< .,/ <+0 ?/*80 , . ?*4< , E00/ .4 B,/09)& P+.<= . ?/0<< :0<<90 ,*=+ !ну и дел!G); there is ironical connotation in the word 8,Q-8,BE!literally ?P#*$061 ))&?4, lie in the correspondingRussian word ще#ол"' or in . 8,8: , <+0 .9: ($!$н!йк!)&

5here is a derogatory connotation in the words <, .E/*8.<0'<, 8,48,8< (сф!бриков!т"' в%ду!т")' as different from the

neutral phrase 'to create a false story' !which expresses thenegative evaluation by the denotational meanings of the words4Bthere is a negative evaluative connotation in <, =9.40/ (клеве-т!т") — as different from emotionally neutral expressions lie<, *=<,/< .8<= (иск!ж!т" ф!кт%)' which again express the

9

idea of 'falsification' directly. In the sentence R,4< /0. <+*=

E. +,,: the negative evaluation is expressed directly !by the

denotational meaning of the adLective E.)' whereas in R,4<

/0. <+*= </.=+ the evaluation is expressed by the derogatory

colouring of the noun </.=+ > in other words, it is present here

only as a connotation thus, words lie </.=+' /,<' =< (J

?something worthless, bad?4 are stylistically mared (стилис-

тически !ркиров!н%' т&е& обл!д!Iт определенной стили-стической окр!ской)' while the word E. is stylistically

unmared !"#$&$"#$3"$ 0Q(2$2/(0, 01#2(&T04.

Apart from that, as was already mentioned above, the

stylistic connotation of a word may be Lust a sign of a certain

functional style to which the word belongs, without carrying

any emotional or evaluative element. 5hus, sentences lie S+0

*= 8<0 ! pretty4, O< *= 8<0 (J very good4, O<= 8,,9 (Tто круто)

contain not only a high positive evaluation !in the same way as

the stylistically neutral variants S+0 *= ?/0<<C5,,-9,,:*45 or O<

*= D0/ 5,,)' but also a stylistic connotation which shows that

they belong to the familiar%colloCuial style !U(Q$&TV20%2(7%

/2061 "#$&T4, or even to slang. NolloCuial connotations are

also present in the phrases <, *Q . .<8+ !neutral — <, /0?.*/ .

.<8+)' <, *Q .4 .??,*4<B04< ,/ =0D04 ,89,8: (J <, .//.450)' <,

*Q E/0.:.=< !American — <, 8,,: E/0.:.=<)& En the other

hand, a booish connotation, or colouring !as a feature of

official or scientific style of speech4 is present in expressions

lie <, 8.=0C<, *49*8< E,*9 *4K/*0= !neutral — <, +*<C<, E0.<C<,

+/<)' <, 8.=0C<, *49*8< .B.50 !neutr. <, +./BC<, , +./B)' <,

*B?,=0 . <.QC. *40 !neutr. <, <.QC<, *40)' .4 *B?,D0/*=+0 ?0/=,4

!neutr. . ?,,/ ?0/=,4)' +*5+9 *B?/,E.E90 !neutr. D0/ 49*:09)'

etc.

A rude !vulgar4 connotation is present in vulgarisms, or !aboo words, which are not to be used in the speech of educated

people and are therefore often replaced by euphemisms !W/%

UQ$7Q64 — the more 'gentle' names of the obLect. 5hus, the

word 'devil' is, for many people, unacceptable in speech and

*



intervocal position (E09<0/' 90<<0/' 89,=0/); a slight nasalisation of vowels before or after nasal consonants (8.4<' =<.4)&

5here are also differences in vocabulary, 0&5& .99 ( Jritish — .<B4)' 50== ! <+*4:)' E.55.50 ! 955.50)' /5 ( B0*8*40)' =<,/0 ( J =+,?)' 8.4 ( J

<*4)' 090D.<,/ ( J 9*<)' +././0 ( J */,4B,450/)' 5/.0= ! B./:=)' B.*9( J?,=<)' E*99 ! E.4:4,<0)' <, ?. . 8+08: ! <, ?. . E*99)' 5.= ! ?0</,9)'

+,5(J?*5)' <, 9*40 ! <, U00 ?)' B,D*0= ! ?*8</0=' 8*40B. *9B)' =<,8:= ! =+./0=)' *4,/B.<*,4 0=: ! 04U*/-,*80)' =*0.9: ( J ?.D0B04<)'

8./,=.9 Xaru'selY ! B0//-5,-/,4)' D.8.<*,4 ( J +,9*.)' 89.== ! ,/B; <+0 E, *= 4, *4 +*= */=< 89.== .< =8+,,9)' 89,=0< ! 8?E,./)' 8.4 !

=00<=)' =*8: ! *99)' <04 B*4<0= .<0/ *D0 ! ?.=< *D0)' etc. As for grammar forms, American Fnglish uses 5,<<04 instead of 5,<' and the future auxiliary

*99 with all the persons. It also prefers simplified variants of spellingB 8,9,/(J8,9,/)' .D,/*<0 (J .D,/*<0)' <+0.<0/ ! <+0.</0)' 804<0/ (J804</0)' <0905/.B !

<0905/.BB0)' etc.

%+ "n#lish $oca%&lary in the ,spect of Time

Jesides the vocabulary that is in current !present%day4 use, we also find arc"aic or o1solete (уст!рел%е) words, which belong to some previousstage of language development but can still be found in wors of fiction !especially in the wors of Shaespeare, Nhaucer, Swift or other classicalauthors4. Nf. the archaic words V0+,9G (J W,,:G)' ./:G ! W*=<04G)' B0<+*4:= ( J O <+*4:)' X.( J 4,)' Y*<+0/ ./0 , 5,*456 (J Y+0/0 ./0 , 5,*45 <, 6)' +*<+0/ .4 <+*<+0/ (> +0/0 .4 <+0/0)' <+,C<, <+00 (J ,C<, ,)' +*9=< (J +*90)' .+*90 (J,/ =,B0 <*B0)' ,4 ! <+*=' <+.<)' ,40/ (J there4, etc.

Archaic words are freCuently used in poetry and thus belong also to !oetic oca1ulary !potic diction4B cf. U,<+ ( > =.*)' ,0 (J =,//,)' =.*4 ! =+0?+0/)' ,0 (J 040B)' =<00C8+./50/ (J +,/=0)' /0.9B ! :*45,B)' 4,5+<C4.5+< (J 4,<+*45)' 0/0 ! E0,/0)' .9E0*< (J .9<+,5+); here also belongcertain shortened variants of the currently used words, e.g. ,< ! ,<04)' 0D0 ! 0D04*45)' B,/4 (J B,/4*45)' etc.

12



5he vocabulary that has gone out of use also includes the so called 'historisms' (истори$%) — words which reflect some phenomena belonging tothe past limes, e.g. :4*5+< (р%ц!р")' 0,B04 (йоен%' independent peasants in old Fngland4, ./8+0/ !&*30$4, =9*45 !P2(Z(4, /.B !#(2(04 cf. alsoRussian historisms lie #ородничий' #ородовой' бояре&

En the other hand, we can also find in Fnglish vocabulary the so%called 2neoloiss2, i.e. words that have recently come into the language and arestill felt as rather newB .990/5' 8,B?<0/' .=</,4.<' *=,<,?0' U.=./' 9.=0/' .9*04=' =?0/B./:0<' 8+.*4-=<,/0=' E*:*4*' B*4*CB.Q*CB** !of clothes4,

?.?0/E.8:=' etc.

Nomparatively new borrowings from other languages, which are not yet completely assimilated in the language !phonetically or grammatically4, arestylistically mared as 2forein2 words !sometimes, as 1ar1ariss)3 they usually belong to a lofty !booish4 styleB e.g. protege, . ?/,?,=' E,4K,/' ideefixe, 8+*8 (J of very good taste, fashionable4, .9<0/ 05, ! one's second self4, 0 .8<, (J in point of fact4, =<.<= U, ! the existing state of things4,*E*C*E*0B ! by the same author4, etc., viH. ! videlicet4 !namely4.

Part 2

Functional Styles of Speech in Greater Detail

The !ollo&ial Style

5his is the style of informal, friendly oral communication. 5he vocabulary of colloCuial style is usually lower than that of the formal or neutralstyles, it is often emotionally coloured and characteriHed by connotations !cf. the endearing connotation in the words .' :* or the evaluatingcomponents in </.=+' etc. in the examples of connotations above4.

NolloCuial speech is characteriHed by the freCuent use of words with a 1roa* eanin !$27P(306 "&/(4B speaers

3-111 13



tend to use a small group of words in Cuite different meanings,whereas in a formal style !official, business, scientific4 everyword is to be used in a specific and clear meaning. Nomparethe different uses of the verb ?get?, which freCuently replacesin oral colloCuial speech its more specific synonymsB

D 5,< ! /080*D0) . 90<<0/ <,.; Y9*0/0 * , 50< ! E)<+,=0 =+,0=6; Y0 ,4<50< ! +.D0) B8+ /.*4 +0/0 *4 =BB0/' O

5,< ! 8.5+<) 9 9.=< B,4<+; Y0 5,< ! <,,:) <+0 =*Q-, 89,8: </.*4 /,B W,4,4; O 5,< *4<, (J04<0/0) <+0 +,=0 0.=*9; Y+0/0+.= B ?04 5,< <, ! *=.??0./0) 6; Y0 5,< ! .//*D0) +,B09.<0; Z0< (J?<) ,/ +.< ,4G; O 8.4 <50< (J*<) *4<, B ,9 K0.4=;Z0< ! <+/,) <+0 8.< ,< , <+0 +,=0&; O99 50< ! ?4*=+) ,'

K=< , .*<&; Y0 5,< ! ?.==0) <+/,5+ <+0 8=<,B= *<+,< .48+08:*45; OD0 5,< ? <, ! /0.8+0) <+0 9.=< 8+.?<0/ , <+0 E,,:;

O OO 50< ! 0<8+) <+0 8+*9/04 /,B =8+,,9; <= 50<<*45 ! E08,B*45)./:; 0 5,< ! .=) /,EE0 *4 <+0 =</00< .< 4*5+<; O 5,< ! 8.=0)+*B <, +09? B0 *<+ <+0 ,/:; O 5,< <+0 /.*, ,/:*45 .< 9.=<( JE/,5+< *< <, <+0 =<.<0 , ,/:*45); Y*99 , 50< ! 5*D0' E/*45) <+08+*9/04 <+0*/ =??0/ <,4*5+<6; O*4 <50<( J +0./) +.< , =.*;

[, 5,< ! 40/=<,,) B .4=0/ /,45; O .4<0 <, =?0.: <,<+0 */08<,/' E< ,49 5,< ! B.4.50 <, =?0.:) <, +*= =08/0<./;Y*99 , 50< ! .4=0/) <+0 ?+,406; F.4 , 50< ! <40 *4) <,

W,4,4 ,4 ,/ /.*, 6

5here are phrases and constructions typical of colloCuialtypeB Y+.<= ?6(J Y+.< +.= +.??040); =,-=, !4,< 0=?08*.99

5,,); 4,<+*45 B8+C4,<+*45 <, /*<0 +,B0 .E,< (J nothing of importance4 , ./0 , ,*456 ! , ./0 <+*45= *<+ ,6);S,//6 \./,4 6( J \90.=0' /0?0.<' O*4< +0./ ,); X,< <, ,//G

! <+0/0 *= 4,<+*45 <, ,// .E,<); X, ?/,E90BG( P+*= 8.4 0.=*9E0 ,40); S00 , ( J Z,,-E0); ]0 <,,C40*<+0/ ! S,C40*<+0/ , O)' etc.

In grammar there may beB a4 the use of shortened variantsof word%forms, e.g. *=4<' 8.4<; <+0/0= ; O =. ; +0 D0 ,40 ( J ,9 +.D0 ,40); [.. ( J [0=); b4 the use of el li pt ic al!incomplete4 sentences — D *; (Y+0/0= +06) > A< +,B0; W*:0*<6 ( R, ,CR* , 9*:0 *<6) > X,< <,, B8+ (J O ,4 < 9*:0 *<

14

<,, B8+); (S+.99 O ,?04 *<6) — R,4 <&; ]. O6! ]. O .=: .U0=<*,4C, <+*=6)&

5he syntax of colloCuial speech is also characteriHed by the

preferable use of simple sentences or by asyndetic connection

! absence of conLunctions, бессоI$н!я свя$") between the

parts of composite sentences or between separate sentences.

Nomplex constructions with non%finite forms are rarely used.

[ote the neutral style in the following extractBMhen I saw him there, I ased him, 'Mhere are you going\',

but he started running away from me. I followed him. Mhen he

turned round the corner, I also turned round it after him, but

then noticed that he was not there. I could not imagine where

he was...

and the possible more colloCuial version of the sameB D =. +*B

<+0/0' O =. Y+0/00 5,*456 0 /4= ,' 1 /4 .<0/ +*B& 0

</4= <+0 8,B0/' B0 <,,& 0 *=4 < <+0/0& Y+0/0= +0 4,6C8.4<

<+*4:&&&& !note also the rather freCuent change from the ]ast

tense to the ]resent, in addition to the absence of conLunctions

or other syntactic means of connection4.

amiliar-!ollo&ial Style and Slan#/056789-7:;9<978=> ?@5A B7;98=+

Jesides the standard, literary%colloCuial !02Q(#$/0(V

&$#2(#*20%2(7/20(V4 speech, there is also a nonstandard

!or substandard4 style of speech, mostly represented by a special

vocabulary. Such is the failiarcollo4uial style !a 'lower'

variant of colloCuial style4 used in very free, friendly, informal

situations of communication !between close friends, members

of one family, etc.4. <ere we find eotionally coloure* words,

lo5collo4uial vocabulary (просторечн!я лексик!) and slangwords. 5his style admits also of the use of ru*e and ular

vocabulary, including expletivesDobscene wordsDfour%letter

wordsDswearwords (бр!нн!я лексик!)&

See some examples of familiar%colloCuialDlow%colloCuialwords !also called 'slang'4B

3. 1



^,<C</.=+C=< ( J =B<+& E.); <+0 8.<= ?K.B.= ! K=< <+0

/*5+<C=*<.E90 <+*45); E/0.-E.=:0< ! =<,B.8+); 5/.==C?,< !^

B./*K.4.' 4./8,<*8 /5=); <*?=C40/ <+0 *490480 (.90480)C

40/ <+0 <.E90C+.= +. . /,? (J/4:); 8<0C5/0.<G (AB) (JD0/

5,,); 0< E9.4:0< (_4*4<0/0=<*45 ?0/=,4); +,< =<G (=B<+&

0Q</0B09 5,,); [,/0 .B4 /*5+<G ! U*<0 /*5+<); Y+0/0 ./0

<+,=0 ./40C.B40 =,8:=6 Y+.< <+0 +099 , , .4<6

5he term slan is used in a very broad and vague sense.Jesides denoting low%colloCuial !familiar%colloCuial4 words, it

is also used to denote special social 6arons7cants, i.e. words

typically used by particular social groups to show that the

speaer belongs to this group, as different from other people.

Eriginally Largons were used to preserve secrecy within the social

group, to mae speech incomprehensible to others — such is

the thieves' LargonDcant. 5here is also teenagers' slangDLargon,

school slang, army slang, prison slang, etc. See examples of

American army slangB <, <.:0 09< ! <, /0<*/0 /,B <+0 ./B'

literally — ?< ,4 . 09< +.<); 9 E, ! ?*9,<); 8,*4 ( 4/09*.E90

.0/,?9.40); ],9,<,D 8,8:<.*9 ( E,<<90= *<+ 0Q?9,=*D0 B.<0/*.9=);

Jut often words from a particular Largon spread outside its

social group and become general slang. See examples of general

Jritish slangB 8/.8:0/= ! 8/.`)' <+0 0./ ,< ( 9,45 .5,)' /*?

(J 4*4<0/0=<*45 ?0/=,4 *<+,< . 8+./.8<0/)' 50< <+0 +B? ( J 50<

.45/)' B.8 (a S8,<=B.4)' B5 (J,,9)' 4*??0/ (J ,45 8+*9)'

/.<<0 ! /4:)' =4,< (J <,E.88,)&

Some examples of general American slangB E (J 099,)'

E8: ! ,99./)' 8.EE.50 ! B,40)' b,+4 (J 9.D.<,/)' K0/: !

=<?* ?0/=,4) b*80 ! *40); K,:0/ ( B.4); 590 (J .//0=<0);

5*D0 =BE& *45= (J <0.8+ <, =0 /5=); =<.5 ?./< ! !л"чи7-

ник); <,? ,5 ( J E,==); 9*:0 . B*99*,4 ,99./= (-D0/ 5,,); <, 4*?

