The Enlightenment c. 1650-1750

Age of Reason

Enlightenment

• Philosophers of the time took note of scientific methodology successes using reason to explain natural law. Thought they could do same with human nature.

• Government – 2 philosophers would come to dominate the field of political philosophy.

Enlightenment Philosophers

• Thomas Hobbes– Believed man was basically bad and needed strong

rulers with total power to control them– All citizens were obligated to obey government no

matter how unfair – Rebellion would be the gateway to lawless society.– People only act in their own self interest, which is

often bad.– Hobbes coined the phrase “Social Contract” in his

book “Leviathan”

Enlightenment Philosophers

• Social Contract – people gave up certain rights in favor of a strong ruler in order to get law and order (e.g. Hitler)

• John Locke– Locke almost the opposite of Hobbes’ viewpoint– People’s behavior is shaped by experiences, not by

predestination at birth.• Improvement of bad people possible by learning from

negative experiences.

John Locke

• Favored self-government which stemmed from 3 natural rights: life, liberty and property (pursuit of happiness)

• Government is designed to protect those rights and its failure to do so allows citizens to rebel against it and replace it.

• Government’s power comes from the consent of the people!!

The Philosophers

• These were social critics of the 18th century, mainly French– They tried to use reason to solve social problems– Believed absolute monarchism and divine right to be immoral– Objected to privileged few (clergy, nobility) and became

deists• Deists believe in God but reject organized religion and

rituals while only accepting religious teachings explained through scientific understanding. Christ was a teacher, not Son of God.

• Many Philosophers were atheists

Philosophers

• Jean Jacques Rousseau• Well known philosopher whose book “The

Social Contract” proposed an ideal society in which all people used a form of direct democracy, and no ruler. Will of majority would be law.

• Like Locke, he believed people to be basically good.

Philosophers

• Rousseau• Believed also that arts and sciences corrupted

people’s natural goodness• The closer one was to nature, the closer he

was to balance and harmony. The Indian or African tribesman was better off than “Civilized Man”.

Philosophers

• Baron de Montesquieu• Admired English system of law based on checks on

ruler and limited monarchy• In his writings he specified that separation of

powers within a government could guarantee citizens’ rights.– Legislative, judicial and executive branches with

authorized powers– Separation of powers would prevent any person or group

from gaining control of government, thus safeguarding the people’s liberty

American Revolution

• Revolution scares most monarchs because it– Threatens them directly– Ruins economy– Upsets status quo– Weakens them politically

• As Enlightenment spread its ideas across Europe, some Monarchs embraced reforms which were reflective of their Age of Reason spirit(i.e. Catherine the Great {Russia}, Frederick II {Prussia}

American Revolution

• Known as “Enlightened despots” who agreed to less censorship, religious toleration, and improved education

• Motivation was to keep revolution at bay and reign secure

American Revolution

• Philosophers published ideas widely in Europe criticizing governments, promoting revolution and attacking social injustices– Church believed ideas to be corrupt, undermining

proper authority and irreligious• Where their ideas took root was in the

American colonies!

American Revolution

• (1) Colonies facing crisis after 1763 (French and Indian War ended) as Britain taxed colonies to help pay war debts

• Colonists pretty mad about it since they had nothing to say about it

• King George III’s government could care less.• Colonists had colonial governments which the

crown ignored

American Revolution

• (2) Stamp Act (1765) was a tax on all printed material and led to “taxation without representation”, was against English law.– Repealed one year later

• (3) Townsend Acts of 1767 again taxed colonists over goods (e.g. glass, lead, paints, paper and tea)– Repealed them 3 years later fearing revolt (except

for tea) Boston Tea Party 1773

American Revolution

• (4) Intolerable Acts passed by Britain to punish colonies until tea paid for which directly led to first revolt

• (5) First shots Lexington and Concord in 1775 made it “point of no return”

• (6) Declaration of Independence, 1 year later, used Locke’s theory of natural rights as its basis (written by Jefferson) and stated:

American Revolution

• Declaration of Independence stated:– Life, Liberty, and pursuit of happiness– People have right to remove a government which

oppresses it– Rights are natural (inalienable)

• (7) Revolution spread to southern colonies and fought for next 5 years.

American Revolution

• (8) Key battles: Lexington/Concord (opening shots) Saratoga (kept colonies from being split, French aid 1778-turning point) Yorktown (final British surrender)

• (9) Colonies now on own, must make new government out of 13 independent states– Articles of Confederation 1st attempt at centralized

government but states kept it weak– Had no money, open to attack, no power to enforce

laws in states.

American Revolution

• (10) U.S. Constitution 1787 made a stronger government along federal lines– Federal means power sharing between central

government and states– Montesquieu’s ideas on separation of powers

along with English checks and balances used to craft document

American Revolution

• (11) Bill of Rights – guaranteed freedoms which reflected Enlightenment ideals of individual freedom

French Revolution

• Question: Who is most likely to support a Revolution?

• Question: Why would a government threatened by Revolution refuse to meet the Demands for change?

• (1) In France, the American Revolution had not gone unnoticed by the common folk– Unhappiness with absolute monarchy and privileged

nobility and clergy was starting to mount among the lower classes.

French Revolution

• (2) The Old Regime was divided into 3 classes called ESTATES– 1st estate: clergy– 2nd estate: nobility– 3rd estate: all others

• First Estate: although clergy were powerful with wealthiest clergy originating among nobility; didn’t pay taxes. Lower clergy resented “non concern” for peasants exhibited by higher clergy

French Revolution

• (4) Second Estate: Owned 25% of French land, all high government offices, controlled the armed forces, and many connected to king.

French Revolution

• (5) Third Estate: Owned 50% of French land, but their parcels were too small to support families.– Agricultural reforms and distribution of tax

burdens on land owners was medieval. Clergy paid no taxes on remaining ¼ of French land.

– Taxes: Paid to Government and king and may be as high as 50%. Louis XIV and XV had left enormous debt.

French Revolution

• Third Estate Continued:– Bourgeoisie: were the middle class who lived

comfortably and were educated, but no political connections.

– Liked the idea of reforms coming from Enlightenment thinkers like Montesquieu and Voltaire and Locke. (e.g. Equality and Liberty)

French Revolution

• (6) Louis XVI did not see, or was not told, of the resentment and did nothing to become an Enlightened Despot.– Inherited a poor government and couldn’t get

nobility and clergy to accept taxes on their land (refused outright)

– For first time in 170 yrs. French Monarch calls for a meeting of Estates-General to get approval for a tax plan on 1st and 2nd Estates.

French Revolution

• Louis XVI continued:– Estates-General did not meet together (tradition)

where 3rd Estate through sheer numbers could prevail. Nobles continued to meet apart from 3rd Estate.

– 3rd Estate members demand a constitution for France as a result and got Louis to cave in on this.

– National Assembly was convened immediately with all Estates together. Louis sends troops to cover it.

French Revolution

• (7) Fearing Louis would change his mind, Paris citizens exploded in the summer of 1789 and stormed a prison fortress: Bastille, which was a symbol of oppression.– Louis recalled the troops, but rebellion spreads to