REVIEW PAPER

Goal Setting Interventions: Implications for Participantson the Autism Spectrum

Monica E. Carr & Dennis W. Moore & Angelika Anderson

Received: 13 January 2014 /Accepted: 23 May 2014 /Published online: 3 June 2014# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014

Abstract Single-case research design studies that includ-ed a goal setting component in interventions for a broadarray of participants engaged in a learner role werereviewed. A systematic search of the empirical literatureidentified 38 studies that met the inclusion criteria.These studies were evaluated in terms of participantcharacteristics, who set the goals (self or other), howgoals were incorporated into interventions, type of be-havior change goal setting was applied to and whethermaintenance and generalization of intervention effectswas assessed. Results highlight the potential benefitsof including a self-set goal component in interventionsaimed at assisting participants across the autism spec-trum to achieve independent functioning. An agenda isproposed for future research exploring goal setting forthis population.

Keywords Autism spectrum disorder . Goal setting .

Self-management . Systematic review

Introduction

Goals have been defined as the object or aim of an action thatan individual is trying to accomplish, and it is generallyunderstood that goal attainment involves meeting a specificstandard of task proficiency within an acceptable time frame(Locke et al. 1981). Several published reviews have reportedthat goal setting and goal attainment are important compo-nents of self-determination for students with various develop-mental or learning disabilities (Algozzine et al. 2001; Fowleret al. 2007; Konrad et al. 2007; Palmer and Wehmeyer 2003).Self-determination has been identified by the US Departmentof Education as an important educational outcome for studentswith disabilities (Algozzine et al. 2001). The Division ofCareer Development and Transition (DCDT) has suggestedthat by the age of 14 years, students should be encouraged tothe full extent of their capabilities to assume a maximumamount of responsibility in planning their futures (Halpern1994).

The skills required to develop self-determination are de-rived from the classic career development literature (Super1983) and include developing an understanding of the rela-tionship of time to goal attainment (Field et al. 1998).Research by Palmer and Wehmeyer (2003) conductedamongst children with learning disabilities, speech impair-ments, giftedness and mental retardation has shown thatproblem solving and goal setting skills develop over time.Their findings demonstrated that children with disabilitiescan, with the support of teachers, set goals and work througha self-determined skill development model at as young as5 years of age.

Copeland and Hughes (2002) conducted a review on theeffects of goal setting upon task performance for individualswith a diagnosis of mental retardation (MR). The authorsreported an improvement in awareness and task performanceupon the introduction of goal setting, with stronger effects

This study was completed in partial fulfilment of the requirements for aPhD for the first author.

M. E. Carr (*)Faculty of Education, Monash University, Building 6, ClaytonCampus, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australiae-mail: mebar4@student.monash.edu

D. W. Moore :A. AndersonKrongold Centre, Faculty of Education, Monash University,Building 6, Clayton Campus, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia

D. W. Mooree-mail: Dennis.Moore@monash.edu

A. Andersone-mail: Angelika.Anderson@monash.edu

Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241DOI 10.1007/s40489-014-0022-9

noted with more training. Self-management strategies weretaught in addition to goal setting in 7 of the 17 studiesreviewed and achieved positive outcomes. Similarly, Konradet al. (2007) published a review of the effects of self-determination interventions on the academic skills of studentswith learning disabilities (LDs) and/or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Again, stronger increases instudents’ productivity were achieved when goal setting wasadded to self-management.

The literature has indicated that goal setting skills can directattention and effort towards relevant activities and positivelyaffect task performance (Copeland and Hughes 2002; Konradet al. 2007; Locke and Latham 2002). While it is evident thatthese skills can be learned over time, it is possible that indi-viduals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are not alwaysgiven adequate opportunity to acquire the necessary skills toset and attain goals or opportunity to practice them. The abilityto independently set challenging, attainable and appropriategoals is an important skill for students with ASD to developand may contribute to improved awareness, task performance,fulfilment and independent functioning.

Recently, attention has been drawn to the significant num-ber of individuals with high-functioning autism or Asperger’ssyndrome who were diagnosed during the early 1990s and, asa result of early intervention and supports throughout school,are both capable and motivated to enter higher education(Pinder-Amaker 2014; VanBergeijk et al. 2008). Elsewhere,it has been reported that children with ASD may face anelevated risk for developing obesity (Curtin et al. 2014).Curtin and colleagues (2014) postulated that contributingfactors may include disordered sleep, atypical eating patternsand challenges associated with engaging in physical activity.It is plausible that goal setting skills may prove an importantcomponent in treatment programs aimed to overcome thesebarriers and develop a healthy and independent lifestyle.

However, a recent review of self-management interven-tions for students with ASD (Carr et al. 2014) identified apaucity of goal setting research for students on the autismspectrum. Yet, evidence of the success of goal setting tech-niques has been reported for individuals with mental retarda-tion or cognitive disabilities. Therefore, to address this knowl-edge gap, we conducted a broader systematic literature searchof goal setting researchwhich included an array of participantsnot restricted by diagnostic category. The aim of this reviewwas to map the current knowledge base regarding goal settingas an intervention, or part thereof, for students with variedadditional learning needs and challenges. Given our focus onthe use of goal setting as part of individualised self-management training for individuals with ASD, the searchwas restricted to research employing single-case researchdesigns (SCDs). The ideographic nature of SCD researchmakes this methodology particularly appropriate when exam-ining the effects of individualised interventions (Southall and

Gast 2011), such as often seen in special education research(Horner et al. 2005). These findings are then discussed withreference to their implications for students with ASD with aview to proposing an agenda for future research in this area.The following research questions were investigated:

1. What are the profiles of participants in goal settingresearch?

2. How have goal setting interventions been structured?3. What target behavior was goal setting applied to?4. Who is involved in setting participant goals (self or

other)?5. Are goal setting skills maintained over time and was

generalization assessed?6. What does the current literature suggest for applying goal

setting to participants with ASD?

Method

Studies were located for this review by conducting a system-atic search of peer-reviewed literature published prior toNovember, 2013. Keywords typically associated with goalsetting were identified from existing literature reviews, and aPsycINFO database search was subsequently conducted. Thefollowing search terms were queried: “goal setting”, “goalattainment” and “goal orientation”. A hand search of thereference lists of existing goal setting reviews, published inpeer-reviewed journals, was also conducted to identify anyadditional relevant articles that may have been omitted fromthe database search results.

The following inclusion criteria were adopted for thisreview:

1. The study utilised a SCD such as a multiple baseline,reversal or alternating treatment design.

2. The study presented data from each phase in graphicalformat for each participant.

3. The intervention included a goal setting component.4. Participants were students engaged in a learning process.5. Articles were published in English in peer-reviewed

journals.

An independent review of both the title and the abstractswas conducted to ensure the reliability of the article selectionprocess. A graduate student familiar with the broader self-management literature was provided a randomly selectedsample of 30 % of all search results and examined both thetitles and the abstracts to determine whether these articles metthe inclusion criteria for further review. Inter-assessor agree-ment (IOA) for the article selection procedure was determinedby dividing the number of agreements by the total number of

226 Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241

agreements plus disagreements and multiplying by 100. AnIOA of 97 % was achieved for this process.