! =<0.9)' =B.=+ ! . /*4:)&5here is also !rofessional slan76aron, i.e. words which are

used by people in their professional activityB <*4-*=+ ( J

=EB./*40); E9,8:-E=<0/ (J . E,BE- *4 B*9*<./ =0' or . D0/

=880==*<9*9B — *4 =+, E=*40==); ?*?0/ (J . =?08*.9*=< 08,/.<*45

к.

8.:0= *<+ 8/0.B .4 =*45 . ?*?0); see also some professionalslang words for a 'blow' in boxingB .4 ,<0/ ! a noc%out

blow4, . /*5+<-+.40/ !one made with the right hand4 .4??0/8< !(PP2#4 . 89*48+ !position of boxing very close,with body pressed to body4.

The ormal /CoftyA DooEish+ Style

/<=?9F>A F8B8=> ?@5+

A formal !lofty, booish4 style is reCuired in situations of

official or restrained relations between the interlocutors, who

try to avoid any personal and emotional colouring or familiarity,

and at the same time to achieve clarity of expression !to avoid

any ambiguity and misunderstanding4. 5his style is used in

various genres of speech, such as in official !legal, diplomatic,

_\ etc.4 documents, scientific wors, publicist wors or public

` speeches, etc.i

The Style of Official orD&siness Goc&ments

Efficial !legal, diplomatic, etc.4 and business documents arewritten in a formal, 'cold' or matter%of%fact style of speech,which reCuires the choice of a special ind of vocabulary,grammar forms and structures. Such documents often reCuirethe use of special formulas of politeness and cliches, e.g. O E05 <, *4,/B ,; O E05 <, B,D0; O =08,4 <+0 B,<*,4; <+0 *<0B= ,4<+0 .504.' <+0 .E,D0-B04<*,40' +0/0*4.<0/ 4.B0; ,4 E0+.9 ,; R0./ S*/; Y0 /0B.*4 /0=?08<99 ,/=' etc. Efficialdocuments are freCuently characteriHed by the use of abbreviations or conventional symbols. ]\ !:ember of ]arliament4, ZD< (5,D0/4B04<)' W< !company of limited

liability4, F, (8,B?.4); . (.D0/<*=0B04<); AR (A44, R,B*4* =*480 F+/*=<= E*/<+); cd (E0,/0 F+/*=<= E*/<+); eSA; ef; g(,99./); WE& (?,4)' etc.

Efficial or business documents may reCuire special patternssee the structure of a business letter belowB



omby and No. = South Street :anchester th

Gebruary, 89 !the address of the sender4 :r.

ohn Smith 8 reen Street ;ondon !the address

of the party addressed4

ear Sir, Me beg to inform you of a plausible opportunityof concluding an agreement on the issue on the followingterms ...

Respectfully yours,omby and No. 5he syntax of official or business style is

characteriHed by the freCuent use of non%finite forms — gerund, participle, infinitive (F,4=*0/*45 <+.<&&&; *4 ,/0/ <, .8+*0D08,,?0/.<*,4 *4 =,9D*45 <+0 ?/,E90B=)' and complex structureswith them, such as the Nomplex EbLect !Y0 0Q?08< <+*= <, <.:0

?9.80)' Nomplex SubLect !P+*= *= 0Q?08<0 <, <.:0 ?9.80)' theAbsolute ]articipial Nonstruction !P+0 8,4*<*,4= E0*45 D*,9.<0'*< .??0./= 4080==./ <, =<.<0 <+.<&&&)&

5he vocabulary is characteriHed by the use of specialterminology MB0B,/.4B; ?.8<; <+0 +*5+ 8,4</.8<*45 ?./<*0=;<, /.<* .4 .5/00B04<; 0Q</.-<0//*<,/*.9 =<.<=; ?904*?,<04<*.9

/0?/0=04<.<*D0; ?/,800*45=' ?/,<,8,9' <+0 ?/*48*?90= 9.* ,4 *4<+0 ,8B04<' etc.4 and generally by the choice of lofty!booish4 words and phrasesB ?9.=*E90 ! ?,==*E90); <, *4,/B !<, <099); <, .==*=< (<, +09?)' <, 8,,?0/.<0 (J<, ,/: <,50<+0/)' <, E00<0/B*40C/0=,9D0 (J <, *=+); <+0 =8800*45 89.=0= , <+0.5/00B04< ! нижеследуIщие ст!т"и до#овор!)' <, /0.*/B

.*<+ *4 4.B04<.9 ?/*48*?90=; <, 0=<.E9*=+ <+0 /0U*/0 8,4*<*,4=;<+0 ,E9*5.<*,4= ./*=*45 /,B </0.<*0= .4 ,<+0/ =,/80= , *4<0/4.<*,4.9 9.; <, ?/,B,<0 (J <, 0D09,?) .4 =08/0 ( <, B.:0

=<.E90) =,8*.9 ?/,5/0==; *<+ <+0 ,99,*45 ,EK08<*D0=C04= (J,/ <+0=0 ?/?,=0=)&

89

The Style of Scientific HorEs

5he genre of scientific wors exists for the most part within

the bounds of the written form of language !scientific articles,

monographs or textboos4, but it may also manifest itself in its

oral form !in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at

conferences, etc.4 in the latter case this style already has some

features of colloCuial speech.

5he aim of scientific speech is to present preciseinformation, therefore it reCuires the use of special terminology

which does not admit of polysemy or of figurative meanings, of

emotional connotations !all of which is typical of colloCuial

and publicist styles4. 5he author of scientific wors tends to

sound impersonal, hence the use of the pronoun ?MF? instead

of ?I?, of impersonal constructions, of the ]assive @oice !which

allows the author not to mention himself or any other subLective

participants of the events described4.

5he syntax of scientific speech is characteriHed by the use

of complete !non%elliptical4 sentences !unlie the syntax of

colloCuial speech4, the use of extended complex and compoundsentences without omission of conLunctions, as these connectors

enable the author to express the relations between the parts more

precisely !as different from the asyndetic connection typical of

colloCuial speech4 the use of booish syntactic constructions,

such as complexes with non%finite forms of the verb the use of

extended attributive phrases, often with a number of nouns used

as attributes to the following head%noun ![oun [oun

construction4. See some examples of grammar structures typical

of scientific languageB

8oun 9 8oun constructions:

<+0 =0. 90D09; <+0 <*B0 .4 =?.80 /09.<*D*< <+0,/; <+0 Y,/9 ?0.80 8,40/0480; . +*5+ 90D09 8,4=04==; <+0 5/004+,=0 008<

(п!рников%й); 8./E,4 *,Q*0 0B*==*,4= (эиссия двуокиси у#-

лерод!)H ,==*9 09 E/4*45 (сжи#!ние ископ!е%х #орIчих

веществ); 0,/0=<.<*,4 ?/,E90B= (J ?/,E90B= /09.<0 <, <+0

*=.??0./.480 , ,/0=<= ,4 <+0 0./<+)&

8



]assive @oice constructionsBY.<0/ *= 4,< <+0 =,90 D./*0< , =E=<.480 /,B +*8+ ,Q504

8.4 E0 ,E<.*40& ]0<+.40 *= ?/,80 E 90.:= /,B 5.= ?*?09*40=&Jooish syntactic structuresB5he compound type of predicateB P+0=0 5.=0= ./0 0.= <,

8,4</,9 E< <+0 ./0 ?0/=*=<04< ,480 0B*<<0 ! DD is 0.= <, 8,4</,9 <+0=0 5.=0=' E< *< *= +./ <, =<,? <+0B +04 <+0 8,B0 ,<)&

R0,/0=<.<*,4 *= ?/,E.E9 0D04 +./0/ <, 8+.450 ( J

O< *= 0D04 +./0/ <, 8+.450 <+0 =*<.<*,4 +04 ,/0=<= E05*4 <, *=.??0./)&

5he use of abstract nouns, gerundial, participial or infinitive phrases and complexes instead of the much simpler clauses withconLunctionsB A?./< /,B <+*=' controlling 0B*==*,4= , 5/004+,=0

5.=0= ,9 /0U*/0 +50 increase *4 040/5 efficiency ! Jesides,if we want to control the gases which come out when the air

becomes warmer, we shall have to produce much more energy4 Agreement to implement =8+ +50 ?/,K08<= ,9 /0U*/0overcoming differences E0<004 8,4</*0= ! If we want to agreeto carry out such big proLects, we shall have to change thesituation when every country is different from another4 P+0

B0.=/0= suggested ./0 ,/<+ considering/require careful 8,4=*0/.<*,4 ! It is necessary to thin about the measures thatwe have suggested4 Eur planet is nown to have been hot onceand to have grown cooler in the course of time ! Me now thatonce it was hot and then grew cooler4.

Special emphatic constructions to lay a logical stress onsome part of the sentenceB O< *= 4,< =,909 /,B .<0/ <+.< ,Q504*= <, E0 ,E<.*40 ! we can get oxygen not only from water4. O< *=,4 <+0=0 <0/B= <+.< <+0 eX ,9 E0 ?/0?./0 <, *4<0/D040 *4<, <+08,49*8< ! 5he O[ will intervene only on these terms4.

P&%licist /Oratory+ Style

5his is a style used in public speeches and printed publicist

wors, which are addressed to a broad audience and devoted to

important social or political events, public problems of cultural

or moral character. Such communication reCuires clarity in the

presentation of ideas, its aim is to convince the readersDlisteners

2

of the truth of the ideas expressed, and at the same time to produce an emotional impact !impression4 on the audience.5hus the main features of thi s style are clear logicalargumentation and emotional appeal to the audience. In thisway the publicist style has features in common not only withthe style of official or scientific wors, on the one hand, butalso with some elements of emotionally coloured colloCuialstyle, on the other hand. Indeed, in this case the author has no

need to mae his speech impersonal !as in scientific or officialstyle4 — on the contrary, he tries to approximate his text to livelycommunication, as though he were taling to people in directcontact. Accordingly, the publicist style is characteriHed by theuse of logically connected syntactic structures in their full form,i.e. complete extended sentences connected by conLunctionsclearly showing the relations expressed, but at the same time,an emotional impact is achieved by the use of emotionallycoloured vocabulary, Lust as in belles%lettres style !the style of fiction wors4 and in colloCuial style.

]ublicist !oratory4 style reCuires eloCuence !2("023$4,and such wors are often ornamented with stylistic devices andfigures of speech !see ]art K4. Some authors of publicist worsmay prefer verbosity (но#ословие)' others — brevity of expression, often resembling epigrams.

5here are various genres in which the publicist style isemployed, such as public speeches, essays, pamphlets, articles

published in newspapers or magaHines, radio and 5@commentaries, etc.

5he oral variant of publicist style — the oratory style proper !which is used in speeches and mass media commentaries4, isespecially close to spoen language in its emotional aspect. It isaimed at logical and emotional persuasion of the audience. As

there is direct contact with the audience, it allows the speaer tocombine effects of written and spoen varieties of language.Gor example, the author can use direct address !the pronoun of the second person ?ou?4, and often begins his speech withspecial formulas of address to the audienceB W.*0= .4

;<<<= ><



Z04<90B04G ] W,/=' !in the <ouse of ;ords4 ]/& F+.*/B.4H

*5+9 0=<00B0 B0BE0/= , <+0 8,40/0480&; or. in a less formal

situation — R0./ h/*04=; or, with a more passionate colouring —

] /*04=C

As the speaerDauthor attempts to reach closer contact with

the audience, he may use such devices as asing the audience

CuestionsB

S,B0<*B0= *< *= =.* <+.< B.4 8.44,< E0 </=<0 *<+ <+0 5,D0/4B04< , +*B=09& F.4 +0' <+04' +0 </=<0 *<+ <+0 5,D0/4B04<

, ,<+0/=6 i/ +.D0 0 ,4 .4509= *4 <+0 ,/B= , :*45= <, 5,D0/4

+*B 6 !5h. efferson4

or maing an appeal to the audienceB

W0< = <+04' *<+ 8,/.50 .4 8,4*0480' ?/=0 ,/ ,4

00/.9 .4 /0?E9*8.4 ?/*48*?90=G !ibid.4.

En the other hand, as different from colloCuial style, the

vocabulary of speeches and printed publicist wors is usually

very elaborately chosen and remains mainly in the sphere of

lofty !high%flown4 style. See examples belowB

a4 h/*04= .4 h099, F*<*`04=H

F.990 ?,4 <, 40/<.:0 <+0 <*0= , <+0 */=< 0Q08<*D0 ,*80

, ,/ 8,4</' O .D.*9 B=09 , <+0 ?/0=0480 , <+.< ?,/<*,4 ,

B 099, 8*<*`04= +*8+ *= +0/0 .==0BE90' <, 0Q?/0== B

5/.<09 <+.4:= ,/ <+0 .D,/ *<+ +*8+ <+0 +.D0 E004 ?90.=0

<, 9,,: <,./ B0' <, 089./0 . =*480/0 8,4=8*,=40== <+.< <+0

<.=: *= .E,D0 B <.904<=' .4 <+.< O .??/,.8+ *< *<+ <+,=0

.4Q*,= .4 .9 ?/0=04<*B04<= +*8+ <+0 5/0.<40== , <+0

8+./50 .4 <+0 0.:40== , B ?,0/= =, K=<9 *4=?*/0 !5h.

efferson. Girst Inaugural Speech4

b4 P+0 B0<+, +*8+ ]/& V/:0 <.:0= <, ?/,D0 <+.< <+0 ?0,?90 ,

N459.4 +. 4, =8+ /*5+<=' .4 <+.< =8+ /*5+<= , 4,< 4,0Q*=< *4 <+0 4.<*,4 &&&*= , <+0 =.B0 B./D099,= .4 B,4=</,=

:*4 *<+ +.< +0 +.= .9/0. =.*; ,/ +*= ./5B04<= ./0'

<+.< <+0 ?0/=,4=' ,/ <+0 5040/.<*,4= , ?0/=,4=' *4 +,B <+0

* 0Q*=<' ./0 0.' .4 *<+ <+0B <+0 /*5+< *= 0. .9=,&

!5h. ]aine. Rights of :an4

22

;ie colloCuial style, the publicist style is usuallycharacteriHed by emotional colouring and connotations, 1ut

there is a difference. 5he emotional colouring of publicist styleis loftyB it may be solemn !as in example a4 above4, or it may beironicDsarcastic !as in example b44, but it cannot have the?lower? connotations !Locular, endearing, rude or vulgar,slangy4 found in colloCuialDfamiliar colloCuial speech.

5he syntax of publicist style is often characterised byrepetition of structures !syntactic parallelism4 — a device usedto rouse the audience emotionallyB

O< *= +*5+ <*B0 <+*= ?0,?90 +. /08,D0/0 /,B <+0 ?.==*,4= , ./& O< *= +*5+ <*B0 <+.< <+0 ?0,?90 , <+0 X,/<+ .4 <+0 S,<+40/=<,, 0.8+ ,<+0/ .4 .,?<0 B0.4= <, *4=?*/0 8,4*0480*4 0.8+ ,<+0/ !from a public speech made at the end of the NivilMar in the ?@A)&

Y+.< , 0 =00 ,4 <+0 +,/*`,46 Y+.< ,/80= ./0 .< ,/:6Y*<+0/ ./0 0 /*<*456 e40/ +.< B*=< , 89,= ,0= <+0 </0

=<.4 ,E=8/06 !from ;ord Jyron's speech in ]arliament4Syntactic repetition may be combined with lexical repetition

!periphrasis4B ^,E0/< V/4= 0Q.9<0 ,/ /.80 .4 <+0 S8,<<*=+ <,450& V0,/0+*= <*B0 0 +. ,/ . 9,45 ?0/*, E004 =8./809 /08,54*=0; 0 +. E004 .99*45 ,< , <+0 /08,9908<*,4 , <+0 ,/9 &&& S8,<9.4 +. 9.?=0 *4<, ,E=8/*< &&& 0/ 0Q*=<0480 .= .9B,=< ,/5,<<04 !allthose different phrases simply repeat the idea ?nobody new us,Scots, before?4.

