Global History and GeographyGlobal History and Geography

PojerPojer

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► SCIENTIFICSCIENTIFIC::

NewtonNewton’’s system was synonymouss system was synonymouswith the empirical and the with the empirical and the practical.practical.

Scientific laws could be expressed Scientific laws could be expressed as as universal mathematical formulas.universal mathematical formulas.

Science allowed alternatives to beScience allowed alternatives to beimagined in everything from imagined in everything from politicspoliticsto religion.to religion.

The Origins of Enlightenment► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

physico-theology – an attempt physico-theology – an attempt (inspired by science) to explain God(inspired by science) to explain God’’s s Providence by reference to his work in Providence by reference to his work in nature & not primarily through his biblical nature & not primarily through his biblical Word.Word.

support of a support of a ““rationalrational”” religion, free religion, freefrom mysteries, miracles, andfrom mysteries, miracles, andsuperstitions.superstitions.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

Deism: Deism: The belief in the The belief in the existence of a God or supreme existence of a God or supreme being, but abeing, but adenial of revealed religion, denial of revealed religion, basingbasingoneone’’s belief on thes belief on the lightlight of of naturenatureand reasonand reason..

DeDeists saw no point in any ists saw no point in any particularparticularreligion; they recognized only a religion; they recognized only a distantdistantGodGod, uninvolved in the daily life of , uninvolved in the daily life of man.man.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

Gradually, highly educated Gradually, highly educated Protestants & Catholics Protestants & Catholics thought more about thought more about GodGod’’s s work as revealed through work as revealed through sciencescience, rather than through , rather than through the Scriptures.the Scriptures.

Pantheism: Pantheism: The belief that The belief that God and nature are one and God and nature are one and the same.the same.

William Blake’s Newton, 1795

Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Zoology & Biology

A dissection at the Royal A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.Academy, London.

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

Natural History Collections

► Cocoa plant Cocoa plant drawing.drawing.

► Sir Hans Sir Hans SloaneSloane(1660-1753).(1660-1753).

► Collected from Collected from Jamaica.Jamaica.

Natural History Collections

James PetiverJames Petiver’’s Beetless Beetles(London apothecary)(London apothecary)

Private Collections

The Origins of Modern The Origins of Modern Museums.Museums.

Women & Science

The German The German astronomer astronomer Hevelius & Hevelius &

his wife his wife examine examine

the the heavens.heavens.

Centers of the Enlightenment

Characteristics of The Enlightenment

1.1. Rationalism Rationalism reason is the reason is the arbiter of all things.arbiter of all things.

2.2. Cosmology Cosmology a new concept of a new concept of man, his existence on earth, & man, his existence on earth, & the place of the earth in the the place of the earth in the universe.universe.

3.3. Secularism Secularism application of the application of the methods of science to religion & methods of science to religion & philosophy. philosophy.

Characteristics of the Enlightenment

4.4. Scientific MethodScientific Method

Mathematical analysisMathematical analysis

ExperimentationExperimentation

Inductive reasoning.Inductive reasoning.

5.5. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism the greatest the greatest good for the greatest good for the greatest number.number.

6.6. Tolerance Tolerance No opinion is No opinion is worth worth burning your neighbor for.burning your neighbor for.

Characteristics of the Enlightenment

7.7. Optimism & Self-ConfidenceOptimism & Self-Confidence

The belief that man is The belief that man is intrinsically good.intrinsically good.

The belief in social progress.The belief in social progress.

8.8. FreedomFreedom

Of thought and expression.Of thought and expression.

Bring liberty to all men (modern Bring liberty to all men (modern battle against absolutism).battle against absolutism).

9.9. Education of the MassesEducation of the Masses

Characteristics of the Enlightenment

10.10.Legal ReformsLegal Reforms

Justice, kindness, and charity Justice, kindness, and charity no torture or indiscriminant no torture or indiscriminant incarceration.incarceration.

Due process of law. Due process of law.

11.11.ConstitutionalismConstitutionalism

Written constitutions Written constitutions listing listing citizens, rights.citizens, rights.

12.12.Cosmopolitanism.Cosmopolitanism.

The “Enlightened” Individual Philosophe

► Not really original thinkers as a whole, but Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking were great publicists of the new thinking CHANGE & PROGRESS!CHANGE & PROGRESS!

► They were students of society who They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.