Results and Discussion

This search and selection process yielded 38 studies describ-ing research conducted with 186 participants, who ranged inage from 6 to 54 years. Participants were attending school,higher education, elite athlete or sheltered workshop job skillstraining programs. The 38 studies were conducted by 29separate research teams in various locations. A total of 30studies were fromwithin the USA, conducted in the followingstates: Alabama (2), California (1), Florida (3), Georgia (1),Hawaii (1), Illinois (2), Kansas (2), Louisiana (2), Missouri(1), Montana (1), Nebraska (2), New York (3), Ohio (3),Oklahoma (2), Oregon (1), Tennessee (2) and Washington(1). The remaining eight studies were conducted in the fol-lowing locations: Canada (3), New Zealand (2) and the UK(3). Further, for one study by researchers from Oregon, datacollection was conducted in South Korea.

Table 1 provides a descriptive overview of each studyincluded in the review.

The descriptive statistics obtained from these data arefurther summarised in Table 2.

What Are the Profiles of Participants in Goal SettingResearch?

Of the 186 participants, 128 were males (69 %) and 58 werefemales (31 %). For studies that reported an age range only,we have classified the participants using the uppermost age.Where studies reported an average age, we have classified theparticipants using the average age provided. The remainingstudies provided an age for each participant. Accordingly,there were 82 elementary students aged 6 through 12 years(44 %), 73 high school students aged 13 through 17 years(39 %) and 31 adults aged 18 years or older (17 %).

Participant descriptions were classified using the primarydiagnosis provided in the original study. Accordingly, therewere 5 participants with autism (3 %), 4 with Asperger’ssyndrome (AS) (2 %), 14 with ADHD (8 %), 14 with emo-tional behavioral disorder or difficulties (8 %), 45 with learn-ing disability or difficulties (24 %), 21 with mental retardation(11 %), 12 with non-compliance/conduct disorder (6 %), 1participant who was manic/depressive (1 %), 2 gifted students(1 %), 15 participants described as typically developing (8 %),49 athletes (26 %) and 4 participants with physical disabilities(2 %).

Mixed results were reported with young students. Figarolaet al. (2008) used goal setting and self-graphing to improve themath fact fluency of three young participants that included a7 year old with a LD and 7 and 8 year olds with ADHD. A

goal was established for the end of the year, and participantsgraphed their daily performance scores. Participants weregiven verbal praise for correctly entering their data, as wellas for meeting or exceeding their aim line. Results showed thatperformance met or exceeded goals 83% of the time for the 8-year-old participant and 90 % of the time for the 7 year oldwith LD. Modifications in the form of shorter problem sets,verbal prompts and reinforcement were required for the other7 year-old participant before achieving consistentimprovement.

By contrast, Grossi and Heward (1998) reported moreconsistent results in a study with older participants.Four adults aged 20–37 years old diagnosed with mildmental retardation were included in an intervention thatwas conducted in a community based restaurant trainingprogram. During training, each participant established agoal to increase production, goal setting being guidedby the experimenter if the goal appeared unattainable.Participants were taught to self-monitor and record theirperformance. The authors reported that all participantsincreased their work productivity without compromisingthe quality of their work and without achieving com-plete accuracy in self-recording.

Similarly, Balcazar et al. (1991) reported consistent resultsand generalization effects among older physically disabledstudents. Three university students aged in their 20s and oneaged 40 years were included in an intervention that used role-play to teach the skills necessary for individuals to recruit thehelp they may need to attain their own self-set personal goals.A goal attainment scale was used to identify either no change,realistic attainment or best anticipated attainment outcomes,and the authors reported that for the 20 goals that were set bythe four participants, realistic attainment was reported eighttimes and best anticipated attainment was achieved for sevengoals. No change was reported in only five instances. Ageneralization probe also reported that intervention effectswere observed in natural situations in which participants askedfor help.

To date, intervention research has been conducted across abroad age range of participants. While less consistency hasbeen demonstrated with younger children, the literature wereviewed has indicated preliminary support for goal settingemployed across all ages. Importantly, these findings indicatethat adults have been able to learn and apply goal settingskills. While our search revealed little research conductedamong participants diagnosed with ASD, goal setting hasbeen employed in successful interventions with participantswho experience learning difficulties or cognitive challenges.These preliminary findings may present significant implica-tions for future research with this population as the behavioralissues often exhibited by individuals with ASD that may serveto mask a self-determination skill deficit amenable to goalsetting intervention.

Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241 227

Tab

le1

Descriptio

nof

studies

Author(year)

Diagnosis

Age

M/F

Setting

Targetbehavior

Researchdesign

Interventionelem

ents

Findings

generalization/

maintenance

data

Goalssetb

yothers

Barry

andMesser

(2003)

ADHD

125M

Classroom

ofelem

entary

school

On-task

behavior,disruptive

behavior,academic

performance

Multiplebaselineacross

five

studentswith

embedded

withdraw

al

Goalsbasedon

classroom

behavior

ofotherstudents,

self-recording,teacher

verbal/writtenprom

pting,

reinforcem

ent,fading

Self-m

anagem

entinterventionwas

effective,gradualfadingrequired;

also

influenced

academ

icperformance

aswellasclassroom

behavior

Yes

Brobstand

Ward(2002)

Soccerplayers

15–17

3F

General

education

high

school

(i)Movem

entw

iththeball.(ii)

Movem

entd

uringrestarts.

(iii)

Movem

entsafterball

passed

Multiplebaselineacross

behaviorsforeach

participant

Publicpostingof

daily

practice

results

placed

nearplaying

field;

Coach

established

goalsetting;O

ralfeedback:

praise

formeetinggoalsor

encouragem

entifnotm

et

Interventio

nwas

effectivein

improvingpracticeperformance

forallthree

behaviors;

generalizationto

games

evident

formovem

entw

iththeballforall

threeparticipantsbutu

nclearfor

otherbehaviors

Yes

Codding,

Lew

andowski

andEckert

(2005)

*

ADHD

9–12

1M, 1F

Elementary

school

Increase

mathematicsfluency

Alternatingtreatm

ents

Com

parison:

performance

feedback

andexperimenter

goalsetting

and

Performance

feedback

and

studentselectedgoalsetting

Bothparticipantsperformed

better

during

theself-setgoals

condition;b

othparticipants

indicatedthatPF

SGwas

their

favourite

interventio

n

No

Duhon

etal.(2004)

Failinggrades

inwrittenlanguage,

spellin

gmath

8–10

4M

General

education

Math:

workcompleted

correctly

perminute;

reading/writing:

words

correctp

erminute

Alternatingtreatm

ents

Practice,guided

organisation,

orinstruction;

performance

feedback;experim

enterset

goals(percentile

shaping)

studentselectedprizefor

exceedinggoal

Twostudentrew

ards

wereeffective

inthebriefassessmentsuggesting

aperformance

deficith

ypothesis,

fortwoaskill

deficith

ypothesis;

extended

analysisconductedto

compare

skills-basedtreatm

ent

with

performance-based

treatm

ent

No

Farrelland

McD

ougall

(2008)