Some Partic&lar Jenres of P&%licist Style

B"e Cssay5his genre in Fnglish literature dates from the 8j?' century,

and its name is taen from the short ?Fssays? ! experiments,

attempts4 by the Grench writer :ontaigne, which contained histhoughts on various subLects. An essay is a literary compositionof moderate length on philosophical, social or literary subLects,which preserves a clearly personal character and has no

pretence to deep or strictly scientific treatment of

4( 23



the subLect. It is rather a number of comments, without any

definite conclusions. See an extract from Jen ohnson !8j lh

century4B

W.45.50 B,=< =+,= . B.4; =?0.:' <+.* O B. =00 <+00& O<

=?/*45= , <+0 B,=< /0<*/0 .4 *4 B,=< ?./<= , =' .4 *= <+0

*B.50 , <+0 ?./04< , *<' <+0 B*4& X, 59.== /040/= . B.4=

,/B ,/ 9*:040== =, </0' .= +*= =?008+' .4' .= 0 8,4=*0/

0.</0 .4 8,B?,=*<*,4 *4 . B.4' =, ,/= *4 9.45.50& S,B0B04 ./0 <.99 .4 E*5' =, =,B0 9.45.50 *= +*5+ .4 5/0.<& P+04

<+0 ,/= ./0 8+,=04' <+0 =,4 .B?90' <+0 8,B?,=*<*,4 99' .99

5/.80' =*40 !-$&$"#614 .4 =</,45& S,B0 ./0 9*<<90 .4

./=; =, , =?008+' *< *= +BE90 .4 9,; <+0 ,/= ./0 ?,,/

.4 9.<; <+0 B0BE0/= ./0 ?0/*,= <+*4 .4 0.:' *<+,< :4*<<*45

(свя$") ,/ 4BE0/&

[owadays an essay is usually a ind of feature article (те-

!тическ!я ст!т"я) in a magaHine or newspaper. It is

characteriHed by clarity and brevity of expression, by the use of

the first person singular, by expanded use of connecting words

!to express clearly all the logical relations in the development of

thought4, and abundant use of emotionally coloured words, of

metaphors and other figures of speech.

8e5s!a!er Speech

Fnglish newspaper writing dates from the 8?' century. Girst

newspapers carried only news, without comments, as

commenting was considered to be against the principles of

Lournalism. Jy the 8lh century newspaper language was

recognised as a particular variety of style, characteriHed by a

specific communicative purpose and its own system of language

means.

5he content of newspaper material is fairly diverse, itcomprises news and commentary on the news, press reports and

articles, advertisements and official announcements, as well as

short stories and poems, crossword puHHles and other such lie

material for entertainment of the reader.

24

[ewspaper style includes a system of interrelated lexical,

phraseological and grammatical means serving the purpose of

informing, instructing, and, in addition, of entertaining the

reader. As a result of this diversity of purposes, newspapers

contain not only strictly informational, but also evaluative

material — comments and views of the news%writer !esecially

characteristic of editorials and feature articles4.

As the newspaper sees to influence public opinion onvarious social, political or moral matters, its language freCuentlycontains vocabulary with evaluative connotation, such as <,.99050 (<+0?0/=,4 +, .990509 8,BB*<<0 <+0 8/*B0)' or <, 89.*B(<+0 004.4< 89.*B= <, :4, 4,<+*45 .E,< *<)' which cast somedoubt on what is stated further and mae it clear to the reader that those are not yet affirmed facts. A similar idea is expressed

by special grammar structures, e.g. P+0 B.4 *= =.* <, +.D0 <.:04 ?./< *4 <+0 ..*/' or P+0 8+*0 , <+0 ?,9*80 *= U,<0 .= =.*45&&&

Fvaluation can be included in the headlines of news items(Z,D0/4B04< 5,*45 E.8: ,4 *<= ,4 ?/,B*=0=) and in thecommentary on the news, in feature articles, in leading articles

!editorials4, where emotionally coloured vocabulary is widelyemployed. 5he characteristics mentioned are common todifferent genres of publicist style. [evertheless, the informativecontent generally prevails in newspaper material as comparedwith purely publicist or oratory wors.

En the whole we may single out the following features

ty!ical of ne5s!a!er style:

in oca1ulary — the use of special political or economicterminology (8,4=<*<<*,4.9' 0908<*,4' Z040/.9 A==0BE9 , <+0 eX'

5/,== ,<?<' ?0/ 8.?*<. ?/,8<*,4)H

the use of lofty, booish vocabulary, including certain cliches

(?,?9.<*,4' ?E9*8 ,?*4*,4' . 4.<*,4-*0 8/*=*=' 8/8*.9C?/0==*45

?/,E90B=' /0?/0=04<.<*D0 D,<*45)' which may be based onmetaphors and thus emotionally colouredB ./ +=<0/*.'

0=8.9.<*,4 , ./' ,D0/+09B*45 B.K,/*<' =<,/B .??9.=0C. =<,/B

, .??9.=0' 8.?<.*4= , *4=</' ?*99./= , =,8*0< (столп%)' <+0

E9./: , 8*D*9*`.<*,4 (оплот; букв' б!стион)&

2



freCuent use of abbreviations — names of organiHations, political movements, etc.B eX (e4*<0 X.<*,4= i/5.4*`.<*,4)' XAPi MX,/<+ A<9.4<*8 P/0.< i/5.4*`.<*,4)' NNF (N/,?0.4 N8,4,B*8 F,BB4*<)' ef( P+0 e4*<0 f*45,B , Z/0.< V/*<.*4.4 X,/<+0/4 O/09.4)' hi (h,/0*54 i*80)' \] (\/*B0-B*4*=<0/)' ]\ (B0BE0/ , \./9*.B04<)' etc.

the use of neologisms, since newspapers Cuicly react toany new trends in the development of society, technology,science and so onB =?<4*:' . <0.8+-*4 (<+0 ,/B , 8.B?.*54*45 <+/,5+ +0.<0 ?,9*<*8.9 *=8==*,4=)' E9.8: AB0/*8.4=CA/,-

AB0/*8.4= ! X05/,0=)' W.<*4 AB0/*8.4= (0B*5/.4<= /,B S,<+ AB0/*8.)' /,4<-9.=+ (. D*5,/,= .4<*-/.8*=< B,D0B04<)' =<,?-5, ?,9*<*8= (J *408*=*D0 ?,9*8*0=)' . =+,8: .44,480B04<' <, ,/: 9.< ,<(J <, ,/: D0/ +./)' . /,=< /080?<*,4&

in grammar — the use of complete simple sentences, of complex and compound sentences, often extended by a number of clausesB

P+0 S08/0<./ <, <+0 P/0.=/ =.* +0 +. E004 .=:0 +.< .= B0.4< E <+0 =<.<0B04< *4 <+0 S?008+ <+.< <+0 ?,=*<*,4 , ./

?04=*,40/= ,9 E0 :0?< 40/ 89,=0 /0D*0&En the other hand, in newspaper headlines we find ellipticalsentences, with the finite verb omitted or replaced by a non%finite form, and the grammatical articles also often omittedB

\/*80 /*=0 0Q?08<0 (JA /*=0 *4 ?/*80= *= 0Q?08<0); Y*<40==0= =*904< *4 8,/< ! P+0 *<40==0= ./0 =*904< /*45 <+0 8,/< </*.9); \/*B0 ]*4*=<0/ ,4 40 <.Q ! Y+.< <+0 \/*B0 ]*4*=<0/ =.* .E,< <+0 40 <.Q)&

Part3

Expressive Means of Language

Stylistic Devices!

As expressive means, language uses various stylistic devices

which mae use either of the meaning or of the structure of

language units.

2

STKCISTI! G"$I!"S L,MINJ S" O T" L",NINJ

O C,NJ,J" NITS /IJ"S O SP""!+

5he term Gigures of speech !U$*26 23$, #2P6, k2(7%

06 "2+"#/(4 is freCuently used for stylistic devices that mae

use of a figurative meaning of the language elements and thus

create a vivid image (обр!$)&

Letaphor /Q@097+

:etaphor denotes a transference of meaning based on

resemblance (перенос' основ!нн%й н! сходстве)' in other

words, on a covert (скр%тое) comparisonB

0 *= 4,< . B.4' +0 *= K=< . B.8+*40; Y+.< .4 .== , ./0G;

<+0 8+*9+,, , B.4:*4; <+0 ,5= , ./' . *9B =<./&

[ot only obLects can be compared in a metaphor, but also phenomena, actions or CualitiesB S,B0 E,,:= ./0 <, E0 <.=<0',<+0/= =.99,0' .4=,B0 0 <, 8+00.4*50=<0 !G. Jacon4

?*<*90== 8,9; 8/09 +0.<; D*/5*4 =,*9; . </0.8+0/,= 8.9B&:etaphors may be simple, when expressed by a word or

phrase (].4 8.44,< 9*D0 E E/0. .9,40 J E <+*45= =.<*=*45 ,49 +*= ?+=*8.9 400=)' and complex !prolonged, or sustained,сложн!я ет!фор!)' when a broader context is reCuired tounderstand it, or when the metaphor includes more than oneelement of the text cf. the metaphoric representation of a cityas a powerful and dangerous machine in the example belowB

P+0 .D0/.50 X0 [,/:0/ *= 8.5+< *4 . B.8+*40& 0 +*/9=.9,45' +0 *= *``' +0 *= +09?90==& O +0 /0=*=<=' <+0 B.8+*40 *99 8/=+ +*B <, ?*080=& !M. Gran4

... <+0 =8040 , B.4' A B*5+< B.`0' E< 4,< *<+,< . ?9.4; A *9' +0/0 00= .4 9,0/= ?/,B*=8,= =+,,<;

A 5./04 <0B?<*45 *<+ ,/E*04 /*<& ...!A. ]ope4A trite metaphor (стер7!яся ет!фор!) is one that is

overused in speech, so that it has lost its freshness of expression.Such metaphors often tu rn into idiomatic phrases!phraseological expressions4 that are fixed in dictionariesB =00=

2)



, 0D*9' . /,,<0 ?/0K*80' . 9*5+< , *B.5*4.<*,4' *4 <+0 +0.< ,

./5B04<' <, E/4 *<+ 0=*/0' <, *=+ ,/ 8,B?9*B04<=' <, ?/*8:

,40= 0./=

Simile (сравнение)

5his is a comparison creating a vivid image due to the factthat the obLect with which we compare is well%nown as an

example of the Cuality in Cuestion. 5he characteristic itself may be named in the simile, e.g. when the conLunction ?as? is usedB!.=) E0.<*9 .= . /,=0; =<?* .= .4 .==; =<EE,/4 .= . B90; /0=+.= . /,=0; .< .= . ?*5; +*<0 .= =4,; ?/, .= . ?0.8,8:; /4: .= . 9,/& Such similes often turn into clic"es& In some idiomaticsimiles the image is already impossible to distinguishB as 0. .= . ,,/4.*9' .= <+*8: .= <+*0D0=&

5he characteristic on the basis of which the comparison ismade, may only be implied, not named, as when the preposition?lie? is usedB <, /*4: lie a fis! ! D0/ B8+);

i+' B 9,D0 *= lie a red, red rose

P+.<= 409 =?/45 *4 b40& !Jurns4

^*=0 lie lions .<0/ =9BE0/' *4 4D.4U*=+*E90 4BE0/'S+.:0 ,/ 8+.*4= <, 0./<+' lie de"P+.< *4 =900? +. .9904 ,4 ,&Y0 ./0 B.4' <+0 ./0 0& !Shelly4.Similes may contain no special connector expressing

comparison, as inB S+0 89*BE0 *<+ <+0 U*8:40== , . 8.<; 0/0B*40 B0 , . +45/ 8.<&

Nomparative constructions are not regarded as simile if noimage is created, viH., when the obLect with which something iscompared, is not accepted as a generally nown example of theCualityB b,+4 =:.<0= .= E0.<*99 .= f.<0 ,0=; S+0 *= 4,< =, 890D0/ .= +0/ E/,<+0/' b,+4 *= D0/ B8+ 9*:0 +*= E/,<+0/&

[ote that, unlie a simile, a metaphor contains a covert !notexpressed openly4 comparison, which is already included in thefigurative meaning of a wordB cf. a metaphor in Y+.< .4 .== +0Dwith the simile 0 *= =<?* .= .4 .==& :etaphors are usuallymore expressive and more emotionally coloured

=9

than similes Lust because they do not express the comparisonopenly.

Letonymy /Q@986+

:etonymy denotes a transference of meaning which is

based on contiguity of notions (перепое' основ!нн%й н! сеж-

ности понятий' явлений)' not on resemblance. In cases of

metonymy, the name of one obLect is used instead of another,closely connected with it. 5his may includeB

8. 5he name of a part instead of the name of a whole

!synecdoche, синекдох!)H

#as!ington .4 $ondon ! eSA .4 ef) .5/00 ,4 B,=<

*==0=; 0 .= ,99,0 *4<, <+0 /,,B E a %air of !eavy &oots !

E . B.4 *4 +0.D E,,<=); 8& <+0 ^==*.4H Lj!' д! L' ответили

р%жие п!нт!лон% (kехов)& In a similar way, the word 8/,4

(<, *5+< ,/ <+0 8/,4) may denote ?the royal powerDthe ing?

the word 8,9,/= in the phrase <, 004 <+0 8,9,/= , . =8+,,9

denotes the organiHation itself.

=. 5he name of a container instead of the contentsB 0 /.4: . +,90 glass , +*=:0 (J /.4: <+0 9*U*

8,4<.*40 *4 . 59.==)& 5his is such a freCuent type of transference

of meaning in the language system that in many cases !lie the

latter example4, it is not perceived as a stylistic device.

Sometimes, however, the stylistic use of this change of meaning

can be still felt, and then it is perceived as a figure of speechB

P+0 +,90 to"n .= ,< *4 <+0 =</00<= (J <+0 ?0,?90 , <+0 <,4)&

K. 5he name of a characteristic feature of an obLect instead

of the obLectB

P+0 B.==.8/0 , <+0 innocents (J 8+*9/04; this biblical phrase

is related to the illing of ewish male children by ing <erod

in Jethlehem4.. 5he name of an instrument instead of an action or the

doer of an actionB

All they that tae the sword, shall perish with the s5or* !

war, fighting4.

-iiis 2*



;et us turn swords into ploughs ! ;et us replace fighting by

peaceful wor 2*Q Q3$ 0( 2(&(4.

Re&#ma /:Q<;A F7+

5his is a stylistic device that plays upon two differentmeanings of the word — the direct and the figurative meanings,thus creating a pun (и#р! слов)& 5he effect comes from the use

of a word in the same formal !grammatical4 relations, but indifferent semantic relations with the surrounding words in the

phrase or sentence, due to the simultaneous realiHation !in onetext4 of the literal and figurative meaning of a wordB

A 90,?./ 8+.450= +*= =?,<=' .= ,<04 .= +0 5,0= /,B ,40 =?,< <, .4,<+0/ (=?,< J 8. PV#0 =. Q"#4.

R,/. ?9450 .< ,480 *4<, ?/*D*9050 *4<*B.8 .4 *4<, <+0B*90 , <+0 /,,B& !Shaw4

S+0 ?,==0==0 <, .9=0 <00<+ .4 . =B?.<+0<*8 +0./<& !E.

<enry4S+0 /,??0 . <0./ .4 +0/ ?,8:0< +.4:0/8+*0& !icens4

A< 4,,4 ]/=& P/?*4 ,9 50< ,< , E0 .4 +B,/' ?< ,4

:*B,4,' .*/=' .4 .<0/ <, E,*9 ,/ 8,00& !E. <enry45he title of E. Milde's comedy P+0 *B?,/<.480 , E0*45

N./40=< plays upon the fact that the word 0./40=< ! serious4and the male name N/40=< sound in the same wayB one of thefemale characters in the play wished to marry a man with thename of Frnest, as it seemed to her to guarantee his seriousintentions.

A similar effect may result from the decomposition of a set% phrase, when the direct and figurative meanings of the wordswithin the set%phrase are realised at the same timeB

].= B,<+0/ .9.= =<,, ,4 +0/ 504<*9*<' .4 R,<= B,<+0/ 40D0/ =<,, ,4 .4<+*45 E< +0/ .8<*D0 9*<<90 00<& !icens4

' Y+04 V*=+,? V0/:90 =.*H <+0/0 *= 4, B.<<0/ A4 ?/,D0*< > *< .= 4, B.<<0/ +.< +0 =.*& !Jyron4Ene of the characters of I . Narrol's boo 'Alice in

Monderland' is called ],8: P/<90 (l!л"7ив!я череп!х!); thisname has been coined from the phrase ?moc turtle soup? (супи$ телятин%' +"&/0 — ( k6 32P($1 "*P4.

3I

Ene more example of Heugma !or decomposition of a set% phrase4 is represented in the humorous story about two duellistswho fired at each other and both missed, so when one of theseconds said, after the duel, '[ow, please, shae your hands',the other answered '5here is no need for that. 5heir hands musthave been shaing since morning'.

