Gaseous emissions from waste

Gaseous Emissions from Wastewater FacilitiesAuthor(s): G. Robert DeHollanderSource: Water Environment Research, Vol. 70, No. 4, 1998: Literature Review (Jun., 1998), pp.580-585Published by: Water Environment FederationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25045071 .

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Treatment Systems_

Wong, J.W.C.; Fang, M.; Li, G.X.; and Wong, M.H. (1997a) Feasibility of Using Coal Ash Residual as Co-Composting Materials for Sew

age Sludge. Environ. Technol, 18, 563.

Wong, J.W.C., and Su, D.C. (1997b) Reutilization of Coal Fly-Ash and

Sewage Sludge as an Artificial Soil-Mix?Effects of Preincubation on

Soil Physioo-Chemical Properties. Bioresour. Technol. (G.B.), 59, 97.

Wong, J.W.C., and Su, D.C (1997c) The Growth of Agropyron elonga

turn in an Artificial Soil Mix from Coal Fly Ash and Sewage Sludge. Bioresour. Technol. (G.B.), 59, 57.

Wu, C.C.; Huang, C; and Lee, D.J. (1997) Effects of Polymer Dosage on

Alum Sludge Dewatering Characteristics and Physical Properties. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects, 122, 89.

W?nsch, M., and Otte-Witte, R. (1997) State of the Art in Sludge

Dewatering Using Centrifuges. Abwassertechnik (Ger.), 48, 3, 40.

Gaseous emissions

from wastewater

facilities G. Robert DeHollander

Quantification, control, and modeling of wastewater emis

sions again received attention in 1997. Regulatory requirements driven by the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAA) have

begun to affect wastewater operations. In addition, odor mea

surement and control, especially in populated areas, was the

focus of much effort.

REGULATORY COMPLIANCE

Section 112(r) of the CAA requires subject facilities to ad dress the accidental release of regulated substances to the com

munity. Phillips et al (1997) reviewed a case study for compli ance with the Risk Management Program for a large wastewater

treatment facility. The case study reviewed the methods used

to achieve compliance, computer modeling applications, and the

results of the off-site impact analysis. An air quality compliance

study was conducted for a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in New York City (Pope, 1997). The study included identifica tion of pollutants, emissions from wastewater operations, calcu

lation of engine emissions, modeling off-site impact of plant

emissions, and comparison to state and federal standards. Sec

tion 112(d) of the CAA sets regulations governing emissions of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) from wastewater using maxi

mum achievable control technology (MACT). Torres (1997) summarized the development of MACT Standards for publicly owned treatment works (POTWs). Rogers and Steidel (1997)

presented a case study for a POTW in Virginia that was domi

nated by industrial users. The wastewater had a high volatile

organic chemical (VOC) content, which was stripped and emit

ted to the atmosphere. The POTW implemented a reasonably available control technology approach to comply with state and federal clean air laws.

Of interest to the synthetic organic chemical manufacturing

industry (SOCMI) are the requirements of the Hazardous Or

ganic National Emission Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants

(HON). Bachynsky (1997) summarized a case history for com

pliance with the HON for a plastics facility. The study addressed

compliance with the HON for vinyl chloride emissions from

maintenance wastewater. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(U.S. EPA) tightened requirements for National Pollutant Dis

charge Elimination System permits for the oil and gas industry for toxic pollutant discharges (Veil, 1997). Pintenich and Bazy

dola (1997) presented a multimedia regulatory evaluation of air

emissions, water discharges, and treatment sludge for a ground water treatment system at a Superfund site. Compliance with

air emissions regulations was predicted using activated sludge as a control device (Oppelt et al, 1997).

QUANTIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT

Wang et al (1997) described the use of a modified EPA Method 624 to estimate VOC emissions in the water and off

gas from the aeration basin of a POTW. Serne (1997) reviewed the use of EPA Method 18 and EPA 25A by SOCMI facilities for HON compliance. Volatile organic chemical emissions from

pharmaceutical, petrochemical, and municipal treatment plants were measured (James and Stack, 1997). Analysis was per

formed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry on head

space and immersed samples. Target compounds included chlo

roform, saturated alkylbenzenes, phenol, benzonitrile, and ben

zofuran. Mackay et al (1997) discussed the sensing of VOCs

through the air-water interface for mass balance applications such as wastewater treatment systems. The limitations of chemi

cal analysis in measuring WWTP odors were described (Ostojic and O'Brien, 1997). Iatrou and Joyce (1997) presented a remote, continuous system for monitoring dissolved sulfide and hydro

gen sulfide gas throughout a wastewater collection system.