SED/ADHD/BiPolar

(1)

SLD—Math(4)

ADHD/Tourettes

(1)

14–15

4M, 2F

Special

education

mathathigh

school

Correctdigits,incorrectdigits,

accuracy

Com

binedmultip

lebaselineacross

participant,changing

criterion

Self-m

onitoring

pace

using:

MotivAider

tactile

cuing,

visualcuingon

worksheets,

daily

self-graphing,teacher-

setg

oals

One

participanto

mitted

given

unstablebaselin

e;five

participantsmetor

exceeded

lower

performance

limitin

nearly

everysession;increaseinpace

not

associated

with

adecrease

inaccuracy,m

ostp

articipantsalso

increasedoverallp

ercentageof

digitscompleted

accurately

Yes

Figarolaetal.(2008)

Learningdisability

(1)ADHD(2)

7–8

3F

Special

education

resource

room

inpublic

elem

entary

Performance

of40

one-digitby

one-digitsum

sfrom

0to18

ABABwithdraw

al(2)A

Bwith

reductionin

sets

(1)

Goalsettingbasedupon

baseline,self-graphingof

daily

results,verbalp

raise

Goalsettingmetor

exceeded

aimline

on83

and90

%of

occasions;

multiplemodifications

toreduce

sets,w

ithverbalprom

ptingfor

thirdparticipant,describedas

less

successful

No

Gross

andDuhon

(2013)

Mathskill

deficits

8–9

3F

Elementary

school

Mathproblem

accuracy

Non-concurrentm

ultip

lebaselineacross

subjects

Com

puter-aidedinstruction

with

prizes;accuracygoal

setat9

0%;teachertraining

ininstruction,modellin

gandrehearsalw

ithperformance;feedback

Findings

demonstratedan

increase

inmathfactaccuracy.A

llthree

studentsmetaccuracy

goalat

somepointu

sing

CAI

No

HanelandMartin

(1980)

Mentalretardation

19–54

8M

Residential

sheltered

workshop

Coffeepack

assemblyrateper

hour;p

ercentagecorrect

Com

binedmultip

lebaseline,reversal;

delayedtreatm

ent

controlg

roup

Self-m

onito

ring,self-

administrationof

token

reinforcem

ent,goalsetting

determ

ined

byother

Increasedproductivity

ofallclients,

someconsiderably,som

eminim

ally

No

Lam

bertetal.

(1999)

Gym

nasts

12–13

4F

Gym

Withinsubjectsalternating

treatm

ent

Self-setgoals,coach-setg

oals

Gym

nastswith

aninternallocusof

controlspent

moretim

eon-task

No

228 Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241

Tab

le1

(contin

ued)

Author(year)

Diagnosis

Age

M/F

Setting

Targetbehavior

Researchdesign

Interventionelem

ents

Findings

generalization/

maintenance

data

On-task

behavior

when

working

onbeam

during

competitiontraining

during

self-setgoalcondition;

gymnastswith

anexternallocus

ofcontrolspentmoretim

eon-task

during

coach-setg

oalcondition

Wardetal.

(1998)

PE: vo

lleyball

Grade

414

M 10F

General

education—

PEvolleyball

skills

Opportunity

torespond:

numberof

trialsperformed,

numbercorrectp

erminute

Multi-treatm

ent

A-B-A

-Creversal

Group

instruction,

peerdyads,

peer

mediated

accountability,teacher

determ

ined

goalsetting,

peer

recordingandpublic

posting,reinforcem

ent

Littledifference

betweengroup

instructionandpeer

dyad

condition;highestnumberof

otr’s

andcorrecttrialsduring

peer-

mediatedaccountability

phase;usingpeersas

data

collectorscreatedan

instructional

environm

entw

hereteachercould

hold

studentsaccountablefor

performance,recording

createda

producto

fperformance

No

Winnetal.(2004)

N/A;referredfor

behavioral

consultation

7–9

2M, 1F

General

educationin

threeinner-

city

schools

Num

berof

words

writtenin

daily

journal

Non-concurrentm

ultip

lebaselineusingthree

ABdesigns

Goalsettin

g;self-recording:

countingwords

and

recordingon

goalcharts,

reinforcers

Allstudentsincreasedjournalw

riting

quantity;goalssettobe

attainable

butchallenging;

allteachers

reported

interventioneasy

toim

plem

entand

required

few

resources,studentlikethe

intervention,onestudent

appeared

toim

proveperformance

inotheracadem

icareas

Anecdotal,nodata

Guidedgoalsetting

Asaro-Saddler

and

Saddler(2010)

Asperger’s

syndrome(1)

Autism

(2)

6–9

3M

Public elem

entary,

various

empty

classrooms

Improvestorywritinglength,

numberof

storyelem

ents,

quality

Multipleprobes

across

multip

lebaseline

design

Goalsetting(participantand

instructor),self-m

onito

ring,

self-recording,self-

reinforcem

ent

Increasednumberof

storyelem

ents

used

whenwritingfictional

stories,quality

ofthestoryandthe

averagenumberof

words.

Generalised

across

task,from

fictionaltonarrativewritin

g,and

maintainedatfour

weekfollow-

up

Yes

Grossiand

Hew

ard

(1998)

Mild

mental

retardation

20–37

4M

Com

munity

-based

restaurant

training

program

(a)W

orkproductivity.(b)Work

quality/accuracy.(c)

Accuracyof

self-

monitoring

work

performance

Multiplebaselineacross

tasks

Self-evaluationtraining,self-set

goalswith

guidance,self-

monitoring,verbaldirection,

modelling,rehearsal,

correctivefeedback,social

praise,self-adjustmento

fgoal

Increase

inworkproductivity

forall

four

trainees,traineesincreased

theirratesof

workwithout

sacrificingworkquality,results

suggestcom

pleteaccuracy

isnot

necessaryforim

proved

work

performance

No

Lee

andTindal

(1994)

Typically

developing

students

10–12

3M, 2F

Regular

education

classroom

inKorea

(i)Percentageof

timeon-task.

(ii)Mathematics

productivity

ratecompleted

accurately

perminute

Alternatingtreatm

ents

Self-recording;self-setg

oals

with

guidance;com

bined

goalsetting

andrewardfor

achievingdaily

goal

(teacher

provided

snack);

feedback

Allstudentsincreasedon-tasklevels

upon

implem

entationof

SRand

GS;

allstudentslevelsin

SRand

GShigher

than

baselineformath

productivity;b

ecause

ofceiling

effectsandresults

suggesteffects

ofSR

andGSnotconsistently

different

Yes

McC

arthyetal.