OUymoron /9F?V9798+

5his is a device which combines, in one phrase, two words!usuallyB noun adLective4 whose meanings are opposite andincompatible (несовести%)H

. 9*D*45 8,/?=0; =00< =,//,; . 4*80 /.=8.9; .99 (<0//*E9)4*80; . 0.04*45 =*90480; . 9, =:=8/.?0/&

yper%ole and Citotes

5hese are stylistic devices aimed at intensification of meaning. <yperbole (#ипербол!' преувеличение) denotes adeliberate extreme exaggeration of the Cuality of the obLectB 0.= =, <.99 <+.< O .= 4,< =/0 +0 +. . .80& (i& 04/); A99 <+0

?0/B0= , A/.E*. *99 4,< =00<04 <+*= 9*<<90 +.4& !Shaespeare4. 8./ .= E*5 .= . +,=0; <+0 B.4-B,4<.*4 (человек-#ор!' mул-

ливер); . <+,=.4 ?./,4=; OD0 <,9 , . B*99*,4 <*B0=; 0 .= =8./0 <, 0.<+; O 5*D0 .4<+*45 <, =00 *<&

;itotes !understatement &$##(, P2*Q0T0$4 is adevice based on a peculiar use of negative constructions in the

positive meaning, so that, on the face of it, the Cuality seems to be underestimated !diminished4, but in fact it is shown assomething very positive or intensifiedB X,< E. (J D0/ 5,,);

0 *= 4, 8,./ ! D0/ E/.D0); O< .= 4, 0.= <.=: (J D0/**89<); P+0/0 ./0 4,< . 0 ?0,?90 +, <+*4: =, ( J D0/ B.4);

O .= 4,< . 9*<<90 =/?/*=0 (J D0/ B8+ =/?/*=0); O< .= ,40

4,< *<+,< <.=<0 (J *4 D0/ 5,, <.=<0)&

"pithet (эпитет)

5his is a word or phrase containing an expressive

characteristic of the obLect, based on some metaphor and thus

K8



creating an imageBn dreamy, gloomy, friendly </00=G !5rench4

[ote that in phrases lie .4 */,4 (=*9D0/) =?,,4' the adLectiveis Lust a grammatical attribute to noun, not an epithet, as nofigurative meaning is implied on the other hand, in . B.4 , */,4 *99 <+0 adLective is already an epithet, as this is an expressivedescription, based on covert comparison !metaphor4.

An epithet may be used in the sentence as an attributeB .

=*9D0/ 9.5+; . <+/*99*45 =<,/C*9B; A90Q.40/ <+0 Z/0.<; . 8<<*45 =B*90 (н!се7лив!я' едк!я), or as an adverbial modifierB <, =B*908<<*459& It may also be expressed by a syntactic construction!a syntactic epithet4B b=< a g!ost of a =B*90 .??0./0 ,4 +*= .80;

=+0 *= a doll of a &a&y' . 9*<<90 B.4 *<+ . aynot!ingtome, or

* +ll contradict you 0Q?/0==*,4 ,4 +*= .80&Gixed epithets (устойчив%е) are often found in folloreB

B </0 9,D0; . =00< +0./<; <+0 5/004 ,,; . ./: ,/0=<; E/.D08.D.9*0/=; B0// ,9 N459.4&

Periphrasis /WQ707:A WQ707:+

5his is a device by which a longer phrase is used instead of a shorter and plainer one it is a case of circumlocution !a round%about way of description4, which is used in literary descriptionsfor greater expressivenessB

P+0 9*<<90 E, +.= E004 0?/*D0 , +.< 8.4 40D0/ E0 /0?9.80 !icens4 ! deprived of his mother4

A4 .*<*,4 <, <+0 9*<< 90 ?./< 4, B.0 *<= .??0./.480 (J

another person came in4.5he notion of :*45 may be poetically represented as <+0

?/,<08<,/ , 0./9=; <+0 D*8<,/ 9,/; <+0 5*D0/ , 9.4=; a E.<<90 may be called . ?9. , =,/=; a =.90 J . E.<<90-=0.<; . =,9*0/ . =+*09-E0./0/' Z, J i/ W,/' A9B*5+<' Z,,40==' 0.D04='

<+0 S:*0=&]eriphrasis .may have a poetic colouringB. ?04=*D0 ./E90/ , <+0 / E/0.=< ! a bullfinch, сне#ир"H

A. ]ope4 P+0 =*5+<90== 8,/*0/= , <+0 .*/ ! the windsBShaespeare4,

32

or a humorous colouringB . *=</E0/ , <+0 ?*.4, :0= (J a pianist E. <enry4.

,ntonomasia /8@989?6A WQ7QQ89<8Q+

5his device consists in the use of a proper name instead of a

common name or vice versa. 5hus, we may use a description

instead of a person's name, creating a ind of nicnameB ]*=<0/

f4,-.99 (. 8+./.8<0/ , S& ].5+.B); ]*== P,.' ]*== S+./?(Y&P+.8:0/.); ]/& ]/=<,40 (F+&R*8:04=)& En the other

hand, a proper name may be used instead of a common nameB

0 *= <+0 X.?,90,4 , 8/*B0 ! a genius in crime as great as

[apoleon was in wars4 [, ./0 . /0.9 F*80/, ! a great orator,

reminding of Nicero4 o+.D0 . ^0BE/.4< .< +,B0 ( J a picture

by Rembrandt4 0 9,,:0 .< +*B=09 *4 <+0 59.==& 0/0' <+04'

.= . B,0/4 0/890= > D0/ *=<*48< /,B <+.< 4?90.=.4< 4.:0

*5/0 *<+ ?904< , B=890=' E/.4*=+*45 . 89E& (A& F+/*=<*0)

(J a man who is lie this hero of ancient ree myths4.

As we can see, on the one hand, antonomasia is a subtype

of periphrasis, on the other, it is a subtype of metonymy.

"&phemisms /X<0Q:=+

5his term denotes the use of a different, more gentle or favourable name for an obLect or phenomenon so as to avoidundesirable or unpleasant associations. 5hus, the verb <, *0may be replaced by euphemisms lie <, 0Q?*/0' <, E0 4, B,/0' <,

K,*4 <+0 B.K,/*<' <, E05,40' <, 0?./<; . B.+,=0 may be called. 94.<*8 .=9B or . B04<.9 +,=?*<.9; euphemisms for <,*90<'9.D.<,/ are 9.*0=(B04=) /,,B; /0=<-/,,B; E.<+/,,B&

Fuphemistic expressions may have the structure of asentenceB

F+*4. *= . 8,4</ +0/0 , ,<04 50< *0/04< .88,4<= , <+0 =.B0 <+*45 (J where many lies are told4 !from ;ordSalisbury's Speech4.

5here are euphemisms replacing taboo%words !taboos4, i.e.words forbidden in use in a communityB P+0 \/*480 , ./:40==

33



or P+0 ND*9 i40 (J<+0 R0D*9); <+0 :*45,B , ./:40== or <+0 ?9.80 , 4, /0</4 ! 099)&

,lle#ory /Q;976+ and Personification

/9YQ@<97Q8Q+

Allegory is a device by which the names of obLects or characters of a story are used in a figurative sense, representing

some more general things, good or bad Cualities. 5his is oftenfound in fables Mб!сни) and parables Mпритчи)& It is also a typicalfeature of proverbs, which contain generaliHations !express somegeneral moral truths4B A99 *= 4,< 5,9 <+.< 59*<<0/= MJ impressivewords or people are not always really so good as they seem4

ND0/ 89, +.= . =*9D0/ 9*4*45 MJ even in bad situations we mayfind positive elements4 P+0/0 *= 4, /,=0 *<+,< . <+,/4 ! thereare always disadvantages in the choice that we mae4 ].:0 <+0+. +*90 <+0 =4 =+*40= ! hurry to achieve your aim while thereis a suitable situation4.

As a subtype of allegory we distinguish Dersonification, bywhich human Cualities are ascribed to inanimate obLects,

phenomena or animalsBX, =900? <*99 B,/4' +04 [,<+ .4 \90.=/0 B00< P, 8+.=0 <+0 59,*45 ,/= *<+ 9*4500& !Jyron4S*904<' 9*:0 =,//,*45 8+*9/04' <+0 E*/= +.D0 80.=0 <+0*/ =,45

&&&<+0 *45 . E/0.<+0= ,< !er 9.=<&&& .4 X*5+<' ?,4 +0/ =,BE/0<+/,40' ,9= !er E9.8: *45= .E,D0 <+0 ./:04*45 ,/9' .4' /,B

!er ?+.4<,B ?.9.80' 9*< E <+0 ?.90 =<./=' /0*54= *4 =<*9940==&

!erome4.

In the well%nown poemBP*4:90' 9*<<90 =<./G

, O ,40/ +.< , ./0G&&&a star is represented as if it were a living being whom the

author addresses.In poetry, fables, etc., personification is often represented

grammatically by the choice of masculine or feminine pronounsfor the names of animals, inanimate obLects or forces of nature.5he pronoun 0 is used for <+0 S4' <+0 Y*4' for the names of

34

any animals that act lie human beings in the tale !P+0 F.< +,

.9:0 E +*B=09)' forstrong, active phenomena (R0.<+' i80.4&

^*D0/) or feelings (h0./' W,D0)& 5he pronoun S+0 is used for

what is regarded as rather gentle (<+0 ],,4' X.</0' S*90480'

V0.<' ,?0' ]0/8H cf. h.*/ S8*0480 /,40 4,< ,4 +*= +BE90

E*/<+' V< ]09.48+,9 B./:0 +*B ,/ +0/ ,4 — ray4 or in

some way woman%lie !in Aesop's fable about P+0 F/, .4

<+0 h,Q' the pronoun S+0 is used for <+0 F/,' whose behaviour

is coCuettish and light%minded, whereas 0 is used for <+0 h,Q)&

,ll&sion /V:6+

5his is indirect reference to !a hint at4 some historical or literary fact !or personage4 expressed in the text. Allusion

presupposes the nowledge of such a fact on the part of thereader or listener, so no particular explanation is given !althoughthis is sometimes really needed4. @ery often the interpretationof the fact or person alluded to is generalised or even symbolised.See the following examplesB

0/= .= . ,/809 89./*< .4 . 8,9,/9 =*B?9*8*< .4 . E,9

=0 , B0<.?+,/ <+.< R0B,=?+040= ,9 +.D0 04D*0& !Gaulner4!allusion to the widely%nown ancient ree orator4.

0 09< .= -alaam B=< 5.D0 09< +04 +*= .== E/,:0 *4<, =?008+!:augham4 !allusion to the biblical parable of an ass that spoethe human language when its master, the heathen prophetJalaam, intended to punish it4.

In J. Shaw's play ?]ygmalion?, the following remar of :r.<iggins ? N9*`.H , ./0 .4 **,<& O .=<0 <+0 </0.=/0= , B

.i/tonic B*4 E =?/0.*45 <+0B E0,/0 , alludes to the Fnglish poet of the 8?' century ohn :ilton, the author of the poem?]aradise ;ost? apart from that, the words =?/0.*45 <+0</0.=/0= , B B*4 E0,/0 , contain an allusion to the biblical

expression <, 8.=< ?0./9= E0,/0 =*40 Mет!т" бисер перед сви-н"яи)& In A. Nhristie's boo ol'stories' !e $a&ours of 0ercules

the name of the famous detective <ercule ]oirot is an allusion tothe name of 0/890= and the twelve heroic deeds !labours4 of this hero of the ancient ree myths.

3



Irony

Irony, lie the stylistic device of Heugma, is based on the

simultaneous realisation of two opposite meaningsB the

permanent, ?direct? meaning !the dictionary meaning4 of words

and their contextual !covert, implied4 meaning. Osually the

direct meaning in such cases expresses a positive evaluation of

the situation, while the context contains the opposite, negative

evaluationB , 09*5+<9 > <, *4 ,/=09 *4 . ,/0*54 8,4</ *<+,<

. ?044 *4 ,/ ?,8:0<G

A/04 < , . +0/, — /44*45 .. /,B . B,=0G

O 9*:0 . ?./9*.B04<./ 0E.<0'

\./<*89./9 +04 *< *= 4,< <,, 9.<0& !Jyron4

P+0 ,9 A99*.480 (^==*.' \/==*.' A=</*.) .= B*40 <,

=</0<8+ <+0 ./B , *<= F+/*=<*.4 8+./*< .8/,== <+0 A<9.4<*8 .4 ?<

/0?E9*8.4*=B ,4 *4 <+0 0=<0/4 +0B*=?+0/0 .= 099 .= *4 *<=

,4& !oldwin Smith4.

O , 4,< 8,4=9< ?+=*8*.4=' ,/ O +,?0 <, *0 *<+,< <+0*/ +09?&

!M. 5emple4.

hetorical Z&estions

<aving the form of an interrogative sentence, a rhetoricalCuestion contains not a Cuestion but a covert statement of theoppositeB Y+, ,0= 4,< :4, S+.:0=?0./06 !the implication isL0D0/E, :4,= L); O= <+0/0 4,< E9,, 04,5+ &&& <+.< B,/0 B=< E0 ?,/0 ,/<+ 6 !Jyron4 ! <+0/0 80/<.*49 *= 04,5+ E9,,)& P+*=:*45' S+.:0=?0./0' ,0= 4,< +0 =+*40 ,D0/ = .99' .= <+0 4,E90=<'

504<90=<' 0< =</,450=<' *40=</8<*E906 !Narlyle4 ! +0 80/<.*49,0=)&

5he most common structural type of rhetorical Cuestion is a

negative%interrogative sentence, as in the examples above. Jut itmay also be without an open negationB F.4 <+0 N<+*,?*.48+.450 +*= =:*4' ,/ <+0 90,?./ +*= =?,<=6 !a phrase from ?5heEld 5estament?4 !the implication is that they cannot4 h,/ +,+.= =*5+< =, =*< .4 =</,45' P+.< *< 8.4 ,99, <+0 9*5+< , . =,45 6

3

! W,45099,) ! nobody has4. Y+.< E=*40== *= *< , ,/= \!Shaw4

! it is none of your business4.

Since the implied statement is opposite to what is openly

ased, a rhetorical Cuestion may contain ironyB S*480 +04 ./0

, *4<0/0=<0 *4 =8+ <+*45=6 (J I doubt that you are really

interested in them4 D 40D0/ =00 +*B ,*45 .4 ,/: <+0/0... Y+

8.4< +0 ,/:6 Y+.< =0 *= +0 <+0/06&& !erome4 ! he certainly

ought to wor, he is no use here4.

STKCISTI! G"$I!"S L,MINJ S" O

T" ST!T" O C,NJ,J" NITS

epetition /W9<@97+

Ee'ical re!etition is often used to increase the degree of emotionBi+' X,' b,+4' X,' b,+4' X,' b,+4' X,G((тот a fol song4 A4 9*:0 . /.< *<+,< . <.*9' P*9 ,' O99 ,' O99 ,& !Shaespeare4

A9,40' .9,40' .99' .99 .9,40' A9,40 ,4 . *0' *0 =0.& !Noleridge4

5he repetition of the same elements at the beginning of several sentences is called ana!"ora:

S+,9 .9 .8U.*4<.480 E0 ,/5,< A4 40D0/ E/,5+< <, B*46S+,9 .9 .8U.*4<.480 E0 ,/5,<

A4 .= , .9 9.45 =40 6 ( Jurns45he repetition of the same elements at the end of several

sentences is called e!i!"ora:

D .B 0Q.8<9 <+0 B.4 <, E0 ?9.80 *4 . =?0/*,/ ?,=*<*,4 *4 =8+ . 8.=0 .= t!at1 9.B .E,D0 <+0 /0=< , B.4:*4' *4 suc! a 8.=0.= t!at1 O 8.4 .8< *<+ ?+*9,=,?+ *4 =8+ . 8.=0 .= t!at1 !icens4

5he term @yntactic re!etition refers to repetition of syntactic

elements or constructions. 5his may include syntactic tautology!"$0#("$3"(V #(/#&$V4, such as, for example, therepetition of the subLect of a sentence, which is typical of FnglishfolloreB

3)



W*<<90 ]*== ]0< S+0 =./ ,4 . <0<& ! X/=0/ /+B0).4 .9=, , 9.<0/ =<9*=.<*,4= , <+0 E.99. 8+./.8<0/H

N9904 A.*/ =+0 9,D0 B0 099' A5.*4=< +0/ .<+0/= .4 B,<+0/= *99& (P044*=,4)

P+0 =:*??0/ +0 E90 . +* /,B +*= ?*?0 A4 . =8,/49 9.5+ 9.5+0 +0& !;ongfellow4

Syntactic tautology may be used in literary wors torepresent the speech of a person of little educationB Y099' b50

P+.<8+0/' +0 <,,: *<& ...!:. 5wain4 Repetition of the subLectmay also be combined with giving

it some more specific additional informationBS+0 +.= 0D09,?0 ?,0/' <+*= ,B.4 > <+*= > *0 , +*=G

!alsworthy4i+' *<= . *40 9*0' <+0 9*0 , <+0 5<<0/& !Shaw4A special variant of syntactic repetition is syntactic

!arallelis, which means repetition of similar syntacticconstructions in the text in order to strengthen the emotionalimpact or expressiveness of the descriptionB P+0 =00= 0 =,

— .4,<+0/ /0.?=' P+0 /,E0= 0 0.D0 — .4,<+0/ 0./='P+0 ./B= 0 ,/50 — .4,<+0/ E0./=& !Shelley4 h0 , <+0B*99 /0</4 <, <+0*/ 8,4</*0=; <+0 *99 4,< 0BE/.80

,/ +,9 /09*5*,4; <+0 *99 4,< .,?< ,/ B.440/=& !J. Granlin4P+0/0 0/0 /0.9 =*9D0/ =?,,4= <, =<*/ <+0 <0. *<+' .4 /0.9 8+*4.