MODELING

Soszynski et al (1997) compared three general fate models for VOCs (WATER8, BASTE, and TOXCHEM+) with mea sured VOC emission rates from two large water reclamation

plants in the greater Chicago area. Emission estimates from

aeration basins were similar for the three models, but WATER8

predicted higher VOC estimates from aerated grit chambers. Recommendations included using the TOXCHEM+ or BASTE models as screening tools for determining annual VOC emis

sions from POTWs, with direct measurement advised if VOC emission rates are close to or exceed regulatory limits. A round

robin approach was used to compare the WATER7, PAVE, TOXCHEM, and BASTE models (Schroy, 1997). The PAVE model predicted effluent concentration most accurately, whereas

WATER7 predicted stripping most accurately for the given con ditions. Hall (1997) estimated VOC emissions from a wastewa ter treatment facility at an air force base using the surface im

poundment model system (SIMS). The SIMS model was used to predict VOC emissions to satisfy the toxic release inventory

reporting requirement.

SOURCES

Volatilization processes in wastewater treatment operations

and the implications for occupational hygiene risk assessment

580 Water Environment Research, Volume 70, Number 4



Treatment Systems

were discussed (Bianchi and Varney, 1997). Volatilization rates were estimated for a range of hazardous alkane, aromatic, organ

ohalogen, organosulfide, ketone, and alcohol VOCs under vary

ing seasonal conditions. Ranges of concentrations that may be

reasonably encountered by process workers were reported. Zhu

et al (1997) evaluated emissions of VOCs from aeration tanks

using direct sampling and a plug flow reactor model. The results

were compared to predictions from the TOXCHEM model. Esti

mates of ammonia emissions from two POTWs in Orange

County, Calif., were based on engineering calculation, model

ing, and source testing (Kogan and Torres, 1997). Ammonia

emissions were below CAA major source thresholds of 10 ton/y, health impacts of ammonia emissions from the WWTPs to sur

rounding areas were insignificant, and wastewater treatment and

solids-handling units were the primary sources of ammonia.

Scherzer et al (1997) presented model experiments to estimate the evolution of volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons from waste

water. Potential emissions from sewage sludges were discussed

(Gruning et al, 1997). Liao and Lee (1997) predicted VOC emission rates from a sequencing batch reactor under various

operating conditions. The emissions of N20 and total gaseous

nitrogen compounds by nitrification and denitrification pro

cesses in wastewater were also investigated (Sich et al, 1997).

Toprak (1997) reported hydrogen sulfide emission rates from

anaerobic waste stabilization ponds. Volatile metal compounds

in digester gas waste were estimated (Feldman and Kleimann,

1977). Tanner et al (1997) measured methane emissions from

four pilot-scale wetlands used to treat dairy farm wastewater.

Unvegetated sites tended to show higher emission rates than

vegetated sites.

PROCESS AND OPERATION TOOLS

Several traditional treatment processes can be used to reduce

the VOC content of wastes and help avoid air emissions compli

ance requirements (Higgins, 1997). Venkatesh (1997) addressed

closed sewer systems, nitrogen- or gas-blanketing vessels,

floating roof or vent controls on tanks, and strippers on biologi

cal reactors to reduce VOC emissions from wastewater systems.

Current and new concepts concerning the Dutch urban water

cycle were presented (Dirkzwager, 1997). Dutch decision mak

ers are considering new approaches that may lead to a reduction

in wastewater emissions, energy consumption, use of natural

resources, and solid waste production. Nakajima et al (1997)

investigated the use of photosynthetic bacteria to treat wastewa

ter. Batch experiments were carried out using the purple nonsul

fur bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides to assimilate acetate,

propionate, n-butyrate, n-valeric acid, and /i-caproate, and no

net greenhouse gas emissions were observed. Wastewater off

gas was used as an energy source for internal combustion engine

sources (Hawkins, 1997). Technical and economic benefits for

POTW facilities were addressed. Bell et al (1997) compared the

performance of three biogas fuels to natural gas in an internal

combustion engine. The use of waste methane from wastewater

treatment facilities as a cofeedstock for fuel-cell vehicles was

also suggested (Borgwardt, 1997).