(2010)

Junior

multievent

athletes

12(2),13

(1)

3F

Athleticsclub

track

(i)Po

sitiv

eaffect.(ii)

Negative

affect

Multiplebaselineacross

participants

Coach

assisted

goalsetting;

diaryto

detailprocessgoals

andgoalsetting;feedback

andreinforcem

ent

Dem

onstratedstatistically

significant

increase

inpositiv

eaffectforall

participants;n

ostatistically

significantd

ecreasein

negativ

e

No

Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241 229

Tab

le1

(contin

ued)

Author(year)

Diagnosis

Age

M/F

Setting

Targetbehavior

Researchdesign

Interventionelem

ents

Findings

generalization/

maintenance

data

affect;p

articipantssetappropriate

processandperformance

goals

with

guidance

andmasteredgoals

Merriman

and

Codding

(2008)

ADHD

HS

2M, 1F

Generalhigh

school,

specialed

teacher

support

(i)Hom

eworkcompletion.(ii)

Hom

eworkaccuracy

Multiplebaselin

eacross

participants

Coachingwith

guided

goal

setting,self-monito

ring

ofhomew

orkcompletion,

accuracy

andprogress,

graphing

ofcompletionand

accuracy,fading

Allstudentsincreasedpercentagesfor

homew

orkcompletionand

accuracy,m

aintainedduring

fading

andfollow-upfortwo

participants(not

implem

entedfor

thirdparticipantasdidnotm

eet

long-term

goal,how

ever

increase

considered

adequate)

Yes

Miller

andKelley

(1994)

Conductandlearning

problems,

hyperactivity,

inattention/

passivity

9–11

2M, 2F

General

education

(i)Accuracyof

completed

homew

ork.

(ii)On-task

behavior

ReversalA

BABmultiple

baseline

Child,parentg

oalsuggestions

then

determ

ined

acomprom

ised

goal,parent

monitoring,contingency

contracting,daily

and

weeklyrewards

orsanctio

ns

Increasedworkaccuracy

forall

participantsandincreased

stability

ofresponding

across

phases

forthreeof

four

participants,twoparticipants

demonstratedincreasesin

percentage

ofon-taskbehavior

No

Moore

etal.(2001)

Typically

developing

students

83M

General

education

On-task

behavior

Multip

lebaselin

eacross

subjects

Self-monitoring

with

self-

recordingusingintervalsof

on-taskatthetim

e,tallied

atendandgraphed;

goal

setting

with

assistance

and

on-going

performance

feedback;fading

Substantialincreasein

on-task

behavior

forallthree

students

during

self-m

onitoring/self-

recording;

performance

levels

maintainedduring

goalsetting;

maintainedduring

fading

fortwo

participants

Yes

Srikam

eswaran

and

Martin

(1984)*

Mentally

handicapped

25–36

2M, 2F

Sheltered

workshop

training

centre

(i)P

roductionofbags

ofceiling

tileclips.(ii)Percentage

ofcorrectp

roduction

Modifiedmultip

lebaselin

ewith

reversal-

replication

Self-monitoring

plus

goal

setting

(guidedduring

training);tokenexchange

quarters;edibles/activities;

general/specificprom

pts

verbalinteractions;

feedback;p

aysystem

SRP(SM

GS+reinforcer)was

effectiveatincreasing

production

rateabovebaseline,two

participantsdidnotrespond

toquartersbutd

emonstratedsm

all

increasesforedible/activity

reinforcers;SR

Pmoreeffective

than

SMor

SMGSforthreeof

four

participants

No

Tollefson

etal.

(1986)

Learning

disabled

Grade

7(6)

Grade

8(2)

7M, 1F

Middleschool

resource

room

Classroom

assignment

completion,homew

ork

assignmentcom

pletion

Multiplebaselin

eacross

eightstudents

classroom

assignment

comparisongroupfor

homew

orkassignment

Contract:goal

statem

ent,plan

tomeetg

oal,and

evaluationof

appropriatenessof

goalandplan.

Student

selected

achievem

entg

oal;

studentd

eveloped

aspecificgoal

statem

ent/plan,

studentchart,

feedback

Studentscanlearnto

setrealistic

achievem

entg

oal,developplans

toreachthesegoalsand

monitorprogress

towards

goals.

Studentsincreasedratesof

assignmentcom

pletionand

weremoreconfidento

ftheir

ability

toplan

No

Goalssetb

yparticipants*also

included

Codding

etal.(2005);Srikameswaran

andMartin

(1984);L

ambertetal.(1999)

Albertson

and

Billingsley

(2001)

Giftedstudents

131M 1

FEnrolledin

school

honours

program,

Creativewritingplanning,text

production,ratesof

writing,

review

ingandwriting

quality

Multiplebaselin

eacross

participant

Student-setgoalsetting;

planning

andtim

erecording;

storywritingand

timerecording;

review

ing,

Strategy

instructionplus

self-

regulation(goalsettin

gand

graphing)enhanced

storylength,

fluency(w

ords/m

inute)

andstory

Yes

230 Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241

Tab

le1

(contin

ued)

Author(year)

Diagnosis

Age

M/F

Setting

Targetbehavior

Researchdesign

Interventionelem

ents

Findings

generalization/

maintenance

data

conductedin

homeoffice

ofresearcher

changesandtim

erecording;

self-recording

andgraphing;

feedback

with

verbalpraise

elem

entscoresforboth

participants;p

articipantsmetor

exceed

goals88

%of

time;

writtenquality

ofstorieswritten

quicklyduring

interventionwas

judged

asequaltoor

betterthan

priorsessions

Balcazaretal.

(1991)

Physicald

isabilities

20–40

2M, 2F

Large

mid-

western

university

Independently

recruith

elpto

attain

personalgoals

Interruptedtim

eseries

multip

lereplication

across

participants

Role-play

assessment;written

training

manualo

fhelp-

recruitin

gskillswith

listo

f25

verbalresponses;

feedback

andpraise

Com

parisonof

scores

before

and

aftertraining

indicatedsignificant

improvem

entinparticipantshelp-

recruitingskills;participantsset

20goalswith

totaloffivereported

asno

change,eight

metrealistic

attainmentand

sevenbest

anticipated

attainmento

utcomes

Yes

Balcazaretal.

(1995)

behavioraldisorder

(4),mental

retardation(1),

manic-depressive

(1)

17–19

6M

Residential

treatm

ent

school

(i)Transition

goals.(ii)Action

towards

reaching

goals.(iii)

Help-recruitin

gskills

Multiplebaselinedesign

across

behaviors(asa

group)

Self-goalsetting,self-recording

instudentd

iary,role-play

ofhelp-recruiting

skills

Consistentimprovem

entsin

help-

recruitingskillsof

group;

all

studentsdemonstratedsubstantial

effortsandreported

ingoal

attainment(11/17goalsforgroup

attained,2/2

goalsdroppedand

4/17

goalsin

progress)

Yes

Benitezetal.(2005)

Emotionalbehavioral

disorder

15–17

5M

Special

education

Conflictresolution(1),

assertiveness(2),career

exploration(2)

Five

ABdesigns,identical

goalsandoutcom

emeasures

Goalsettingwith

goaltraining,

goalattainmentm

easures,

self-m

onitoring

Increasedcorrectresponses

bycondition

forallp

articipants,all

participantsachieved

theirtarget

goals

Yes

Caldw

elland

Joseph

(2012)

Conductdisorderand

substanceabuse

(2);em

otional

disturbance(1)

14,17,18

3F

Maxim

um-

security

juvenile

facility

Tim

eon-task,academ

icproductiv

ity,academic

accuracy

during

independentm

athpractice

Single-casereversal

design

across

participants

Setandrecord

productivity

and

accuracy

goals,self-

monitoring,fading

Studentsweretaught

tograph

performance

dataandset

performance

andaccuracy

goals

answ

eringquestio

ntomaintainor

increase

previous

result.