8?= <, /*4: *< ,< ,' .4 ?9.<0= , <+0 =.B0 <, +,9 <+0 8.:0=&!icens4

!hiasm&s /[:+

5his term denotes repetition of the same structure but withthe opposite order of elements !a reversed version of syntactic

parallelism4B

R,4 /,??0 <+0 E/00`0'P+0 =.*9= /,??0 ,4& !Noleridge4

O4 <+0 .= , ,9 B04 B.0 <+0 B.440/=; ].440/= 4, B.:0 B04& !Jyron4

K9

P+0 с 9,-9*:0 /,8:=' <+0 /,8:-9*:0 89,= R*==,9D0 *4 59,/ 9,.<& !;ongfellow4P+0 =0. *= E< .4,<+0/ =:' P+0 =: . =0..= 099 !ibid4

!limaU /#radationA градация) and ,nticlimaU

Nlimax is repetition !lexical or syntactic4 of elements of the

sentence, which is combined with gradual increase in the degreeof some Cuality or in Cuantity, or in the emotional colouring of

the sentenceB

A =B*90 ,9 8,B0 *4<, ]/& \*8:*8:= .80H <+0 =B*900Q<040 *4<, . 9.5+H <+0 9.5+ *4<, . /,./' .4 <+0 /,./ E08.B0

5040/.9& !icens4 R,,9*<<90& OD0 4, +,9 ,4 +0/& O 5,< <, E0 .5/00.E90 <, +0/& 1 5,<

<, 5*D0 +0/ ?/0=04<=& O 5,< <, E +0/ 89,<+0=&&& OB . =9.D0 <, <+.< ,B.4& !Shaw4

0 .= pleased +04 <+0 8+*9 E05.4 <, .D04</0 .8/,== 9,,/=,4 +.4 .4 :400=; +0 .= 5/.<**0' +04 =+0 B.4.50 <+0 </*8: , E.9.48*45 +0/=09 ,4 <, 905=; +0 .= 09*5+<0 +04 =+0 */=<

=.* <.-<.; .4 +0 .= /0K,*80 +04 =+0 /08,54*=0 +*B .4 =B*90 .< +*B& !]aton4

P+0 9,,:0 .< +4/0= , +,=0=; <+0 89*BE0 <+,=.4= , =<.*/=; <+0 *4=?08<0 *44B0/.E90 :*<8+04=& !:augham4

5he opposite device is called anticlia', in which case thefinal element is obviously weaer in degree, or lower in statusthan the previous it usually creates a humorous effectB

]=*8 B.:0= ,40 009 =, /,B.4<*8 — .< 90.=< *< 50<= ,4 ,40=40/D0=' +*8+ *= <+0 =.B0 <+*45 4,..=& !Milde4

\0,?90 <+.< +.D0 </*0 *< <099 B0 <+.< . 890.4 8,4=8*0480 B.:0= , D0/ +.?? .4 8,4<04<0& V< . 99 =<,B.8+ ,0= <+0 <+*45 K=< .= 099& !erome4

R,,9*<<90H OB . <+*4:*45 B.4 .4 5.B0 ,/ ?,9*<*8= ,/ /09*5*,4,/ =,8*.9 /0,/B' =.B0 .= .99 <+0 ,<+0/ .B=0B04<=& !Shaw4

P+0 .<,8/.< , ^==*. ?,==0==0= B,/0 ?,0/ <+.4 .4 ,<+0/ B.4 ,4 0./<+' E< +0 8.44,< =<,? . =400`0& !:. 5wain4

3*



P+*= ./-9*:0 =?008+' /080*D0 *<+ B.4 . 8+00/& . *990 <+0B *<+ 0=*/0 , .B0' .4 E00/& ( Jyron4

Stylistic In\ersion

Jy inversion is meant an unusual order of words chosen for emphasis greater expressiveness. 5he notion of stylistic inversionis broader than the notion of inversion in grammar, where it

generally relates only to the position of subLect and predicate.5hus, in stylistics it may include the postposition of an adLectivein an attributive phraseB

A*0' .*0G ] 4.<*D0 =+,/0

h.0= о 0/ <+0 .<0/= E90& !Jyron4 A ?.==*,4.<0 E.99. 5.99.4< .4 5.&&&& !A. 5ennyson4;ittle 1oy 1lue,

F,B0 E9, ,/ +,/4 ![ursery rhyme4

It may also refer to a change in the standard position of allother members of the sentence !SubLect — ]redicate — EbLect4.5hus, in poetic language secondary members !obLect, adverbialmodifier4 may stand before the main membersB

[,4 =4 <+.< =0<= ?,4 <+0 =0.Y0 ,99, *4 +*= 9*5+<& !Jyron4P+0 =0. *= E< .4,<+0/ =:'P+0 =: . =0. .= 099'

A4 +*8+ *= 0./<+ .4 +*8+ *= +0.D04'P+0 00 8.4 =8./809 <099G !;ongfellow4

A< ,/ 00< C.99& !ryden4

As for the position of the predicate before subLect, we maydistinguish cases of 84 full inversionB

P+0 89,-9*:0 /,8:=' <+0 /,8:-9*:0 89,= R*==,9D0 *4 59,/ 9,.<' A4 B*. , <+0 /.*.4< 9,,'

.45= =*904<9 <+0 E,.<& !;ongfellow4i4 5,0= <+0 /*D0/

A4 ,< ?.=< <+0 B*99& !Stevenson4i4 <+0=0 /,.= /,B <+0 B.4.8</*45 804</0= <+0/0 B,D0

B.4 B,E*90 +,B0= ?990 E </8:=& !Steinbec4B V90==0 ./0

4

<+0 ?,,/ *4 =?*/*<H ,/ <+0*/= *= <+0 :*45,B , +0.D04& !:alhew4

=4 cases of partial inversion, usually when an adverbial

modifier, obLect or a predicative begins the sentence and only

part of the predicate comes before the subLectB

X0D0/ 8.4 </0 /08,48*90B04< 5/, +0/0 ,4= , 0.9

+.<0 +.D0 ?*0/80 =, 00?& !:ilton4 , 9*<<90 +. O /0.9*`0

<+.<' ,/ B0' 9*0 .= ,49 <+04 E05*44*45& !Nhristie4 :any sweet

little appeals *i* Fiss @"ar! aGe to him about the dishes at

dinner. !5haceray4 5erribly col* it certainly 5as& !Milde4

"llipsis

As in colloCuial speech, this device consists in omission of some parts of the sentence that are easily understood from thecontext or situation. Jut, while in colloCuial style this omissionsimply maes the speech more compact !Y+0/0 *= +06> O4 <+0

5./04)' in literary descriptions it may give the construction anadditional expressive or emotional colouring. [ote, for example, the solemn tone of the extracts below with the

predicate omittedB

A4 ,4 <+.< 8+00:' .4 о 0/ <+.< E/,'S, =,<' =, 8.9B' 0< 09,U04<'P+0 =B*90= <+.< *4' <+0 <*4<= <+.< 59,'

V< <099 , .= *4 5,,40== =?04<' A B*4 .< ?0.80 *<+ .99 E09,' A +0./< +,=0 9,D0 *= *44,804<G!Jyron4[,<+ *= 99 ,?90.=.480'

A50 *= 99 , 8./0;[,<+ 9*:0 =BB0/ B,/4'

A50 9*:0 *4<0/ 0.<+0/& !Shaespeare4

P+0 =0. *= E< .4,<+0/ =:'P+0 =: . =0. .= 099&&&& !;ongfellow4

,syndeton {асиндетон, бессоюзие)

5his is a deliberate omission of conLunctions or other

connectors between parts of the sentence. It may be used in the

4]



description of a group of events connected in timeB taing placesimultaneously or in succession in this case the absence of aconLunction may correspond to the meaning of the conLunction2an*2:

P+0/0 .= ?0.80 .B,45 <+0 4.<*,4=;

e4B,90=<0 /,D0 <+0 +4<0/=' V*9< <+0 E*/8+-8.4,0 ,/ =.*9*45'F.5+< <+0 *=+ *4 9.:0 .4 /*D0/'

S+,< <+0 00/ .4 </.??0 <+0 E0.D0/;

e4B,90=<0 ,/:0 <+0 ,B04'

].0 <+0*/ =5./ /,B <+0 B.?90'

Z.<+0/0 *9 /*80 *4 <+0 B0.,='

R/0==0 <+0 =:*4= , 00/ .4 E0.D0/& !;ongfellow4Asyndeton may also express other logical connections

between parts, thus corresponding to various connectorsBP+0/0= 4, =0 *4 <.9:*45 <, +*B' +0= ?0/08<9 **,<*8G=.*

A9*80 0=?0/.<09& !;. Narroll4 !reasonB ? 1ecauseH) O4 0D0/ =<.50 , <+0=0 ,??/0==*,4= 0 +.D0 ?0<*<*,40 ,/

/0/0== *4 <+0 B,=< +BE90 <0/B=H ,/ /0?0.<0 ?0<*<*,4= +.D0 E004

.4=0/0 ,49 E /0?0.<0 *4K/*0=& !5homas efferson4!contradictionB H1utH)[,<+ *= 99 ,?90.=.480'

A50 *= 99 , 8./0;

[,<+ 9*:0 =BB0/ B,/4'

A50 9*:0 *4<0/ 0.<+0/& !Shaespeare4 !contrastB ? 5"ereasH)

S+,9 . h/048+B.4 ,/ N459*=+B.4 </.D09 B /,<0' <+0*/ =<,/0 ?*8</0= , *< ,9 E0 *0/04< /,B B*40& !Steinbec4!conditionB HIf)

Polysyndeton {полисиндетон, многосоюзие)

5his is a device opposite to asyndetonB a repeated use of thesame connectors !conLunctions, prepositions4 before several

parts of the sentence, which increases the emotional impact of the textB

S+,9 , .=: B0' +0480 <+0=0 =<,/*0=6

#!ence <+0=0 90504= .4 </.*<*,4='

42

#it! <+0 ,,/= , <+0 ,/0=<'Y*<+ <+0 0' .4 .B? , B0.,=&

#it! <+0 8/9*45 =B,:0 , *5.B='

#it! <+0 /=+*45 , 5/0.< /*D0/='

#it! <+0*/ /0U04< /0?0<*<*,4=&&& !;ongfellow4

,ntithesis /8@@Q:A W79@<9W9?@<Q8Q+

5his denotes a structure that stresses a sharp contrast inmeaning between the parts within one sentenceB A/< *= 9,45' 9*0

*= =+,/<; i40 B.4= B0.< *= .4,<+0/ B.4= ?,*=,4; S,B0 ?0,?90

./0 *=0' =,B0 ,<+0/*=0& !J. Shaw4

A= F.0=./ 9,D0 B0' O 00? ,/ +*B; .= +0 .= ,/<4.<0' O

/0K,*80 .< *<; .= +0 .= D.9*.4<' O +,4,/ +*B; E< .= +0 .=

.BE*<*,=' O =90 +*B& P+0/0= <0./= ,/ +*= 9,D0; K, ,/ +*= ,/<40;

+,4,/ ,/ +*= D.9,/' .4 0.<+ ,/ +*= .BE*<*,4& !Shaespeare4

[,<+ *= 99 ,?90.=.480' A50 *= 99 , 8./0;[,<+ 9*:0 =BB0/ B,/4'

A50 9*:0 *4<0/ 0.<+0/ !ib.4

S&spense /etardationA ретардация, замедление)

5his is a compositional device by which the less important

part of the message is in some way separated from the main

part, and the latter is given only at the end of the sentence, so

that the reader is ept in suspense.

].4:*4' =.= . F+*40=0 B.4=8/*?<' +*8+ B /*04 .=

,E9*5*45 04,5+ <, /0. .4 0Q?9.*4 <, B0' ,/ <+0 */=< =0D04<

<+,=.4 .50= .<0 <+0*/ B0.< /.& !Nh. ;amb4

, DreaE in the Narration /,posiopesisA умолчание)5his device consists in a sudden stop in the middle of a

sentence when the continuation is Cuite clearB R,4< , ,<+*=' ,/&&& '!a threat4 P+0=0 ./0 80/<.*49 5,, *4<04<*,4=' E<&&& !the continuation is clear from the well%nown proverb that

43



good intentions pave the way to <ell4 f0*<+H ] Z,G O <+0 ?,9*80 8,B0 >*4 B0 +0/0 > !alsworthy4

epresented Speech /8Q?9?@<Q889-W766 7Q^5+

5his is the case when the speech of a character in the wor

of fiction is represented without Cuotation mars, as if it were

the author's speechB

P, +,/=0G P, +,/=0G 0 U*<=' ,/ 0D0/ U*<= A =8040 , ?0.80'<+,5+ =,,<+*45 <, +*= =,9& !Jyron4 i9 b,9*,4 .= ,4 <+0

.90/< .< ,480& Y.=4 < <+0 LB.4 , ?/,?0/< L5,*45 <, 9*D0 *4 +*=

40 +,=0' <+04 6 !alsworthy4

[ote that although represented speech resembles direct

speech, it still preserves some features of indirect !reported4

speech, such as the phenomenon of SeCuence of 5enses, which

is observed in the last example.

P"#$E%&' E(P)ESS&*E ME+$S +$D DE*&'ES

,lliteration /@Q7Y6+A

,ssonance /??988?+Alliteration is a device based on repetition of the same or

similar sounds at close distance, which maes speech moreexpressive. It is freCuently used in idiomsB

E9*4 .= . E.<; <*< ,/ <.< ( J .4 00 ,/ .4 00); <*<-E*< (л!ко- %й кусочек); (O< *=) 408: ,/ 4,<+*45 Mп!н или проп!л); E.5 .4 E.55.50; 9.=< E< 4,< 90.=<; .=<0 4,<' .4< 4,<; .= 5,, .= 5,9; .=

5/004 .= 5/.==; *99-4*99 (D,90480-4,90480); +/9-E/9 !4,*=0); <, =+*99-=+.99C<, *99-.99 ! to waste time withouttaing action4. [ote also the use of alliteration in poetryB

A 9 .4 . 90. *4 <+0 90 0/0 *B?/*=,40&S.* <+0 9' W0< = 900'S.* <+0 90.' W0< = 9'

S, <+0 90 <+/,5+ . 9. *4 <+0 90Y0 ,40/ +0<+0/ <+0 0.<+0/ Y*99 0.<+0/ <+0 0<+0/'

i/ +0<+0/ <+0 0.<+0/ <+0 0<+0/ *99 :*99&

44

D 9,D0 ,/ +*99= .4 O 9,D0 ,/ .90=' A4 O 9,D0 ,/ 9,8:= .-E90.<*45 !eats4 !the sound X8Y repeated4

i' B 9,D0 *= 9*:0 . /0' /0 /,=0'P+.<= 409 =?/45 *4 b40&

i' B 9,D0 *= 9*:0 <+0 B09,*0'

P+.<= =00<9 ?9.0 *4 <40& !R. Jurns4 !!r, 8q repeated4

[0 +,=0 +0./<= ./0 /0=+ .4 =*B?90'

Y+, +.D0 .*<+ *4 Z, .4 X.</0'Y+, E09*0D0' <+.< *4 .99 .50=

ND0/ +B.4 +0./< *= +B.4& !;ongfellow4 !fhq repeated4

R./:40== <+0/0' .4 4,<+*45 B,/0& R00? *4<, <+.< ./:40== ?00/*45' 9,45 O =<,, <+0/0 ,40/*45'

0./*45' R,E<*45' /0.B*45 /0.B= 4, B,/<.9 0D0/ ./0 <, /0.BE0,/0& !Fdgar 4 !qdq repeated4A variant of alliteration is assonance, i.e. repetition of the

same or similar vowels only, as in the phrase 0./ .4 <0./ (]

=+,0= =+, =*54= , 0./ .4 <0./' <+0 0./ .4 <0./ , 8*< 9*0)&5his device is sometimes found in poetic speech see therepetition of the vowel XeY in the line

P040/9 E/ <+0 .*/ ,45 0.& !:. ;a Nosta4 or the repetition of the diphthong XeiY in the lines

P099 <+*= =,9' *<+ =,//, 9.04' * *<+*4 <+0 *=<.4< A*04' O =+.99 89.=? . =.*4<0 B.*04' +,B <+0 .4509= 4.B0 W04,/0 > F9.=? . /./0 .4 /.*.4< B.*04' +,B <+0 .4509= 4.B0

W04,/6(N& 45he term ?assonance? is also used to denote an imperfect

rhyme ! нетонн!я риф!)' when only vowels are rhymedB4BE0/ > E940/' =.B0 > 8.40&

Onomatopoeia /989@9WQ6A :<F9W9_7B8Q+

5his term denotes sound imitation, i.e. the use of words

which denote some phenomenon by imitating its real sounding.