ODOR: CASE STUDIES, CONTROL, AND MODELING

Case Studies. Lee et al (1997) reviewed the design a 4.82 m3/s (110 mgd) activated sludge plant in Medellin, Colombia,

in which odor control was a key design element. Process, de

sign, and odor control alternatives were discussed. The plant

elected to use packed scrubbers because of economic and space

limitations. An odor assessment was conducted at a municipal WWTP in Singapore (Chew et al, 1997). Singapore is upgrad

ing existing facilities using covered units, and air from odorous

units is being treated with scrubbers. Hydrogen sulfide emis

sions were modeled using the ISCST3 model, and results of

hourly isopleths were discussed. Stillwell et al (1997) presented an odor control evaluation and design project at a WWTP in San

Diego, Calif. Upstream chemical addition of hydrogen peroxide

reduced hydrogen sulfide formation in the plant by 50%. An

economic analysis showed that process optimization improved

plant performance for little or no net cost. In addition, sodium

hypochlorite scrubbers were determined to be more efficient

and economical than the existing hydrogen peroxide scrubbers.

Ziois (1997) reported on the successful reduction of odorous releases from four water reclamation plants in the greater Chi

cago area. A key part of the response plan was the use of an

odor-complaint database that allowed evaluation of ongoing

efforts. Atkinson et al (1997) summarized an odor control eval

uation for the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utility Department in

North Carolina. The evaluation included the following tasks:

(1) development of a plan to define sampling, modeling, and

public participation elements, (2) identification and quantifica tion of odor sources, (3) evaluation of odor control strategies,

and (4) incorporation of public input into decision-making pro cesses. An odor sampling program was conducted by the public

for a WWTP located on the New England coast (Crane and

Lannan, 1997). Local residents were involved in logging and

sampling odorous episodes. Chlupsa (1997) described the evalu

ation, abatement, and monitoring of odors at a WWTP in Yon

kers, N.Y. Odor treatment systems, tank/channel covers, and

odor monitoring were discussed. An odor control program

(OCP) was initiated at a 3-m3/s (67-mgd) WWTP in Springfield, Mass (Borgatti et al, 1997). A seven-step public relations pro

gram, the OCP program teams, program cost, and reduction in

residential odor complaints were presented. Frankenberg (1997) summarized the approach, performance, and conclusions of a

two-phase odor control initiative used at a 7.3-m3/s (167-mgd)

treatment plant in St. Louis, Mo. The facility installed covers

and biofilters to reduce odor complaints. Filter design, operating

parameters, and cost were presented. The OCP at the 1.2-m3/s

(28-mgd) WWTP in Kenosha, Wis., was reviewed (Relwani and Hickey, 1997). High population density within 500 m of the plant led to odor complaints. The facility used chemical

feed at tributary lift stations, improved scum drainage and re

moval from the primary clarifiers and covers for the scum col

lection wells, and improved process control to reduce odorous

emissions.

Odor Control. A 6-m3/s (135-mgd) municipal WWTP in

Texas successfully eliminated chemical odor control scrubbers

by routing the air into the activated sludge process via fiberglass

reinforced plastic duct (Tamada et al, 1997). Bowker (1997) reviewed 26 treatment plants using biological odor control by

diffusion into activated sludge basins. Key design criteria and

an economic analysis were included. A comparison of hydrogen

sulfide emissions from aeration tanks using fine bubble diffusion versus coarse bubble diffusion was made (Feltner and Liang,

1997). Ostojic et al (1997) discussed the release of odors from

the weirs at gravity sludge thickeners. A reduction in waterfall

height from 0.9 to 0.23 m (3 to 0.75 ft) reduced emissions from

Literature Review 1998 ' 581



Treatment Systems_

the thickener weirs by more than 60%. Nagl (1997) reviewed different technologies for hydrogen sulfide control, including chemical oxidants, the Claus process, caustic scrubbers, adsorp

tion, scavengers, amine adsorption units, and liquid-phase oxi

dation systems. The use of preaeration may oxidize 65-75%

of hydrogen sulfide in solution and minimize downstream emis

sions (Federici, 1997). Preaeration alone may not adquately control odors, and a containment, ventilation, and treatment

program may be necessary in conjunction with preaeration. Por

ter et al (1997) described the sulfide pretreatment program and treatability studies at the Massachusetts Water Resources

Authority. The preliminary feasibility study, control alterna

tives, bench-scale simulations, and treatability study results

were presented. Zhang et al (1997) discussed surface aeration

of anaerobic lagoons for odor control of swine manure. Continu

ous low rate aeration of dissolved oxygen at 0.5-2.5 mg/L in the

surface liquid layer was effective for odor control but resulted in

high ammonia emission rates. Koe (1997) reported the perfor mance of an activated carbon scrubber used to control odorous

air from a primary sedimentation tank. Observed odor-removal

efficiency was 60-70%. Lannan and Gaudes (1997) compared sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide odor scrubbers.