The “Great Debate”

Reason& LogicReason& Logic

Traditionsand

Superstitions

Traditionsand

Superstitions

rationalisrationalismm

empiricisempiricismm

tolerancetoleranceskepticisskepticis

mmDeismDeism

nostalgia for nostalgia for the pastthe past

organized organized religionsreligions

irrationalismirrationalismemotionalismemotionalism

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)► Progress of the Progress of the

Human MindHuman Mind, 1794, 1794 An expectation of An expectation of

universal universal happiness.happiness.

Every individual Every individual guided by reason guided by reason could enjoy true could enjoy true independence.independence.

He advocated a He advocated a free and equal free and equal education, education, constitutionalism, constitutionalism, and equal rights and equal rights for women.for women.

John Locke (1632-1704)

► Letter on Letter on TolerationToleration, , 16891689

► Two Treatises Two Treatises ofofGovernmentGovernment, , 16901690

► Some ThoughtsSome ThoughtsConcerningConcerningEducationEducation, , 16931693

► The The ReasonablenessReasonablenessof Christianityof Christianity, , 16951695

John Locke’s Philosophy (I)► The individual must become a The individual must become a

““rationalrationalcreature.creature.””

► Virtue can be learned and Virtue can be learned and practiced.practiced.

► Human beings possess free will.Human beings possess free will. they should be prepared for freedom.they should be prepared for freedom. obedience should be out of obedience should be out of

conviction,conviction,not out of fear.not out of fear.

► Legislators owe their power to Legislators owe their power to aa contractcontract with the peoplewith the people..

► Neither kings nor wealth are Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.divinely ordained.

John Locke’s Philosophy (II)

► There are certain natural There are certain natural rights that are endowed by rights that are endowed by God to all human beings.God to all human beings.

life, liberty, property!life, liberty, property!

► The doctrine of the Divine The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was Right of Kings was nonsense.nonsense.

► He favored a republic as the He favored a republic as the best form of government.best form of government.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

► Critique of Pure Critique of Pure ReasonReason, 1781, 1781

► ““What is What is Enlightenment?Enlightenment?””, , 17841784

► Metaphysical Metaphysical Foundations ofFoundations ofNatural Science, Natural Science, 17861786

Kant’s Philosophy

► Dare to Know!Dare to Know!► He introduced the concept ofHe introduced the concept of

transcendentalismtranscendentalism some things are some things are known by methods other than known by methods other than empirically.empirically.

The belief in the existence of a non-The belief in the existence of a non-rational way to understand things.rational way to understand things.

The existence of neither time nor The existence of neither time nor space is determined by empirical space is determined by empirical understanding.understanding.

These type of things areThese type of things are a prioria priori They transcend sensory experience.They transcend sensory experience. They are pure, not empiricalThey are pure, not empirical [ [[concepts [concepts

like faith, pre-existence, life after like faith, pre-existence, life after deathdeath].].

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

► Common Common SenseSense, 1776, 1776

► The Rights The Rights of Manof Man, , 17911791

The American “Philosophes”

John AdamsJohn Adams(1745-(1745-1826)1826)

Ben FranklinBen Franklin(1706-1790)(1706-1790)

ThomasThomasJeffersonJefferson(1743-(1743-1826)1826)……...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of ...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of

happiness…………...happiness…………...

Voltaire (1712-1778)

► AKA AKA Francois Francois Marie Arouet.Marie Arouet.

► Essay on the Essay on the CustomsCustomsand Spirit of and Spirit of NationsNations, , 17561756

► CandideCandide, 1759, 1759

► Philosophical Philosophical DictionaryDictionary, 1764, 1764

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (I)

► Every man is guilty of all the Every man is guilty of all the good he good he didn didn’’t do.t do.► God is a comedian playing to an God is a comedian playing to an audience audience too afraid to laugh. too afraid to laugh.► If God did not exist, it would be If God did not exist, it would be necessary necessary to invent him. to invent him.► It is dangerous to be right It is dangerous to be right when the when the government is wrong. government is wrong.► Love truth and pardon error.Love truth and pardon error.

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (II)

► Judge of a man by his questions Judge of a man by his questions rather thanrather than by his answers. by his answers.► Men are equal; it is not birth, but Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtuevirtue that makes the difference. that makes the difference.► Prejudice is opinion without Prejudice is opinion without judgment.judgment.► The way to become boring is to The way to become boring is to say say everything. everything.► I may not agree with what you I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.death your right to say it.

David Hume (1711-1776)

► The Natural The Natural History of History of Religion Religion [][][[(1755]).[[(1755]).

► Belief in God Belief in God rested on rested on superstition superstition and fear and fear rather than on rather than on reason.reason.

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)

He pointed out He pointed out problems with problems with contemporary contemporary England and tried to England and tried to urge reform.urge reform.