It may be imitation of the sounds produced by animalsB E``

!sounds of bees4 +*== !snaes4 E,-, !dogs4 B0CB*.,

and ?// !cats4 +,*4: !pigs4 E..-E.. !sheep4 8.8:90

!chicens4 U.8: !ducs4 88:,,; 8. !crows4 B,, !cows4. It

may also be imitation of other natural noisesB EEE90 !k*&T%

(#T4 /=<90 !*2(#T4 =?9.=+ !P&"(#T"V4 DD\ !&P0*#T%

"V4 +*=<90 !"/$"##T4 5*5590' 8+8:90 !)$)$(#T, )Q6(#T4

/,./ !2/#T4 <*4:90 !7/V0*#T4 *45-,45' K*4590 (J 7/0#T4,

89*8: !Z&(#T4, <*8:' <*8:-<8: !#$(#T4 E.45' =9.?' /.?' <.?

!7/* *+(2(4, etc.

Mords built on the basis of onomatopoeia mae speech

especially expressive when used in their figurative meaningsB

F./= 0/0 +*``*45 ?.=< !moving very fast4 P+0 ?,< .= EEE9*45

,4 <+0 */0 (J boiling and maing this sound4 P+0 8/, E``0

*<+ 0Q8*<0B04< ! made a noise lie that4 O99 K=< 5*D0 +*B .

E`` ! phone call4.

Enomatopoeia may also be used in poetryB Y0 /0 ,,< > =9,5 > =9,5 > =9,5 > =9,55*45 ,D0/ A/*8. — h,,< >,,< >,,< >,,< > =9,55*45 ,D0/ A/*8.& (V,,<= > E,,<= > E,,<= > E,,<= >

B,D*45 ? .4 ,4 .5.*4G) !ipling4

T" S" O KTL ,NG KL" IN $"SII!,TION/`b`gbg+

J"yt" in poetic speech is produced by regular alternation

(чередов!ние) of stressed and unstressed syllables.

Y+ , , 8/' Y*99*0 6 f ' u u q ' u u 4Y+ , , 8/6 !'uuq'4Y+' Y*99*0' +' Y*99*0' ! ' u u q ' u u 4Y+' Y*99*0' Y+6 !'uuq'4Gor a purely syllabic (силл!бическ!я) system of versification

!e.g. in Grench poetry4, the important feature is the samenumber of syllables in different lines, whether stressed or unstressed. Gor a purely%tonic (тоническ!я) system !as inAnglo%Saxon poetry of old times4 the important feature is thenumber of stressed syllables (<,4*8J 'stressed'4. Gor the syllabic %

4

tonic (силл!бо-тоническ!я) system of versification, which istypical of modern Fnglish !and Russian4 poetry, the importantfeature is the same number of stressed and unstressed syllables.A division (отре$ок) of the poetic line from stress to stress,which contains one stressed syllable and one or two unstressedsyllables, is called a Koot (стоп!)& 5he foot is the main unit of rhythm in poetic speech. According to the correlation of stressedand unstressed syllables within the foot, we distinguish the

following types of feetB84 trochee (хорей)' or a trochaic foot (хореическ!я сто

п!)' with two syllables, of which the first is stressed and thesecond unstressedB

\0<0/' \0<0/' ?B?:*4-0.<0/' !' $ $ $ I ' u4 . .*0 .4 8,94 < :00? +0/ See also the Russian trochaicfootB pрибеж!ли в и$бу дети cторопях $овут отц! &&&2) iambus (яб)' or an iambic foot, with two syllables, of

which the first is unstressed, the second stressedB A4 <+04 B 9,D0 .4 O =+.99 ?.80' !u ' I u ' lu' lu'4 ] K0<E9.8: +.*/ *4 ?0./9 E/.*=& !Noleridge4 qой дядя с!%хчестн%х пр!вил& rо#д! не в 7утку $!нео#&&&

K4 dactyl (д!ктил")' or a dactylic footB three syllables, thefirst stressed, the other two unstressedB

Y+ , , 8/' Y*99*06 ! ' u u l ' u u 44 amphibrach (!фибр!хий)' or an amphibrachic footB

three syllables with the stress on the secondB A *990/' . ,99./' a <04 о 89,8: =8+,9./&.. !$' $ I u' u q u' $ I

$ ' u44 anapaest (!н!пест)H three syllables, stress on the thirdBS.* <+0 900' W0< = 9' ! u u ' l u u ' LS.* <+0 9' W0< = 900'S, <+0 90 <+/,5+ . 9. *4 <+0 90&

5he type of foot and the number of feet in the line determinethe Fetre of the verse (стихотворн%й р!$ер)& <ere wedistinguishB

4)



iambic trimetre (трехстопн%й яб)H three iambic feet in a lineB

Y+, =0<= .4 .??90 </00 !u ' I u ' lu '4

]. 9*D0 <, =00 *<= 04'

Y+, =0<= . ?0./ </00

]. =0< *< ,/ . /*04& iambic tetrametre

(чет%рехстопн%й яб)H four iambic feet in a lineB

A4 <+04 B 9,D0 .4 1 =+.99 ?.80' !u ' lu' I u ' lu'4 ] K0< E9.8:

+.*/ *4 ?0./9 E/.*=& !Noleridge4 iambic pentametre

(пятистопн%й яб)

0/ 9,D09 9,,:= . =?/*5+<9 B*4 *=89,=0 !u ' I $ ' 8 $ ' lu'

lu'4

s*8: .= +0/ 00= .4 .= 4*Q0 .= <+,=0& !A. ]ope4

trochaic trimeter (трехстопн%й хорей)

^*45 -. > /*45 , /,=0=' ! ' u I ' u I ' u_4

\,8:0< 99 , ?,=*0= trochaic tetrametre

(чет%рехстопн%й хорей)

\0<0/' \0<0/' ?B?:*4-0.<0/ ! ' u I ' u I ' u I ' u4

amphibrachic tetrameter !3#62)"#P061 (QU$k2()$14 A *990/' . ,99./' a <04 о 89,8: =8+,9./ !$ ' $ 8 $' $ I $ ' $

lu' u4A verse with four or more feet in a line usually has a caesura

(це$ур!)' i.e. a pause in the middle of the lineB

\/.*=0 E0 <+0 A/< @@ +,=0 =E<90 ?,0/ 8,9 =<. [,4 89,'.4 *Q *< @@ *4 <+.< 59,/*,= =+.?0; X,/ ,9 ?0/B*< qq <+0 <+*4

=B,:0 <, 0=8.?0' X,/ <+,=0 E/*5+< =4E0.B= @@ <, ,/=.:0 <+0.& !M. Mordsworth4

Fnglish versification is often characteriHed by certainIrregularities (н!ру7ения) in the metre, e.g. a combination of one%syllable and two syllable feet

\0.=0 ?,//*50 +,< ! ' I ' u 8 ' 84

\0.=0 ?,//*50 8,9' ! ' I ' $ I ' I4 \0.=0 ?,//K50 *4 <+0 ?,< ! ' I ' $ q ' $ I '4 X*40 .= ,9& ! I ' l l 4

9

or a combination of one%syllable, two%syllable and three%syllable feet

B?< RB?< =.< ,4 . .99& ! ' u l ' u l ' u u l ' 4 B?< RB?< +. . 5/0.< .99' ! ' u l ' u l ' u u l ' l 4 A99<+0 f*45 = +,/=0= .4 .99 <+0 f*45= B04 ! ' u u I ? u u I ' uul '4

F,94 <?< B?< RB?< <,50<+0/ .5.*4& !' _ I' — I'a a @ a a @ )

Another ind of irregularity is represented by the so called

]yrric foot !P$22$)$14, in which the rhythm is broen due tothe use of unstressed words in the place of the expected stressedsyllables, or vice versa, as in

F.4 0.<+ E0 =900?' +04 9*0 *= E< . /0.B& !ohn eats4! u ' q u ' q u ' q u u u ' 4

or as in the second line of the extract from A. ]ope belowB 0/9,D09 9,,:= . =?/*5+<9 B*4 *=89,=0 !u ' I u ' I u ' lu' lu'4

s*8: .= +0/ 00= .4 .= 4*Q0 .= <+,=0& !A. ]ope4 ! ' q u u 'qu u u ? qu '4

Rhyme !2$UQ(4 is created by the repetition of the samesounds in the last stressed syllable of two !or more4 lines in astanHa (строф!)&Jy the type of the stressed syllable we distinguish the malerhyme (ужск!я риф!)' when the stress falls on the lastsyllable in the rhymed lines, and the female rhyme (женск!я

риф!)' when it falls on the last but one syllableBY+04 <+0 9.B? *= =+.<<0/0 !female rhyme4P+0 9*5+< *4 <+0 =< 9*0= 0.; !male rhyme4Y+04 <+0 89, *= =8.<<0/0' !female4P+0 /.*4E,= 59,/ *= =+0' !male4 !].J. Shelley4See also the alternation of male and female rhymes in theRussian verse in ]ushin's rhymed novel /0$1 0$0B

qой дядя с!%х честн%х пр!вил' !-0"(V 2$UQ(4

rо#д! не в 7утку $!нео#' !Q*-"(V4nн ув!ж!т" себя $!ст!вил !-0".4

t луч7е в%ду!т" ud qn2& !Q*-".4

4*



5here may be paired rhymes (п!рн%е' сежн%е риф%)&when the rhyming pattern is aa&&2

P+0 =00 0 =,' .4,<+0/ /0.?=; (.)P+0 0.9<+ 0 *4' .4,<+0/ :00?=; (.)

P+0 /,E0= 0 0.D0' .4,<+0/ 0./=; (E)P+0 ./B= 0 ,/50' .4,<+0/ E0./=' (E) !Shelley4 or alternate

rhymes (перекрестн%е риф%)' with the pattern a&a&2

A =9BE0/ * B =?*/*< =0.9; (.)

O +. 4, +B.4 0./=H (E)S+0 =00B0 . <+*45 <+.< 8,9 4,< 009 (.)

P+0 <,8+ , 0./<+9 0./=' (E) !M. Mordsworth4 orenclosing rhymes (охв!тн%е' опояс!нн%е риф%)' *<+ <+0

?.<<0/4 a&&a2

]8+ +.D0 O </.D09G *4 <+0 /0.9B= , 5,9' (.) A4 B.4 5,,9 =<.<0= .4 :*45,B= =004; (E) ^,4 B.4 0=<0/4 *=9.4= +.D0 O E004 (E)Y+*8+ E./= *4 0.9< ! loyalty4 <, A?,99, +,9' (.) !. eats4

5here may also be more complicated variations of these patternsB

^,5+ *4' <+.< B0.40=< 9, (.)

Z/*0 <,, =. ,/ =,45; (E)Y*9 *4' +04 =9904 89, (.)

f4099= .99 <+0 4*5+< 9,45; (E)S. =<,/B' +,=0 <0./= ./0 D.*4' (8)

V./0 ,,=' +,=0 E/.48+0= =<.*4' (8) R00? 8.D0= .4 /0./ B.*4' > (8)

Y.*9 ,/ <+0 ,/9= /,45C (E) !Shelley4 [ote also the possibility of the so called eyer"ye !2(%

U$3"(V 2$UQ(4, when the elements rhymed are similar onlyin spelling, but not in pronunciationB

Y+, +.<+ 4,< =004 <+00 ,< .B* <+ =<,/0 6S,B0<*B0= +,0D0/ =00:= .E/,. B. find P+00 =*<<*45 8./090== ,4 . 5/.4./ 9,,/'P+ +.*/ =,<-9*<0 E <+0 *44,*45 "ind1 (L& eats4

h,/ =' 0D04 E.4U0<= ,4 /05/0< =??9 O4 <+0 /0 8? <+.< 8/,4= ,/ B0B,/& ( Jyron4

Types of Stana /@W= ?@790A ?@790F+

5he most common stanHa, one consisting of four lines, is

called a Cuatrain !(#20, четверости7ие); the more seldom

one, consisting of two, is called a couplet (двусти7ие)&

5here is also a 1alla* stanHa, typical of poetic follore,

especially that of the 8th —8th centuries. A ballad is a poem

with a plot (сIжет)' which tells some story. 5he ballad stanHa

usually has four lines, of which the first and third lines containfour feet, while the second and fourth — three or two.

P+0 */=< ,/ <+.< S*/ \.</*8: /0.' (v 00<)

S.0 9,' 9, 9.5+0 +0; (3)

P+0 40*=< ,/ <+.< S*/ \.</*8: /0.' (v)

P+0 <0./ E9*40 +*= ее& (3)

5his type of stanHa is also found in later poetryB

P+0 .*/0=< ,40 =+.99 E0 B 9,D0=' (v 00<)

P+0 .*/0=< 8.=<90 , <+0 4*40G (3)

Y.*< ,49 <*99 <+0 =<./= ?00? ,<' (v)

P+0 .*/0=< =+.99 E0 <+*40& (3) !Noleridge4

In R. ipling's ballad cited below, the Cuatrains are

combined into couplets, within which, however, is preserved

the alternation of four%foot and three%foot metresB

i+' N.=< *= N.=<' .4 Y0=< *= Y0=<' (v) .4 40D0/ <+0 <.*4

=+.99 B00< (3)

P*99 N./<+ .4 S: =<.4 ?/0=04<9 (v) .< Z,= 5/0.<

b50B04< S0.< (3)&

A specific type of stanHa is used in a sonnet& 5here we usually

find twelve lines !three Cuatrains, i.e. three stanHas with four

lines4, followed by two final lines !a couplet4, which contain a

ind of summary of the whole verseB

i' 90=< <+0 ,/9 =+,9 .=: , <, /08*<0

Y+.< B0/*< 9*D0 *4 B0' <+.< , =+,9 9,D0' A<0/ B 0.<+' 0./ 9,D0' ,/50< B0 U*<0'

h,/ , *4 B0 8.4 4,<+*45 ,/<+ ?/,D0;

e490== , ,9 0D*=0 =,B0 D*/<,= 9*0' P,

, B,/0 ,/ B0 <+.4 B*40 ,4 0=0/<'

8



A4 +.45 B,/0 ?/.*=0 ?,4 080.=0 OP+.4 4*55./ </<+ ,9 *99*459 *B?./<H

i' 90=< ,/ </0 9,D0 B. =00B .9=0 *4 <+*='P+.< , ,/ 9,D0 =?0.: 099 , B0 4</0' ]4.B0 E0 E/*0 +0/0 B E, *=' A4 9*D0 4,B,/0 <, =+.B0 4,/ B0 4,/ ,&

h,/ O .B .=+.B0 E <+.< +*8+ O E/*45 ,/<+'

A4 =, =+,9 ,' <, 9,D0 <+*45= 4,<+*45 ,/<+&!Shaespeare, Sonnet [o. =4 5here may also be 1lanG

erse (бел%й стих)' in whic Bhere is no rhyming, but therhythm and metre are to some extent preserved such is, forinstance, the verse of Shaespeare's tragediesB

P, E0 ,/ 4,< <, E0' > <+.< *= <+0 U0=<*,4H > Y+0<+0/ <*= 4,E90/ *4 <+0 B*4 <, =0/ P+0 =9*45= .4 .//,= , ,</.50,= ,/<40'i/ <, <.:0 ./B= .5.*4=< . =0. , </,E90='

A4 E ,??,=*45 04 <+0B 6 > P, *0' — <, =900?' — X, B,/0; .4 E . =900? <, =. 0 04 P+0 +0./<-.8+0 .4 <+0 <+,=.4 4.</.9 =+,8:=

P+.< 90=+ *= +0*/ <,' — <*= . 8,4=BB.<*,4 R0D,<9 <, E0 *=+0& P, *0' > <, =900?; > P, =900?G \0/8+.480 <, /0.BH > .' <+0/0= <+0 /E;

h,/ *4 <+.< =900? , 0.<+ +.< /0.B= B. 8,B0'

Y*04 0 +.D0 =+90 , <+*= B,/<.9 8,*9&&& !<amlet4

Part ,So-e Practical +ssign-ents for Stylistic

+nalysis

&. Stylistic !onnotations in $oca%&lary

Doint out stylistic *ifferences 5it"in t"e rou!s of synonys:

.80 > D*=.50 > B5 — 0.?.4

nose — snout — bea — nasal cavity

=

D <+*4: — D 5.<+0/ > O ?/0=B0 > O <.:0 *< — D 50== > B0<+*4:=

V, > ,<+ — 9. > ,45 B.90 ?0/=,4 > ,45=<0/ — <004.50/

9.== > 5*/9 > B.*04 > 048+ > ,45 0B.90 ?0/=,44,4=04=0 > .E=/*< > /,< > </.=+905= > ?*4= — 9,0/ 0Q</0B*<*0=S*90480' ?90.=0&> S<,? <.9:*45&> S+< ,/ </.?G

Y.*<G - ,9 ,4G - S<.4 EG[, ./0 > <+, ./< E/0.<+0 *4 — *4+.90 — 5.=?