Correctivefeedback

was

provided.A

ccuracydidnot

increase

during

intervention,

directioninstructionon

math

problemswas

notp

rovided.

Samplesize

small,incentive

rewards

notimmediate.B

aselines

long,possiblethatintervention

should

have

occurred

sooner

No

Delano(2007)

Asperger’ssyndrome

13–17

3M

General

education

classes,

instructionin

conference

room

Words

written,functionalessay

elem

ents

Multiplebaselinedesign

across

responsesand

participants

Self-m

onitoring,self-recording,

self-goalsetting,verbal/

writtenstorystarter/video

prom

pts

Usedvideoself-m

odellin

gto

teach

SRSD

andself-m

onito

ring.

Increasednumberof

words,

functionalessay

elem

entsin

persuasive

essaywritin

g.Tw

oparticipantsmaintainedincrease

innumberof

words

at3-month

follow-up,functionalessay

elem

entswerenotm

aintained

Yes

Grahametal.(1992)

Learningdisability

11(2),12

(1),13

(1)

3M, 1F

Resourceroom

inelem

entary

school

Improvewritingcomposition

Multipleprobedesign

across

subjects

Studentsdirected

tolistw

aysto

meetg

oals;self-prom

ptevaluation,reflection;

Improved

performance

inessay

writingin

each

goalarea:

components,length

and

Yes

Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241 231

Tab

le1

(contin

ued)

Author(year)

Diagnosis

Age

M/F

Setting

Targetbehavior

Researchdesign

Interventionelem

ents

Findings

generalization/

maintenance

data

strategy

chart,goalchartand

student-generatedself-

instructionlists;feedback

convincing.P

ost-treatm

enttwo

times

asmanyelem

entsandfour

times

morebasicparts.Essays

weretwoto

threetim

eslonger,

moreconvincing.M

aintained

gainsover

time,studentand

teacherreported

strategy

improved

writingperformance

Holtetal.(2012)

Professionalsoccer

club

academ

yplayers

10–12

5M

Indoor

coaching

Technicald

rill“passing

square”:aw

areness,passing

andfirsttouch

Single-subject,m

ultiple

baselinewith

reversal

Peer-assessedfeedback

with

carting,goalsetting

and

groupcontingency;

players

self-setpersonalgoalsand

follo

wingagreem

entw

ithcoachchartedgoallin

e

Awarenessscores

improved

noticeablyduring

interventio

n,passingandfirsttouch

dataalso

improved

andweremore

consistent

during

intervention;

findings

supportresearchthat

accountabilitydrives

the

instructiontask

system

Yes

KelleyandStokes

(1984)

Highschooldropouts

with

academ

icandsocialdeficits

16–21

7M 1

FVocational

training

program

Num

berandpercentage

ofacadem

icitemsansw

ered

correct

Contracting:

reversal;

multip

lebaseline

Baselinepaym

entb

ased

onattendance;contingency

contractingpaym

entfor

numberofcorrectworkbook

itemsplus

$13.50

for

completingweeklygoal(or

%thereof);student-setgoal

setting

daily/weekly

paym

ent

Student-teachercontractingwith

pay

waseffectiveinincreasing

student

productivity;student

goalsetting

effectiveformaintaining

student

productivity

substantially

higher

than

baseline,although

generally

lower

than

during

contracting

conditions

No

Lenzetal.(1991)

Learningdisability

135M 1

F6-weeksummer

program

Improvecompletionof

project-

type

assignments

Multiplebaselineacross

subjects

Goalsetting:

task

evaluation,

options,specification;

Actualisation:

plan

identification,plan

expansion,self-m

onito

ring,

feedback

Effectiv

einincreasing

thenumberof

projectssuccessfully

completed

andthequality

ofgoalsetting

and

goalactualisationresponses;all

studentsdemonstratedan

increase

ofatleast20%overtheirbaseline

averages

inboth

goalsetting

and

goalactualisation

No

Lym

an(1984)

Conductdisorder

126M

Residential

treatm

ent

facility

On-task

behavior

Multiplebaselineacross

sixsubjects

Privatestudent-setg

oal;public

student-setg

oal,goalcard

onbulletin

boardatfronto

fclass

Percentage

oftim

eon-taskslightly

higher

inprivategoalsetting

than

baseline;percentage

oftim

eon-

task

substantially

higher

inpublic

goalsetting

than

eitherbaselineor

privategoalsetting;p

ublic

goal

setting

may

bemoreeffectivethan

privategoalsetting

No

Moore

etal.(1989)

Severemental

retardation

19–21

2M, 2F

Sheltered

workshop

Rateforsortingwashers;self-

instructions

Multiplebaselineacross

subjects

Self-talktraining,self-goal

setting,self-reinforcem

ent,

verbalpraise,corrective

feedback,m

odellin

g

Allworkersincreasedproductionto

criterion

levels,increases

maintainedup

to3months,

productivity

consistent

throughout

workperiods,work

productionincrease

underself-

reinforcem

entw

asmodestand

perhapsmoney

was

not

reinforcing

No

O’Brien

etal.(2009)

Elite(3)and

non-elite

(3)boxers

15–17

6M

Amateurboxing

association

Multiplebaselineacross

individuals

Participantg

oald

etermination,

participantgoalsetting,goal

Allelite

participantsim

mediately

improved

performance,sustained

No

232 Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241

Tab

le1

(contin

ued)

Author(year)

Diagnosis

Age

M/F

Setting

Targetbehavior

Researchdesign

Interventionelem

ents

Findings

generalization/

maintenance

data

(i)Perform

ance

(num

berof

punches).(ii)

Com

petition

outcom

es

review

ing,reinforcem

ent

forgoalattainment,

feedback

during

retentionphase;alln

on-

elite

participantsim

mediately

improved

performance,not

sustainedduring

retentionphase.

Non-elitemeanpercentage

ofwinsincreasedduring

interventio

nandretentionfortwo

participantsandshow

edno

increase

during

interventionanda

decrease

atretentionforone

participant

Todd

etal.(2010)

Autism

15–17

2M 1

FCyclingcourse

atspecial

education

school

Sustained

cycling

Multiplebaseline

changing

criterion

Self-m

onitoring,goalsetting:

intensity

phaseanddistance

phase

Developed

attitudeandskillsto

effectivelyengage

inself-

regulation;twostudentsincreased

distance

cycled,allparticipants

developedaccuracy

atdifferent

intensity

levels,allparticipants

developedaccuracy

indistance

goalsetting,directinstructionin

self-efficacyappeared

beneficial

forteaching

goalsetting

Yes

Trammeletal.