► The Decline andThe Decline andFall of the Roman Fall of the Roman Empire Empire (6 (6 volumes), 1787.volumes), 1787.

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

► Persian Persian LettersLetters, , 1721 1721

► On the Spirit On the Spirit of of LawsLaws, 1758, 1758

Montesquieu’s Philosophy

► Three types of government:Three types of government: Monarchy.Monarchy. Republic.Republic. Despotism.Despotism.

A separation of political A separation of political powers ensured freedom powers ensured freedom and liberty.and liberty.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

► A Discourse A Discourse on the on the Sciences and Sciences and ArtsArts, 1750, 1750

► Emile, 1762.Emile, 1762.

► The Social The Social Contract, Contract, 1762.1762.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (I)

► QuestionQuestion Does progress in Does progress in the arts and sciences the arts and sciences correspond with progress in correspond with progress in morality?morality?

As civilizations progress, they As civilizations progress, they move away from morality.move away from morality.

Science & art raised artificial Science & art raised artificial barriers between people and their barriers between people and their natural state.natural state.

Therefore, the revival of science Therefore, the revival of science and the arts had corrupted social and the arts had corrupted social morals, not improved them!morals, not improved them!

NO!NO!

Rousseau’s Philosophy (II) Virtue exists in the Virtue exists in the ””state of state of

nature,nature,”” but lost in but lost in ““society.society.”” Government must preserve Government must preserve

““virtuevirtue”” and and ””liberty.liberty.””

Man is born free, yet Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.everywhere he is in chains.

The concept of theThe concept of the ””Noble Noble Savage.Savage.””

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. Civil liberty Civil liberty invest ALL invest ALL

rights and liberties into a rights and liberties into a society.society.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (III)► In In The Social ContractThe Social Contract::

The right kind of political order The right kind of political order could make people truly moral could make people truly moral and free.and free.

Individual moral freedom could Individual moral freedom could be achieved only by learning to be achieved only by learning to subject onesubject one’’s individual interests s individual interests to the to the ““General WillGeneral Will.. ””

Individuals did this by entering Individuals did this by entering into a social contract not with into a social contract not with their rulers, but with each other.their rulers, but with each other.

V This social contract was derived This social contract was derived from human nature, not from from human nature, not from history, tradition, or the Bible.history, tradition, or the Bible.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (IV)

► People would be most free and moral People would be most free and moral under a republican form of under a republican form of government with direct democracy.government with direct democracy.

► However, the individual could be However, the individual could be ““forced to be freeforced to be free”” by the terms of the by the terms of the social contract.social contract.

He provided no legal protections for He provided no legal protections for individual rights.individual rights.

► RousseauRousseau’’s thinking:s thinking: Had a great influence on the French Had a great influence on the French

revolutionaries of 1789.revolutionaries of 1789. His attacks on private property inspired His attacks on private property inspired

the communists of the 19the communists of the 19cc such as Karl such as Karl MarxMarx..

PopularizinPopularizingg

thetheEnlightenmEnlightenm

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thetheEnlightenmEnlightenm

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A Parisian Salon

Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

The Salonnieres

Madame Madame GeoffrinGeoffrin

(1699-1777)(1699-1777)MademoiselleMademoiselle

Julie de Julie de LespinasseLespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne Suzanne NeckerNecker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

Other Female Salons

► Wealthy Jewish women created Wealthy Jewish women created nine of the fourteen salons in nine of the fourteen salons in Berlin.Berlin.

► In Warsaw, Princess Zofia In Warsaw, Princess Zofia Czartoryska gathered around Czartoryska gathered around her the reform leaders of her the reform leaders of Poland-Lithuania.Poland-Lithuania.

► Middle-class women in London Middle-class women in London used their salons to raise money used their salons to raise money to publish womento publish women’’s writings.s writings.

Female Philosophes► Emilie du Chatalet, Emilie du Chatalet,

a French a French noblewomannoblewoman(1706-1749).(1706-1749).

► Wrote extensively Wrote extensively aboutaboutthe mathematics andthe mathematics andphysics of Gottfriedphysics of GottfriedWilhelm von Lebnitz Wilhelm von Lebnitz andandIsaac Newton.Isaac Newton.

► Voltaire, her amour, Voltaire, her amour, learned much of his learned much of his science from her.science from her.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

► All things must be All things must be examined, examined, debated, debated, investigated investigated without exception without exception and without regard and without regard for anyonefor anyone’’s s feelings.feelings.