/*04 > 8,B/.0 > ?.9 > E > .8U.*4<.480 // ?G — ],D0 ,4G — .=<04 ,/ =<0?G

II. !ollo&ial $oca%&lary

Dara!"rase so as to s"o5 t"e *ifferent uses of t"e er1 2to *o2:

84 <ave you done your homewor\ =4 I have to do a sum.K4 Mill you please do the room\ 4 Mho does the cooing inyour family\ 4 o and do your teeth j4 I lie the way you do

your hair. 4 5hey do fish very well in this restaurant. 94 MhatsubLects do you do at your Oniversity\ 4 I did some music inmy childhood. 8>4 5his car can do 9> miles an hour. 884 Mhatdo you do for a living\ 8=4 ou did right to tell me about it. 8K45hat won't do. 84 Mill this sum do for you\ 84 It did megood. 8j4 <e is doing well at school. 84 <ow are you doing\894 <e was up and doing at five in the morning. 84 Mhat isdoing here\ =>4 If you say it again, I'll do you =84 Nan we doExford in three days\ ==4 <e does Ronald Reagan very well.

III. ormal Styles

<& Analyse t"e !eculiarities of t"e style of scientific te'ts3

!ara!"rase t"e arGe* e'!ressions 1y ore neutral ones a4P+0 05/00 , 9*E0/< ?,==0==0 E <+0 8*<*`04= , . =<.<0 +.=

E08,B0 <+0 :0 =<.4./ E +*8+ 9*E0/.9 0B,8/.8*0= ./0

8,B?./0 *<+ ,<+0/ ,/B= , 5,D0/4B04<&& ,0D0/' <+0/0 *= B8+

90== 8,4=04== ,4 <+0 B0.4*45 , 9*E0/<&

=M



In political t"ou"t liberty is larely synonyous withfree*o& Jut it is as 5ell to recall that liberty or freedom havenot always been alue* in Mestern or other forms of politicalthought. In*ee* religious and political aut"oritarians, and manyconservatives and traditionalists, e4uate li1erty 5it" licence, theabsence of control, moral chaos. Foreoer, many political

philosophers, fro ]lato to <obbes, have arue* that "uan1eins should sacrifice their freedom to ensure order or stability,

in the form of strong andDor enli"tene* government.:any !olitical t"eorists mae a *istinction between !ositieliberty !'freedom to do', or self%mastery'4 and neatie liberty!'freedom from' or 'not being obstructed'4 although others aruethat the distinction is not loically sustaina1le, that it Lustconfuses atters& B"e conce!t of liberty, whether positive or negative, or both, evidently means 'not being controlled' or 'not

being o1structe*2&

5he most nota1le e'!onents of positive liberty wereRousseau and ant. 5hey argued that genuine freedom is

possessed only by individuals who are autonoous aents — that is, by those whose !o5er of reason is free from ani!ulation1y ot"ers, and are ca!a1le of e'ercisin self*eterination int"eir oral an* !olitical c"oices& Me are free only when we actrightly, and vice versaB we are free when our 'real self is in c"are&B"is t"esis can, of course, become a means for suestin that

people are not free even when they clai to 1e&5he idea of negative liberty, by contrast, is *erie* fro t"e

*octrine of natural rights which claims that individuals have certaininaliena1le rights which should not be transresse* by anyindividual, group or government. Such rights are 'liberties', thatis, rights to be free from control, and are most iorously supportedin the doctrine of libertarianism. [egative liberty exists wherecitiHens are free to behave in any way which does not harm another citiHen or contraene specific laws. [egative liberty is often tested

in societies where governments or !ressure rou!s atte!t to*efine 5"at constitutes harm to othersB thus the private sexualactiities of consentin a*ults would appear to be harmful toneither the !ractitioners nor the eneral !u1lic, yet many states!ro"i1it 1y law certain ty!es of !riate se'ual e'!ression

4

b4 S8+ innovations *99 *4D,9D0 8+.450= <, <+0 diet , <+0+,90 %o%ulations, *489*45 . =+./? reduction *4 consum%tion of

intensively reared 8.<<90& An international agreement "as reac!ed

.< <+0 3 ww2 4art! ummit, .9<+,5+ <+0 %olicies agreed *99 only

reduce t!e rate of increase of green!ouse gases1 P+*=' cou%led "it!

a fear <+.< AB0/*8.4 voters regard <+0*/ /*5+< <, /*D0 9./50 8./=.= on a %ar "it! <+0 constitutional rig!t to &ear arms, B.0 <+0administration , \/0=*04< V=+ very o&structive in international

negotiations1 5iven <+0 08,4,B*8 .4 ?,9*<*8.9 ?,0/ , <+0 eSA'.4 <+0*/ consum%tion of energy, t!is stance !as reduced ot!er

countries readiness to res%ond1 h*4.99' *< is "ort! noting <+.< .4suggestion t!at glo&al "arming t!reatens life on 4art! is !ig!ly

e6aggerated1 P+0 8+.450= *4 atmos%!eric com%osition are

significant in relation to 8+.450= *4 <+0 9.=< 0 B*99*,4 0./=' E<

are neglecta&le com%ared *<+ <+0 8+.450= E/,5+< .E,< E 9*0&

>& Analyse t"e !eculiarities of !u1licist style in t"e follo5in

e'tract fro t"e Kirst Inauural s!eec" 1y B"oas Lefferson3

!ara!"rase t"e 1ooGis" e'!ressions 1y ore neutral ones:

Griends and Gellow NitiHens ...

uring the contest of opinion through which we have passed, the animation of discussion and of exertions "as

sometimes worn an aspect which might impose on strangersunused to thin freely and to spea and to write what they thin

but this being now decided by the voice of the nation,announced according to the rules of the constitution, all will, of course, arrange themselves under the will of the law, and unite incommon efforts for the common good. All, too, will bear inmind this sacred principle, that though the will of the maLorityis in all cases to prevail, that will, to be rightful, must bereasonable that the minority possess their eCual rights, whicheCual la5s must protect, and to violate which would be

oppression. ;et us, then, fellow citiHens, unite with one heartand one mind. ;et us restore to social intercourse that harmonyand affection without which liberty and even life itself are butdreary things. And let us reflect that having banished from our land that religious intolerance under which manind so long



bled and suffered, we have yet gained l ittle if we countenance a political intolerance as despotic, as wiced, and capable of as bitter and bloody persecutions. uring the throes andconvulsions of the ancient world, during the agoniHing spasmsof infuriated man, seeing through blood and slaughter his long%lost liberty, it was not wonderful that the agitation of the billowsshould reach even this distant and peaceful shore that thisshould be more felt and feared by some and less by others that

this should divide opinions as to measures of safety. Jut everydifference of opinion is not a difference of principle. Me havecalled by different names brethren of the same principle. Me areall republicans — we are all federalists. If there be any among uswho would wish to dissolve this Onion or to change itsrepublican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated wherereason is left free to combat it. 8 now, indeed, that some honestmen fear that a republican government cannot be strong thatthis government is not strong enough. Jut would the honest

patriot, in the full tide of successful experiment, abandon agovernment which has so far ept us free and firm, on the

theoretic and visionary fear that this government, the world's best hope, may by possibility want energy to preserve itself\ Itrust not. I believe this, on the contrary, the strongestgovernment on earth. I believe it is the only one where everyman, at the call of the laws, would fly to the standard of the law,and would meet invasions of the public order as his own personalconcern. Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted withthe government of himself. Nan he, then, be trusted with thegovernment of others\ Er have we found angels in the forms of ings to govern him\ ;et history answer this Cuestion.

I$. i#&res of Speech

<& @tate 5"ic" of t"e co!aratie structures re!resent

eta!"ors an* siiles

0 +.= . <,450 9*:0 . =./ .4 . ?04 9*:0 . .550/& (N&

Naine4

'

ou tal exactly lie my fatherP+0 9.5+ *4 +0/ 00= *0 ,< ... !:. Spillane4P+0 5/*4 B.0 +*= 9./50 <00<+ /0=0BE90 . .``9*45 B*4*.</0

?*.4, :0E,./ *4 <+0 5/004 9*5+<& !. ones4DD .= +*= +.E*< 4,< <, KB? ,/ 90.? .< .4<+*45 *4 9*0 E< <,

8/.9 .< 0D0/<+*45& !icens4

>& Oistinuis" 1et5een etonyy an* eta!"or

0 0./4= +*= 9*D*45 E +*= ?04& !S. :augham4 D ... 8.B0 <, <+0 ?9.80 +0/0 <+0 S<./= .4 S</*?0= =<,, =+,90/ <, =+,90/*<+ <+0 e4*,4 b.8:& !Steinbec4 ],40 E/4= . +,90 *4 B

?,8:0<& !5. Napote4

M& @tate 5"ic" of t"e attri1utes re!resent e!it"ets

... +*=?0/0 <+0 =?*4=<0/ .4< *<+ </0 =?*4=<0/-.4<-9*:0 04D&

!icens4

A 9,8: , +.*/ 099 ,D0/ +0/ 00 .4 =+0 ?=+0 *< E.8: *<+ .

<*/0' 04-,-<+0-.K0=</0& !. Jraine4

P+0 B,40 =+0 +. .880?<0 .= <, =,<' 5/004' +.4=,B0

<04-,99./ E*99=& !reiser4

;& Poent on t"e !lay u!on 5or*s: *= ./B .E,< +0/' +0 90 +0/ *4 .4 E.90' W.*0= .4

,/=0/ +.9D0=' <+0 E/*0G !S. ;ewis4P+04 <+0/0 0/0 <+0 <*4 E,=' +,B <+0 .B*9 8.990 LS<./=

.4 S</*?0= L' .= <+0 0/0 +*??0 /059./9& !E. Milde4P+0/0 8,B0= . ?0/*, *4 0D0/ B.4= 9*0' E< =+0= K=< .

=0B*8,9,4 *4 +*=& !S. Fvans4 (?0/*, in American Fnglish means? a full stop?4

R* , +*< . ,B.4 *<+ . 8+*96 > X,' =*/' O +*< +0/ *<+ .E/*8:& !5h. Smith4

9=4 < *< *=8,/.5*45 +04 *< <.:0= <, .= <, 9 . 90<<0/ /,B

8,.=< <, 8,.=<6 O 50< =, B. O B./: <+0 04D09,?0= xA*/-S4.*9L&!example from the wor by .. *)/4

. Doint out litotes an* "y!er1ole

S+0 .= 4,< *<+,< /0.9*`.<*,4 .9/0. <+.< <+*= <+*45 .=

*B?,==*E90' =, ./ .= =+0 .= 8,480/40& !reiser4

)



b,0 F9055 .9=, 9,,:0 =/?/*=0 .4 ?,==*E9 4,< <,, ?90.=0&!Nhristie4

0/ .B*9 *= ,40 .4< .E,< . <+,=.4 0./= ,9& !GitHgerald4

Q& Poent on t"e !eculiarities of antonoasia

ND0/ F.0=./ +.= +*= V/<=& !E. <enry4 P+0/0 ./0 <+/00

,8<,/= *4 .4 *9940== 9*:0 ,/=&&& R/& ^0=<' R/& R*0< .4 R/& h/0=+

.*/& !. Nusac4

R& C'!lain t"e eanin of t"ese eu!"eiss

0Q?08< , 9*:0 . .=+' ]/=& P+,B?=,4 =.*& P+0

E.<+/,,B = <, <+0 /*5+< .4 <+0 usual ,*80= 40Q< <, *<& !. Jraine4

Y+' *4 <+0 4.B0 , all t!e *40/4.9 ?,0/=' ]/=& ]0/90 &&&6!icens4

S& T"at allusion is a*e in t"e e'tractU

LF+/*=<' *<= =, 44G .adame -ovary .< F,9BE*. NQ<04=*,4S8+,,9GL !Salinger4

V& T"at *eice is re!resente* 1y t"e arGe* 5or*sU

V/0.:' E/0.:' E/0.:

i4 <+0 8,9 5/. =<,40=' n S0.G !A. 5ennison4

<W& Doint out "o5 irony is create* 1elo5:

P, 9,,: .< ],4<B,/048' , ,9 *B.5*40 <+.< +0 .= .4.4509 =04< ?,4 <+0 0./<+& A< */=< O 40D0/ <+,5+< +0 ,9 =/D*D0&

O =0 <, =*< ,4 .4 9,,: .< +*B .= +0 =.< ,4 <+0 /5 .4 9,,:0 ? .< B0' .4 <+*4:H Li+' <+.< ,5 *99 40D0/ 9*D0& 0 *99 E0 <.:04<, <+0 E/*5+< =:*0= *4 . 8+./*,<' <+.<= +.< *99 +.??04 <, +*B L&

V< +04 O +. ?.* ,/ .E,< . ,`04 8+*8:04= <+.< +0 +. :*990&&&<+04 O E05.4 <, <+*4: <+.< B.E0 <+0 ,9 90< +*B /0B.*4 ,40./<+ . E*< 9,450/& !erome4

$. Str&ct&ral Stylistic Ge\ices<& @tate t"e ty!e of inersion:

Y+.< <+0 .8<*,4 , <+0 ?9. ,9 +.D0 E004 9*:0 * W.0/<0=+. 4,< +. <+0 ,88.=*,4 <, /0D0450 <+0 0.<+ , +*= .<+0/' 08.44,< <099& !;iterary criticism4

9

. <+*= +.??040 E0,/0 =??0/' Z0,/50 ,9 +.D0 0Q?/0==0 *=+0= .4 0=*/0= 8,480/4*45 .//*== .<0 *4 <+*= ,/9 .4 <+040Q< <+.< ,9 +.D0 B.0 . <+,5+<9 B.4 =+0/& !erome4

F.9B .4 U*0< E09, B0 *4 <+0 =4 .4 =+.0 9. <+0 ,9

+,=0& !icens4

>& T"at structural *eice is use* 1elo5U

A ?,,/ E,&&& X, .<+0/' 4, B,<+0/' 4, .4 ,40& !icens4

M& Poent on t"e Gin* of re!etition use*:i40 B. =00 E <+0*/ ,,<?/*4<= <+.< <+0 +.D0 4,< .9:0 ./B

*4 ./B; <+.< <+0 +.D0 4,< .9:0 *4 . =</.*5+< </.8:' .4 <+.< <+0 +.D0 .9:0 *4 . B,, +B,/& !icens4

D 9,,:0 .< <+0 54' .4 <+0 54 9,,:0 .< B0& !R. Nhandler4

;& Doint out t"e *eices of clia' an* anticlia':

i 8,/=0 *<= *B?,/<.4<& O48/0*E9' /504<9' 0=?0/.<09

*B?,/<.4<& !. Nusac4

DD .= . B*=<.:0 &&&. E940/&&& 94.8 &&& !M. eeping4

0 .= 4BE0& 0 .4<0 <, 00?' <, D,B*<' <, *0' <, =*4:

..& !A. Jennet4P+0 0/0 .E=,9<09 U*0<; 0.<*45 4, .??90=' 8<<*45 4, 4.B0='