(1994)

Learningdisability

13–16

6M 2

FGeneral

education

resource

room

support

Hom

eworkassignment

completion

Multiplebaselineacross

subjects

Self-m

onito

ring,self-

evaluatio

n,goalsetting,self-

graphing

Immediateincrease

ofhomew

ork

assignmentcom

pletionunder

both

self-m

onito

ring

andself-

graphing

conditions;results

maintainedathigh

levelsduring

maintenance

phaseandat20-and

40-day

follow-upprobes

Yes

Wanlin

etal.(1997)

Speed

skating

performance

12–17

4F

Provincialteam

preparingfor

National

Winter

Gam

es

(i)Lap

frequency.(ii)Num

ber

ofdrillscompleted.(iii)

500-m

race

times.(iv)Off-

task

behavior

Multiplebaselineacross

individuals(1

control)

Mission

developm

ent,long-

term

self-setting,sub-goal

andpracticegoalsetting,

self-talk,goalvisualisation;

self-m

onitoring

and

recording:

prom

pt,self-

evaluatio

nandsetn

ewpracticegoals;publicgoal

sharing

Immediateincrease

inlaps

forall

threeparticipants,control

initially

increasedthen

droppedbelow

meanlevelsof

both

baselineand

interventio

n;allp

articipants

improved

numberof

drills,

controlp

articipantm

aintained

stablelevelo

fcompletion;

all

participantsim

proved

mean

racing

times,control

participant

chosenottorace;o

ff-task

behaviorsim

mediately

dropped

fortwoparticipants,one

participantreportedan

almost

completeabsenceof

off-task

behavior,control

participanth

adhigh

frequencyof

off-task

behavior

throughout

study;

goal

achievem

entat7

2,76

and71

%

No

Goalsintroduced

inlatterphase

Maagetal.(1992)

Learningdisability

7–11

4M 2

FRegular

classroom

(i)On-task

behavior.(ii)

Academicproductivity

Multipletreatm

entd

esign

across

participant

(i)Self-observation.(ii)Self-

observationandself-

recording.(iii)

Self-

observation,self-recording

Substantialchanges

inon-task

behavior

andacadem

icproductivity

foreach

studentin

each

experimentalcondition

Yes

Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241 233

How Have Goal-Setting Interventions Been Structured?

Interventions that included goal setting as part of treatmentpackages and alongside other intervention components werefrequently described. These included contracting (3), self-monitoring (25), reinforcement (15) and feedback (17). Theuse of technology was also described and included computerinstruction (1) and video modelling (1). An approach to teachgoal setting was described in six studies (16 %), and the use ofself-regulated strategy development (SRSD) techniques wasreported in two studies (5 %). Public goal sharing was includ-ed as an intervention element in four studies (11 %).

Lyman (1984) explored the effects of private student-setgoals and public sharing of student-set goals with six studentsschooled in a residential treatment facility as a result of con-duct disorder. During the public condition, a goal card wasplaced on the bulletin board at the front of the class.Participants reportedly spent a slightly higher percentage oftime attending to task during the private goal setting conditionand substantially more time on task upon introduction ofpublic goal sharing.

Goal setting was introduced during the latter stage ofintervention in two studies (5 %). One study examined theeffects of self-monitoring with contingent reinforcement un-der two conditions: comparison to prior performance andcontingent to meeting a goal (Maag et al. 1992). Anotherstudy introduced goals in the latter phase in order for oneparticipant to achieve mastery of math division (Skinner et al.1993).

Maag et al. (1992) introduced goal setting in the finalphase of an intervention that included the followingphases: a self-observation condition; self-observationand self-recording; self-observation (reversal), self-recording and contingent verbal reinforcement for per-formance improvement; and self-observation, self-recording and contingent reinforcement using teacher-and student-set goals for successive increases in mathe-matics problem task performance. The largest gain inacademic productivity occurred during the phase of con-tingent reinforcement plus goal setting, during which theteacher not only provided verbal reinforcement for anincrease over prior performance but also provided verbalencouragement in the event a goal was not met. Theauthors concluded that treatment effects can be in-creased by the simultaneous use of goal setting.However, the effect of goal setting alone was notexplored.

While the original authors of these 38 studies have consis-tently reported positive treatment effects, the majority of thestudies have confounded goal setting with other dependantvariables. Three studies were identified which enable theeffectiveness of goal setting alone to be examined. Lambertet al. (1999) compared self-set goals with coach-set goals, andT

able1

(contin

ued)

Author(year)

Diagnosis

Age

M/F

Setting

Targetbehavior

Researchdesign

Interventionelem

ents

Findings

generalization/

maintenance

data

andcontingent

reinforcem

entp

hase

1.(iv)

Self-observation,self-

recording,

contingent

reinforcem

entp

hase

2Guidedgoalsetting

except

self-observatio

nalonein

which

effectswerenegligible.

Increasedperformance

ofon-task

behavior

andacadem

icproductivity

mostsubstantial

during

contingent-reinforcement

phases

Skinneretal.(1993)

behavioraldisorders

91M

Privatespecial

education

(i)Percentageof

division

problemscorrect.(ii)

Num

berof

digitsand/or

problemscorrectperminute

Multiplebaselineacross-

problemswithin

subjects

Cognitivecover,copy,and

compare

(CCC;o

neparticipantrequired

assessmentfeedbackand

teacher-setg

oalsettingto

reachmastery

level

CCCeffectiveatincreasing

students’

rateof

accurateresponding

todivision

problems;assessment

feedback

andgoalsetting

suggest

thattheseprocedures

alonemay

resultin

increasesin

ratesof

accurateresponding

Yes

234 Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241

both Maag et al. (1992) and Skinner et al. (1993) introduced agoal condition additively to achieve an effective treatmentthereby enabling intervention effects to be measured beforeand after the introduction of goal setting. In each case, goalsetting was associated with clear behavioral gains.

What Types of Target Behavior Was Goal Setting AppliedTo?

These interventions addressed a variety of target behaviorsincluding transition planning (2), decreasing problem

Table 2 Summary of descriptivestatistics Descriptor Participant numbers

Sex Male 128

Female 58

Age School aged (6–12 years) 82

Adolescence (13–17 years) 73

Adulthood (18 years and older) 31

Diagnosis Autism 5

Asperger’s syndrome 4

ADHD 14

Emotional behavioral disorder 14

Learning disability 45

Mental retardation 21

Non-compliance/conduct 12

Manic depressive 1

Giftedness 2

Typically developing 15

Athletics 49

Physical disability 4

Method Taught prerequisite skills 1

Taught goal setting 6

Taught self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) 2

Goals set by other 11

Guided goal setting 9

Guided goal setting, set by participant 20

Public goal sharing 4

Goals introduced in latter phase 2

Other components Contracting 3

Self-monitoring 25

Reinforcement 15

Feedback 17

Used computer instruction 1

Used video modelling 1

Target behavior Transition planning 2

Problem behavior 8

Mathematics 9

Writing 6

Reading 1

Academics—all subjects 3

Homework 4

Projects 1

Social skills 1

Athletics 7

Development of physical activity skills 1

Vocational tasks 4

Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241 235

behavior (8), mathematics (9), writing (6), reading (1), allacademic subjects (3), homework (4), projects (1), social skills(1), athletic performance (7), development of physical activityskills (1) and vocational tasks (4). Target behavior was plottedby number of participants, as illustrated in (Fig. 1).