► We will speak We will speak against senseless against senseless laws until they are laws until they are reformed; and, reformed; and, while we wait, we while we wait, we will abide by them.will abide by them.

Diderot’s Encyclopédie

The Encyclopédie

► Complete cycle of Complete cycle of knowledge…………...…knowledge…………...…change the general way of change the general way of thinking.thinking.

► 28 volumes.28 volumes.

► Alphabetical, cross-Alphabetical, cross-referenced,referenced,illustrated.illustrated.

► First published in 1751.First published in 1751.

► 1500 1500 livreslivres a set. a set.

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

The “Republic of Letters”

►URBAN – – gathering of elites in gathering of elites in thethe cities.cities. (salons)(salons)

►URBANE – – cosmopolitancosmopolitan,, worldlyworldly

music, art, literature, politicsmusic, art, literature, politics

read newspapers & the latest read newspapers & the latest books.books.

► POLITENESS – – proper behavior; proper behavior; manners and mores manners and mores [[self-governedself-governed]]

Reading and theEnlightenment►Literacy: 80%for men; 60 % women.80%for men; 60 % women.

►Books were expensive Books were expensive (one (one dayday’’s wages).s wages).

►Many readers for each book (20 Many readers for each book (20 : 1): 1)

novels, plays & other literature.novels, plays & other literature.

journals, memoirs, journals, memoirs, ““private lives.private lives.””

philosophy, history, theology.philosophy, history, theology.

newspapers, political pamphlets.newspapers, political pamphlets.

An Increase in Reading

An Increase in Reading

“Must Read” Books of the Time

““EnlightenEnlighteneded

DespotisDespotismm ””

Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786)

► 1712 -– 1786.1712 -– 1786.

►Succeeded Succeeded father, Frederick father, Frederick William IWilliam I (the (the ““Soldier Soldier KingKing””).).

►Saw himselfSaw himself as the as the

►““First Servant of First Servant of the State.the State.””

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)

► German German PrincessPrincess Sophie Sophie FriederikeFriederike Auguste of Auguste of Anhalt- Anhalt-Zerbst.Zerbst.

► 1729 -– 1729 -– 1796.1796.

1767:1767: Catherine summons theCatherine summons the

Legislative CommissionLegislative Commission..

1768-1774:1768-1774: Russo-Turkish WarRusso-Turkish War..

1771-1775:1771-1775: Pugachev RebellionPugachev Rebellion is is suppressed.suppressed.

1772: First partition of Poland.1772: First partition of Poland.

1785:1785: Charter of NobilityCharter of Nobility..

1793: Second partition of Poland.1793: Second partition of Poland.

1795: Third partition of Poland.1795: Third partition of Poland.

Reformer? OR Despot?

Reformer? OR Despot?

The Partitions of Poland

- - 17721772

- - 17931793

- - 17951795

Russian Expansionism: Late 18c

Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790)

► 1741 -– 1741 -– 1790.1790.

► His mother His mother waswas Maria Maria Theresa.Theresa.

Habsburg Family Crest

1772: First partition of Poland.1772: First partition of Poland.

1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to 1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to Austrian Austrian lands.lands.

1781: Declared the1781: Declared the Toleration PatentToleration Patent..

1781:1781: Abolition of serfdom and feudal Abolition of serfdom and feudal duesdues..

1785: He failed to exchange the Austria1785: He failed to exchange the Austria Netherlands for Bavaria.Netherlands for Bavaria.

1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the 1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the Russo-Russo- Turkish War, but little Turkish War, but little was gained.was gained.

1795: Third partition of Poland.1795: Third partition of Poland.

Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor

Joseph II of Austria

Legacy of the Enlightenment?

1.1.The democratic revolutions The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late 1780s, put Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on every Western government on the defensive.the defensive.2.2.Reform, democracy, and Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the placed irrevocably on the Western agenda.Western agenda.

Legacy of the Enlightenment?

3.3.New forms of civil society New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and lending libraries, and professional/scientific professional/scientific organizations.organizations.4.4.1919cc conservatives blamed it conservatives blamed it for the modern for the modern ““egalitarian egalitarian diseasedisease”” (once reformers (once reformers began to criticize established began to criticize established institutions, they didninstitutions, they didn’’t know t know where and when to stop!)where and when to stop!)

Legacy of the Enlightenment?

5.5. It established a materialistic It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the naturalistic account of the human condition (thehuman condition (the ““Religion Religion of Natureof Nature””).).

6.6.Theoretically endowed with full Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, thecivil and legal rights, the individualindividual had come into had come into existence as a political and existence as a political and social force to be reckoned social force to be reckoned with.with.