*49*8<*45 4, ?*48+0=' .4 B.:*45 4, 5/*B.80=' ,/ 99 <, B*4<0=

.<0/./=& !icens4

=& C'!lain t"e eanin of t"e !eri!"rasis

S+0 .= =<*99 .<; <+0 0=</,0/ , !er figure =.< .< <+0 +0. ,

<+0 <.E90& !A. Jennet4

P+0 +,=?*<.9 .= 8/,0 *<+ t!e =/5*8.99 interesting

?/,8<= , <+0 *5+<*45 in A/*8.& !I. Shaw4

Q& T"at *eice is create* 1y t"e use of t"e arGe* 5or*sU

R,4< =0 &ig ,/=& P+0 B0.4 =, little1 !Milde4

. T"at *eice is re!resente* 1y t"e arGe* !art of t"e sentence

an* 5"at is t"e i!lication "ereU

LV<' b,+4' , :4, O B 4,< 5,*45 <, . ,8<,/& O D0 <,9 ,& L

L[, ./0 5,*45 — ,/ 09=0&&& L(\& ucntin4

*



S& T"at *eice is use* in t"e arGe* !artsU *= 40/D,=40== .E,< *< *//*<.<0 +*BH =+0 +. 4, E=*40== <,

B.:0 +*B 009 9*:0 <+.<& !alsworthy4 A4509. 9,,:0 .< +*B *<+ =*BB*45 00=& 0 .= /0.99

*0/04< /,B .4<+*45 =+0 +. 0D0/ :4,4' ,45' ./<*=<*8'*B.5*4.<*D0' .BE*<*,=&&& Y+.< . ,40/9 <+*45G !icens4

V& T"at 5ays of connection are use* in t"e e'tracts 1elo5U A4 <+0 ,/0 <+0*/ E0=< .4 B,/0 8,9,/9 89,<+0=& 0 =+*/<=

.4 5/004 =+*/<= .4 099, =+*/<= .4 ?*4: =+*/<=& !]. Abrahams4P+0 ?9=.<*45 B,<*,4 .< ].9. F.B? .< 4*5+< .= 0D0/+0/0&

\0,?90 =.45& \0,?90 8/*0& \0,?90 ,5+<& \0,?90 9,D0& \0,?90+.<0& (D& Abrahams4

<W& 8ae t"e *eice use* 1elo5

LP+0 . ,4 +*8+ O +. <, <.:0 <+0 +.??*0=< .4 E0=< =<0? ,B 9*0 — <+0 . ,4 +*8+ O =+.99 E0 . B.4 B,/0 0Q9<*45 .4B,/0 04D*.E90 <+.4 .4 ,<+0/ B.4 *4 <+0 ,/9 — <+0 . ,4 +*8+ O

5*D0 V90.: ,=0 *<= 9*<<90 B*=</0== — =+.99 E0 40Q< B,4<+' <+04 L' =.* B 5./*.4& !icens4

$I. !omment on the Phonetic Ge\ices sed DelowS+-=+' =+0=.*& V< OB +*=?0/*45G P+*= 8,4<*4.9 =+=+*45

.44,0 +*B& !A. <uxley4P+0 B,.4 , ,D0= *4 *BB0B,/*.9 09B='

A4 B/B/*45 , *44B0/.E90 E00=& !5ennison4

$II. Liscellanyj Point O&t the StylisticGe\ices sed

84 L[, +.D0 +0./ , b00/=,4 V/*8: O =00' S*/' L > U,<+ <+0F,C,40C *<+ . =B*90& LN459.4 +.= +0./ , b00/=,4 V/*8:&

N/,?0 +.= +0./ , b00/=,4 V/*8: L& !icens4 =4E< +, ,9 =8,/4 <+0 B,4<+ , b40'

V08.=0 R080BE0/' *<+ +*= E/0.<+ =, +,./' ]=< 8,B06 !Jyron4

K4 0 ,/0/0 . E,<<90 , <+0 ,/=< ?,==*E90 ?,/< *40' .< <+0 +*5+0=< ?,==*E90 ?/*80& !icens4

4 S<,40 =B*90 <+0 =00< =B*90 , .4 .99*5.<,/& !Steinbec44 A4 0< *99 , <099 B0 <+.< O ,5+<4 < <, 5, *4<, =,8*0<6 O'

+, =+,0/ B,40 ?,4 *< *4 <+*= . 6 O' +, B*5+< E0 .9B,=< =.* <, ><, > <, +./40== B=09 <, . .<0/*45 8./< 99 , B,40'.4 5, .E,<' =.</.<*45 =,8*0<' 0D0/ . , B 9*06!icens4

j4 0 .9/0. +. . 8./ > . 9./50 8./ — .4 0Q?04=*D0 8./& O4<+.< 8./ .4 4, ,<+0/ +0 ?/,?,=0 <, 8,4<*40 +*= K,/40 E.8: <, <,4& !Nhristie4

4 ],<+0/ X.</0 .9.= E9=+0= E0,/0 *=/,E*45& !. Fsar494 O<= ,49 .4 .,?<0 8+*9& i40 O +.D0 <,9 +0/ ,& i40 OB

5,*45 <, 5*D0 <+0 4.B0 <,& !icens4

4 ^*8+./ =.* <+.< +0 ,9 ,/: +*= *450/= <, <+0 E,40 ,/ A.' .4 A. =.* <+.< =+0 ,9 ,/: +0/ *450/= <, <+0 E,40 ,/ ^*8+./& !icens4

8>4 P+0 B08+.4*8= 0/0 40/?.*' .4 40/0' .4 ,D0/,/:0& (L& Aldridge4

884 ]04 =<.9: .= E0<<0/ <+.4 ,B04=& X0D0/ ,,' 40D0/ E.E*0='

40D0/ =*8:40==' E< ?0,?90' +.< +.??040' <+0 /0.=,4& X,< <+0 =<.<0 , <+0 +,=0' E< <+0 =<.<0 , <+0 A/B&&& X,< +.<

=?,*9< <+0 .=+*45' E< +, =?*990 <+0 E0.4=& !. du :aurier48=4 S.4 +. <.5+< +*B B8+& P+0 5/0.< :*49 S00 +.

<.:04 +*B 40/ +*= *45& !F. Gerber4

$III. Poetic Speech

<& Poent on t"e !eculiarities of t"e 5or*s an* fors arGe*

] +0./< 90.?= ? +04 O E0+,9

A /.*4E, *4 <+0 =:H S, .=

*< +04 B 9*0 E05.4; S, *= *<

4, O .B . B.4H S, E0 *< +04 O =+.99 5/, ,9'

i/ 90< B0 *0&sX& Mordsworth4

1



=. Nomment on the mared words find their more up%to%date

synonyms !from . Jyron's poem ?Nhild <arold?, Nanto the

first4

#!ilome *4 A9E*,4= *=90 <+0/0 d"elt . ,<+' Y+,

ne *4 D*/<0= .= * <.:0 09*5+<; V< =?04< +*=

.= *4 /*,< B,=< uncout!, A4 D0Q *<+ mirt!

<+0 /,= 0./ , X*5+<& A+' B0G +n soot! +0 .= .

=+.B090== "ig!t, ore 5*D04 <, revel .4 45,9 glee' h0 0./<+9 <+*45= ,4 .D,/ *4 +*= =*5+<

ave 8,48E*40= .4 8./4.9 com%anie, A4

9.4<*45 "assailers , +*5+ .4 9, 05/00&

F+*90 ./,9 .= +0 !ig!t2 * E< "!ence +*= 4.B0

A4 9*40.50 9,45' *< suits me not <, =.;

S*80 *<' <+.< %erc!ance <+0 0/0 , .B0'

A4 +. E004 59,/*,= *4 .4,<+0/ .&&&

A*0' .*0C ] 4.<*D0 =+,/0

h.0= oer <+0 .<0/= E90;

P+0 4*5+<-*4= =*5+' <+0 E/0.:0/= /,./' A4 =+/*0:= <+0 *9 sea*me"1

7on =4 <+.< =0<= ?,4 <+0 =0.

Y0 ,99, *4 +*= 9*5+<;

h./0099 a"!ile <, +*B .4 t!ee,

] 4.<*D0 W.4 > Z,, 4*5+<G

K. Gind dialectal and archaic elements in R. Jurns' poemB

S+,9 .9 .8U.*4<.480 E0 ,/5,<&

A4 40D0/ E/,5+< <, B*46

S+,9 .9 .8U.*4<.480 E0 ,/5,<'

A4 .= о 9.45 =40 6

h,/ .9 9.45 =40' B 0./='

h,/ .9 9.45 =40&

Y0 OO <.: . 8? о :*440== 0<'

ы

h,/ .9 9.45 =40&&& A4 +0/0= . +.4' B </=< *0/0' A4 5*0 = . +.4 о <+*40; A4 0 OO <.: . /*5+< 5* *99*0-.5+<

h,/ .9 9.45 =40&



@Q7@7

y$н!уров! T&d& 32$ P "#$&$"#$ "&/(. z(0#, 8.8 yрнол"д t&c& #$&$"#$(. /2Q0061 (0&$1"$1 V76B

{3k0$ +&V /*7/. %" $7+. |., =>>.

z!яли Oe& }2(0~*7"(V "#$&$"#$(. |., 8j8. zеляев! {&q&' pот!пов! t&|& •0&$1"$1 V76 7( P2+&(Q$

•0&$$. €., 8j8.

zр!ндес q&p& #$&$"#$( 0Q~ V76(. |., 8>. c!нников }&c& z$P6 0(*306) $ #)0$3"$) #"#/ $ $) &$0%

/$"#$3"$ "k00"#$. |., 89. c!сил"ев! y&u& (7#0%P*k&$~$"#$3"$1 "#$&T 23$B *2"

&~$1 P "#$&$"#$ 2*"" V76(. |., 89=. cино#р!дов c&c& #$&$"#$(, #2$V PW#$3"1 23$. W#$(.

|, 8jK. rвятковский y& W#$3"$1 "&/(2T. |., 8jj. rожин! q&u& "0/(0$VQ U*0~$0(&T01 "#$&$"#$$. 2QT, 8j9.

rожинов c& c& (02 DD€$#2(#*2061 W0~$&P+$3"$1 "&%/(2T. |, 8.

rу$нец q&j&' dкребнев }&q& #$&$"#$( (0&$1" V76(. €.,8j>.

u!ер V&bO& }*0~$0(&T06 "#$&$ (0&$1" V76(. |., 898. pухов d&~& ‚76/(V $2( / (0&$1"Q "&/k2(7/(0$$. {U(,8.

•!$инкин! u&q& }*0~$0(&T0(V "#$&$"#$( (0&$1" V76(.|., 89. •о$ент!л" j&T& 2(#$3"(V "#$&$"#$( 2*"" V76(. |.,

8j9.dил"!н {&u& 2k&Q6 "$0#("$3"1 "#$&$"#$$. €., 8j.dол#!ник m&€& #$&$"#$( #"#(B {3k0 P"k$. j% $7+. |.,=>>>.

dтеп!нов }&d& }2(0~*7"(V "#$&$"#$(. |., 8j. dтеп!нов }&d& #$&$"#$( DD€$0/$"#$3"$1 W0~$&P+$3"$1 "&/(2T.|., 8>.{!рлинск!я q&m& #2*#*2( $ W/&ƒ~$V (0&$1" "#$)(. •„„,

|, 8.

{!р%#ин! c&y& …P$## $ -(02. |., =>>>.{иофеев |&t&' {ур!ев dc& &/(2T &$#2(#*2/+3"$) #2%

Q$0/. |., 8.

4

{о!7евский z&c& #$&$"#$( $ "#$)"&-0$. €., 8.

A:*B.4,D. n& !Fd.4 ;inguostylistics. :O, :;, 8=. V/*50B.4 ^*8+./& 5he NolloCuial Style in America. [ew orB

Exford Oniversity ]ress, 8jj. F,?9.4 X& 5owards the Stylistics of iscourse DD Styles of iscourse. [. Noupland !Fd.4 ;ondonB room

<elm, 899. F/=<.9 R&' R.D R& Investigating Fnglish Style.

;ongman, ;ondon, ' 8j.

R./E*=K*/0 A&N& A rammar of Style. ;ondon, 88.

R0<=8+E0*4 ]& Fnglische Stilisti. ;eipHig, 8K=. N99*= b&' e/0 b&X& ;anguage @arietiesB Register DD Fncyclopedia of

;inguistics. ;ondonB ]ergamon ]ress, 8j.

N4:*=< X&' ;inguistic Stylistics. 5he <ague. ]aris, :outon, 8K.

Z.9?0/*4 9&^& Stylistics. :., 898.

f:+./04:, & Seminars in Style. :., 88.

X0=*09 b&F& :anual of Fnglish rammar and Nomposition. ;ondon,8=9.

^*0=09N&' S8+0409= N& eutsche Stilisti. :., 8.

S8/0E40D [&]& Gundamentals of Fnglish Stylistics. :., 8.

С All ! 4 d ] ifi i



Содержание

Dart <& Xn t"e 8otions of2@tyle2 an* [email protected]

5wo 5ypes of Stylistic Information....................................................

Stylistic Nharacteristics of Fnglish @ocabulary..................................j

Some Nharacteristics of Fnglish 5hat Are Nlose to

Stylistic Enes

a4 5erritorial @arieties of Fnglish.............. .............. ....... ....... 8>

b4 Fnglish @ocabulary in the Aspect of 5ime............... ........ . 8=

Dart >& Kunctional @tyles of @!eec" in Yreater Oetail..................... 8K

5he NolloCuial Style......................................................................... 8KGamiliar%NolloCuial Style and Slang

!U(Q$&TV20%2(7/2061 "#$&T, -(2064............. ....... . 8

5he Gormal !;ofty, Jooish4 Style

!/6"$1, 0$-061 "#$&T4................................................. 8

5he Style of Efficial or Jusiness ocuments.................................. 85he Style of Scientific Mors........................................................... 8]ublicist !Eratory4 Style................................................................... =>

Some ]articular enres of ]ublicist Style........................................=K

Dart M& C'!ressie Feans of Eanuae (@tylistic Oeices).............=jStylistic evices :aing Ose of the :eaning

of ;anguage Onits !Gigures of Speech4.................................=

:etaphor !Q#(U2(4...........................................................=Simile !"2(/00$4...............................................................=9

:etonymy !Q#0$Q$V4.......................................................=

†eugma !7/Q(, (&(Qk*24.................................................K>

Exymoron !"ƒQ204....................................................... K8<yperbole and ;itotes........................................................... K8

Fpithet !WP$##4.................................................................... K8]eriphrasis !P2$U2(7, P2$U2(7(4......................................K=

Antonomasia !(0#0Q("$V, P2$Q0/(0$4.................. KKFuphemisms !W/UQ$7Q64................................................... KK

Allegory !(&&2$V4 and ]ersonification!&$~#/20$4 ................................................................. K

Allusion !(&&ƒ7$V4............................................................... K

Irony..................................................................................... KjRhetorical uestions.............................................................Kj

Stylistic evices :aing Ose of the Structure

of ;anguage Onits................................................................. K

Repetition !P/#24.............................................................. K

Nhiasmus !)$(7Q4.................................................................K9Nlimax !radation, 2(+(~$V4 and Anticlimax.................... K

Stylistic Inversion.................................................................>

Fllipsis...................................................................................8

Asyndeton !("$0+#0, k""ƒ7$4....................................8]olysyndeton !P&$"$0+#0, Q0"ƒ7$4....................=

Antithesis !(0#$#7(, P2#$/P"#(/&0$4.......................KSuspense !Retardation, 2#(2+(~$V, 7(Q+&0$4...............K

A Jrea in the [arration !Aposiopesis, *Q&3(0$4............K

Represented Speech !0"k"#/00%P2VQ(V 23T4.............

]honetic Fxpressive :eans and evices.........................................

Alliteration !(&&$#2(~$V4.

Assonance !(""0(0"4...........................................................Enomatopoeia !0Q(#PV, 7/*P+2(-(0$4................

5he Ose of Rhythm and Rhyme in @ersification!"#$)"&-0$4..................................................................j

5ypes of StanHa !#$P6 "#2U, "#2U$(4............................ 8

Dart ;& @oe Dractical Assinents for @tylistic Analysis............. =

I. Stylistic Nonnotations in @ocabulary............... ................ .............=

II. NolloCuial @ocabulary................... ............... ................ ......... ......K

III. Gormal Styles.................. ................ ............... .............. ....... ....... .K

I@. Gigures of Speech.................... ............... ................ ............... ...... j

@. Structural Stylistic evices................. ............... ................ ....... ... 9

@I. Nomment on the ]honetic evices Osed Jelow............. .......... . j>@II. :iscellanyB ]oint Eut the Stylistic evices Osed............. .......j>

@III. ]oetic Speech..........................................................................j8

€$#2(#*2(.......................................................................................j

)

Gurevich v v English Stylistics Stilistika Angliiskogo Yazyk

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Transcript of Gurevich v v English Stylistics Stilistika Angliiskogo Yazyk