Both chemicals were effective for removal of hydrogen sulfide.

However, hypochlorite was more effective for removal of other

reduced sulfur compounds. A biogas tower reactor was used

to treat anaerobic wastewater emissions (Reinhold and Markl,

1997). Hydrogen sulfide was removed from wastewater treat

ment air streams using a biotrickling filter (Morton and Cabal

lero, 1997). The operational costs of the biotrickling filter were

$7.00 per million ft3 versus $33.00 per million ft3 for the existing caustic scrubber. In addition, odor panel analyses indicated that

inlet odors were reduced by 99% by the biotrickling filter. Odor Modeling. Diosey (1997) discussed alternative ap

proaches to dispersion modeling as a tool for odor assessment.

Molseed et al (1997) performed dispersion modeling for a mu

nicipal WWTP in Washington state. The results of the modeling indicated that implementation of odor control treatment can

result in higher odor concentrations at specific fenceline recep tors. In addition, dispersion from a scrubber stack resulted in

lower fenceline concentrations than dispersion from a biofilter,

even when mass emissions from the biofilter were lower than

the scrubber. The key parameters of odor modeling were identi

fied, and results were presented for two WWTPs (Serjak, 1997). Murray (1997) reviewed two case studies using the industrial

source complex model. Case study 1 showed that the aeration

tanks had the greatest off-site impact. Case study 2 showed that

the effluent sump and oil/water separator were the principal sources of odor. Odor emissions were also evaluated with the

models WOCSS and INPUFF (Bassett and Ruby, 1997). Pope and Diosey (1997) used air modeling to design facilities that

met air quality requirements for hydrogen sulfide, VOCs, and HAPs.

BIOSOLIDS

Hentz (1997) reported on the chemical, biological, and physi cal origins of gaseous emissions from biosolids emissions.

Emissions of sulfur compounds were reported to be a function

of temperature, concentration of proteins (primary sludge), an

aerobic conditions, and storage of primary sludge with waste

activated sludge. Schmidt et al (1997) assessed odorous emis

sions from composting facilities using direct assessment tech

nologies. A comparison of compound concentrations and odors

was presented. Part 503 air emissions standards for wastewater

sludge incinerators were reviewed (Santanam et al, 1997).

Durme et al. (1997) presented an integrated odor control ap proach for solids-handling facilities. Problem definition, sulfide

mass balance, cost, and facility improvements were addressed.

Mass transfer coefficients were reported for dimethyl disulfide

emissions at a biosolids composting facility (Hentz et al, 1997).

PHYSICOCHEMICAL TREATMENT

Perlmutter (1997) evaluated a vacuum/gas compressor sys tem to recover solvents during vacuum operations and eliminate

wastewater emissions. Air stripping and membrane vapor sepa

ration for VOC removal from wastewater was found to be eco

nomically competitive for streams containing more than 500

ppm VOC and having flow rates less than 37.9 L/min (10-30 gal/min) (Wijmans et al, 1997). Wolstenholme (1997) pre sented design criteria for covers, hoods, and ducts for foul air

collection systems. Zhu et al (1997) discussed VOC control

using a circulating aeration system on both air and high-purity

oxygen systems. Sereno et al (1997) reviewed the optimization of multistage wet scrubbers used for odor control at a Los

Angeles, Calif., WWTP. Evaluation, performance, and cost data

were presented for chemical scrubbers. A closed-loop hydrocar bon recovery process removed 98% of benzene, toluene, ethyl

benzene, and xylene from refinery WWTPs (Closed-loop,

1997).

BIOFILTERS

Leson and Smith (1997) assessed the technical, regulatory, and economical feasibility of biofiltration for treating volatile

hydrocarbons. Preliminary results indicated that biofiltration from refinery wastewater may offer considerable savings in total

cost of air pollution control where regulations require the control

of aromatic HAPs or odors. The system showed 80% removal

efficiency when inlet VOC concentrations were at 500 mg/ m3. Williams and Boyette (1997) summarized recent design

improvements, costs, and case studies for open end biofilters.