Barry and Messer (2003) incorporated goal setting withself-management to increase on-task behavior and academicperformance and decrease disruptive behavior in an interven-tion conducted with five boys with ADHD. The teacher setparticipant goals using the approximate average for the classin an intervention that included self-recording, teacherprompting and reinforcement. Goals for academic achieve-ment and on-task behaviors were gradually increased duringfading. While results again showed this to be an effectiveintervention procedure, researchers noted that gradual fadingof supports was necessary to ensure maintenance.

Tollefson et al. (1986) targeted an increase in completion ofclassroom assignments and an increase in homework assign-ment completion for eight middle school students described aslearning disabled. During training with the research assistant,each student selected an achievement goal: daily or weekly in-class assignments, or homework assignments for the week,and developed a goal statement of what was required and bywhen. A study plan was specified, and each student self-monitored work completion. Subsequently, students met withthe research assistant to evaluate the goal and the plan, ad-dressing reasons for success or failure in goal attainment. Ahomework contract phase was introduced for four students,intended to promote generalization of goal implementationskills. Three students demonstrated a marked increase inhomework assignment completion. The authors reported that

time spent teaching goal setting and goal implementationstrategies not only increased the rate of assignment comple-tion but also made students more confident in their ability toplan.

A goal setting model that included goal determination, goalsetting and goal reviewing was used to examine the cumula-tive effects on skill performance among six high school boxers(O’Brien et al. 2009). During goal determination, participantsmet with the researcher to determine a self-generated perfor-mance behavior. All participants rated the number of puncheslanded as most important, thus determining this as the targetbehavior. During goal setting, a numeric system to measurechanges in the participants’ target expectations over time aswell as a means to measure progress during intervention wasdeveloped. Three elite level participants immediately im-proved performance, and improvement was sustained duringa follow-up phase. However, while the three non-elite partic-ipants also immediately improved performance, their increasewas not sustained during follow-up.

Individuals with ASD are often described as having anuneven profile of executive functioning skills, an area ofimportance for achieving academic or vocational success(Geller and Greenberg 2010). While high-functioning stu-dents on the spectrummay be academically capable, problemswith organisation and planningmay negatively impact successin higher education or vocational settings and present a chal-lenge for independent functioning. The application of goalsetting to behavior management, attention to task and timemanagement described in the existing literature raises thepossibility that effective goal setting instruction may be ben-eficial to students with ASD in learning skills necessary to

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Academics - all subjects

Athle�cs

Development of physical ac�vity skills

Homework

Mathema�cs

Problem behavior

Projects

Reading

Social skills

Transi�on planning

Voca�onal tasks

Wri�ng

Mul�ple behaviors

Number of Participants

Targ

et B

ehav

ior

Target behavior by participants

Fig. 1 Target behavior by participants

236 Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241

overcome these challenges and to perform tasksindependently.

Who Is Involved in Setting Participant Goals?

The studies in this data set described a variety of stakeholdersinvolved in the goal setting process. Twenty studies (53 %)described goal setting by the participants, 9 studies (24 %)described the participant setting goals under guidance, and in11 studies (29 %), goals were set by someone other than theparticipant.

Two studies employed an alternating treatment design tocompare the effects of goal setting by either the experimenter/coach with goals that were set by the participant (Coddinget al. 2005; Lambert et al. 1999). While Codding andcolleagues (2005) reported that participants not only per-formed better during the student selected goals condition butalso favoured this condition over the experimenter-selectedgoal condition, Lambert and colleagues (1999) reported thatself-set and coach-set goals functioned differently dependingon the participants’ locus of control. In particular, an internallocus of control was associated with greater gains under a self-set goal condition, and an external locus of control wasassociated with greater gains under a coach-set goal condition.

Participant descriptions were plotted against the differencesin the identity and role of the goal setter (self vs other vsguidance provided) for the studies reviewed, as illustrated inFig. 2. The graph illustrates a potpourri of self, other andguided approaches to goal setting. The exclusive use of inde-pendently set goals was noted amongst participants described

either as gifted or physically disabled, while goals were eitherset independently by the participants or under guidance forparticipants with ASD, AS, conduct disorder and studentswith manic depression. Typically developing students in thisdata set did not set goals independently and received guidancewith setting goals only marginally more frequently than hav-ing goals set by an adult. A few athletes received guidancewith goal setting, and athletes set goals independently in justover one third of the data. The majority of participants withlearning disabilities self-set goals, although both guidance andgoals set by another adult were observed. Few students withADHD set goals independently, and occasional provision ofguidance was observed in these studies though the majority ofthese participants had goals set by an adult. This diversity inapproaches may reflect different purposes on the part of theresearchers when adopting goal setting in interventions. Forstudies targeting increased performance, such as in the case ofathletes, it may arguably be less relevant for the participants toindependently set their own performance goals. By contrast,where the aim of the intervention is to enhance independentfunctioning, developing social skills, transition planning orreducing problem behavior for example, teaching participantsto set their own goals either independently or with guidancemay be of greater relevance.

By way of example, three non-verbal high school studentsdiagnosed with ASD were included in an intervention thataimed to increase participation in sustained physical activity(Todd et al. 2010). The students possessed the physical skillsrequired to cycle and were able to discriminate correctlybetween more or less necessary to set distance goals. Prior to

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Athletes

ADHD

ASD

AS

Conduct Disorder

EBD

Gi�ed

LD

Manic Depressive

MR

Typically Developing

Physically Disabled

Number of Participants

Part

icip

ant D

escr

iptio

n

Goal setting method used by participants

Self-Set

Set by other

Guidance

Fig. 2 Goal setting method used by participants

Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241 237

independently setting cycling distance goals, participants weregiven guidance to understand their cycling capabilities andwere taught to self-monitor. All three students developedaccuracy in setting both distance and intensity goals, andtwo of the students increased the distance they cycled.

However, for interventions in which successful completionof task is less related to attaining independence, the identity ofthe goal setter may be less significant. For example, guidedgoal setting, combined with self-monitoring and performancefeedback, formed the basis of a coaching intervention in anintervention conducted with three high school students withADHD (Merriman and Codding 2008). An initial goal settingmeeting was conducted between each student and the coach.Students used their baseline data to set goals for mathematicshomework completion and accuracy, and the coach gaveguidance in the event of unrealistic goal suggestions.Coaching was conducted daily with feedback and goal refor-mulation, and praise for progress was provided until thestudents achieved their long-term goals. During systematicfading, coaching sessions went to alternate days then weeklyuntil eventual termination. Results showed that coaching im-proved the completion and accuracy of homework for all threeparticipants, with improvements maintained during fading andfollow-up for the two participants that met their long-termgoals.