The performance of three biofilter types was compared for re

moval of odorous sulfur compounds (Vaith and Heydorn, 1997). Finn and Spencer (1997) discussed enhanced design for biofilt ers including pretreatment of inlet gas streams, redundancy in

design for periodic shutdown and maintenance, and above

ground design allowing periodic mixing and replacement of media. The design, material, and performance specifications of

a 1 700 m3/min (60, 000 cu ft/min) biofilter in California were

reported (Witherspoon, 1997). Amihor et al (1997) evaluated biofiltration to treat odorous emissions from a composting facil

ity. Considerations included control effectiveness, regulatory

compliance, ease of operation and maintenance, chemical and

power use, safety, and environmental factors. Bonnin et al.

(1997) showed that mineral media (schist) could be used in a biofilter in place of peat. Reported benefits of the process were

reduced channeling, higher gas velocities, and higher inlet pol lutant loading. The use of encapsulated gel beads as an alternate

biofilter medium were investigated (Zhou and Bishop, 1997). The effects of biomass immobilization time, trichloroethylene (TCE) inlet concentration, and TCE gas flow rate on oxygen

concentration in the gel beads were investigated.




_Treatment Systems

SEWERS

Corsi (1997) investigated VOC emissions from municipal sewers using computational models, mass balance, and exper

iments. Results suggested that a significant fraction of vola

tile HAP emissions occurs before wastewater treatment and

that emissions from sewers may be as great as those from

downstream treatment plants, possibly orders of magnitude

greater. Ferro and Lannan (1997) estimated VOC emissions

from a combined sewer overflow (CSO) facility using the

TOXCHEM+, BASTE, and WATER8 fate models. The re sults and model equations were discussed. Clemens and Haas

(1997) reported nitrous oxide emissions in wastewater systems.

Hagekhalil et al (1997) investigated odor and corrosion hot

spots in the Los Angeles, Calif., wastewater system. Undesir

able hydrogen sulfide levels were caused by high flow levels,

high turbulence, hydraulic jumps and other changes in velocity, high debris buildup, blockages in air flow, and direct connection of local lines into large interceptors. Wind velocity over the

opening in the reach and water flow rate were found to have

the greatest effect on wastewater ventilation rate (Monteith et

al, 1997). Water temperature had a lesser effect on emissions.

Melcer et al (1997) studied the effect of ventilation rate on

estimating VOC emissions from wastewater systems. Volatile

organic chemical emissions increased with higher ventilation

rate and larger pipe diameter. The study indicated that estimat

ing VOC emissions from sewers is more difficult for systems in which the mass load of VOCs exceeds the VOC solubility limits in water. Mann et al (1997) presented an integrated

approach to systemwide sewer odor problems. An odor-sam

pling program was developed for a CSO facility to quantify sulfur compounds and VOCs (Schoettle and Jamgocian, 1997).

The data were used to determine whether VOC control was

necessary in the odor design recommendations. Olson and Corsi

(1997) presented naUTilus, a model to predict HAP emissions from industrial sewers. Oxygen uptake and VOC emissions at

enclosed sewer drop structures were investigated by Zytner et

al (1997). Differences between clean water and raw wastewater

on VOC stripping processes were examined. Rahme et al.

(1997) predicted oxygen uptake and VOC emissions at drop structures. The study considered drop height, liquid flow rate,

and tail water depth on 10 VOC tracer compounds.

MEETINGS

The Water Environment Federation held a conference from

April 20 to April 23, 1997, in Houston, Tex., on ''Control of Odors and VOC Emissions." Fifty-three papers were presented.

Sessions included odors, sewers, emission estimates, process,

analytical, biofilters, atmospheric modeling, and miscellaneous

topics. The annual meeting of the Air and Waste Management

Association was held in Toronto, Canada, from June 8 to June

13, 1997. Relevant sessions included Techniques for Odor Im

pact Modeling, Biological Air Pollution Control (biofilters), Emissions and Controls of Air Toxics and VOCs from Waste

water Treatment Facilities and Waste Management Units, Mea

surement and Modeling of Fugitive Emissions from Contami

nated Water/Wastewater and Soils, and Industrial and Munici

pal Wastewater Management Issues.

Rob DeHollander is a project manager with The Fletcher

Group in Greenville, South Carolina. Correspondence should

be addressed to Rob DeHollander, The Fletcher Group, 322 South Main Street, Greenville, SC 29601.

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