In contrast, interventions that do not impact the partici-pants’ ability to achieve independent functioning may notrequire the participants themselves to set goals in order toachieve positive outcomes. For example, Brobst and Ward(2002) reported a study with three teenaged female soccerplayers to increase performance of existing ball skills in bothpractice sessions and games. The head coach and the research-er established a performance level for the targeted skills, andan intervention package that included public posting, goalsetting and oral feedback was implemented. Both the goaland the rationale behind it were explained to the participants,and practice results were reported on a performance chartdisplayed near the playing field. Players were praised formeeting goals and given encouragement if they did not.Results demonstrated improvement during practice.Generalization results were less consistent, and improvementduring games was apparent for only one of the three ball skills.

Are Goal Setting Effects Maintained Over Timeand Was generalization Assessed?

While frequent informal reports of generalization and mainte-nance over time were included by the original authors ofstudies in this set, data confirming such effects was reportedin 18 of the 38 studies (47 %). Three of the 38 studies includedparticipants with ASD (Asaro-Saddler and Saddler 2010;Delano 2007; Todd et al. 2010), and notably, all three of these

articles included data for either generalization or maintenanceof treatment effects over time.

Inspection of generalization and maintenance data for theparticipants with ASD revealed variable findings. Asaro-Saddler and Saddler (2010) included a generalization task inan intervention conducted with two elementary students withAS, and one with autism, in which the writing requirementaltered from fiction to personal recount. While two partici-pants appeared to successfully generalize writing skills to thenew task, one participant included a fictional name rather than“I”. The authors reported that participants may not haveclearly distinguished the required difference. Similarly, datagathered to explore maintenance of treatment effects over timealso resulted in variable findings. Todd et al. (2010) examinedcycling distance goals in the maintenance phase of an inter-vention with three non-verbal teens. Gains in excess of base-line were maintained for two of the three participants duringthe phase. Delano (2007) collected follow-up data at both 1-week and 3-month time frames for three teens with AS.Although a gain in the number of words written was main-tained by all three participants at 3 months, the number offunctional essay elements was not maintained. Delano (2007)suggested that a longer intervention period may be required.Asaro-Saddler and Saddler (2010) also collected maintenanceprobes after 4 weeks and acknowledged the limitation of theirdata as continued gains beyond this time frame remainunknown.

Stokes and Baer (1977) described generalization acrosssubjects, settings, people, behaviors and/or time as the occur-rence of relevant behavior under different untrained condi-tions in the absence of conditions that had been scheduledduring training. At that time, attention was drawn to theimportance of actively programming to achieve generaliza-tion, rather than to passively expect it as an outcome oftraining procedures. In addition, the use of stimuli found inthe generalization settings, which included the role of peers astutors, was highlighted as significant to future research whenstructuring training sessions.

Authors of the original studies from our broader data setgenerally concur that graduated fading is necessary in order tomaintain intervention effects over time or to observe general-ization of effects to new settings or behaviors. Several studiesreported successful maintenance of treatment effects over timeamong all participants in research that included systematicstimulus fading (Moore et al. 2001; Merriman and Codding2008).

Conclusions

Our aim in this study was to map the existing single-subjectresearch evidence for interventions that have included a goal

238 Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2014) 1:225–241

setting component with a view to informing a research agendafor participants with ASD. This data set as a whole providespreliminary support for the effectiveness of goal setting tech-niques in a wide variety of interventions. However, to date,little research on goal setting has been performed with indi-viduals who have a diagnosis of ASD.

Second, in the research identified, goal setting effects havealmost always been confounded with interventions typicallyinvolving a combination of components additional to goalsetting. The most common of these, self-monitoring, wasincluded in two thirds of the interventions. Several of thesestudies noted that participants value both establishing theirgoal independently and self-monitoring their behavior.Feedback was also included in almost half of theinterventions, and again, original author reports suggest thatinformation derived from feedback played a significant role inpositive intervention outcomes.

Southall and Gast (2011), in their qualitative review of self-management interventions for students with ASD,emphasised the need for researchers to examine the effectsof specific components of current self-management interven-tion packages to identify the relative contribution of each. Ourfindings support this conclusion, highlighting in particular theneed to explore the contribution goal setting has, either inisolation or in combination with other intervention compo-nents, on intervention outcomes and on the development ofself-determination more generally.

Another important observation arising from this data setconcerns the generalization and maintenance of observedchanges. Goal setting skill training may be an importantcomponent of treatment packages that aim to develop inde-pendent functioning for participants with ASD, and effectivegoal setting may be a vital skill for high-functioning studentswho pursue higher education. Given that goal setting skills aredeveloped over time, it appears particularly important to gath-er generalization and maintenance data. While limited involume, the preliminary maintenance data for participantswith ASD is variable, including accounts of maintenancefailure post-intervention. Accordingly, we reiterate the impor-tance that future research includes longer intervention phases,in addition to programming for generalization and mainte-nance over longer time frames and/or including peers.

With respect to how participants have been involved in thegoal setting process within an intervention, no clear pattern isevident in our data set. The basis on which researchers havedecided either to set goals themselves or how and to whatextent to involve the participants in this process is unclear, andimportantly, the implications of these decisions are largelyunexplored. This review has identified goal setting researchthat has been conducted successfully with a wide variety ofindividuals engaged in the process of learning. Although theauthors of this work have consistently reported successfuloutcomes in interventions that have included goal setting

and these accounts suggest that goal setting skills are teach-able, further research that explores the relative merit of engag-ing participants in the goal setting process and that identifieseffective strategies for teaching goal setting appearswarranted.

Finally, although the literature has included successfulaccounts of individuals improving sports performancethrough the use of goal setting skills, there is a paucity ofresearch with participants with ASD regarding the develop-ment and/or improvement of skills required to promote aphysically active lifestyle. This finding is of significance tothis population given the recent reports of elevated chance ofdeveloping obesity, in addition to the loss of opportunity toengage in social interactions with typically developing peers.Research that explores treatments aimed to overcome chal-lenges that may result from a sedentary lifestyle, food selec-tivity or disrupted sleep appears justified.

Proposed Research Agenda for Participants with ASD

While limited in quantity, the SCD research with participantson the autism spectrum included in this review suggests thatgoal setting instruction may be successful with this popula-tion. We propose the following foci as elements of futureresearch to aid in developing treatment packages that fosterindependent living:

1. Research that explores the role of goal setting in isolationor in combination with other intervention components

2. Research that explores the generalization and mainte-nance effects of goal setting interventions, particularlyincluding peers as tutors to assist in programminggeneralization

3. Research that explores how to best teach goal settingskills to participants with a view to attaining the abilityto perform this skill independently

4. Research that explores the relative effects of goal settingby the participants themselves compared to goals set byother stakeholders

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