Foul Brood Disease of Honey Bees - Blackburn and East Lancs

FFoouull BBrroooodd DDiisseeaassee ooff HHoonneeyy BBeeeessand other common brood disorders

The Food and Environment Research AgencySand HuttonYorkYO41 1LZUKTelephone +44 (0)1904 462 000Fax +44 (0)1904 462 111Email [email protected] www.defra.gov.uk/fera

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This document is also available on the Defra website.

Published by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.Printed in the UK, May 2009, on material that contains a minimum of 100% recycled fibrefor uncoated paper and 75% recycled fibre for coated paper.

Pollinating animals provide almost incalculable economic and ecological benefits to humans, flowering plantsand wildlife. Pollination by bees and other insects is the first step in the flowering/fruiting process resulting inthe production of vegetables and fruits. This essential nutrition comprises approximately 35% of the humandiet. The production of 84% of crop species cultivated in Europe depends directly on pollinators. 70% of the124 main crops used directly for human consumption in the world are dependent on pollinators

Foul brood disease of honey beesand other common brood disordersHoney bee colonies are subject to a number of diseases that affect their brood.This leaflet describes the recognition and control of the two most serious ofthese, American foul brood and European foul brood (which are subject tostatutory control) along with other common but less serious brood disorders.

About this leaflet

Honey bees and disease 2

UK bee disease legislation 3

Beekeeper responsibility 4

10 Rules for Foul Brood Control 5

Healthy Brood 6

Sources of spread of foul brood 7

How to examine a honey bee colony for brood disease 8

American Foul Brood 10

Signs of American foul brood 11

European Foul Brood 14

Signs of European foul brood 16

Controlling an outbreak of Foul Brood 18

Key strategies for controlling an outbreak of foul brood in your bees 18

Common Brood Disorders 24

Sacbrood 24

Varroosis 25

Chalkbrood 25

Bald Brood 27

Drone Brood in Worker Cells 27

Summary of Brood Disease Signs, Causes and Control 29

Further Information 30

What to do if you suspect foul brood 30

Sterilising hives and equipment 30

How a Lateral Flow Device works 31

The National Bee Unit 33

Further help and advice 33

Bee Diseases Insurance Ltd 34

Acknowledgments 34

Useful Addresses 35

Contents

1

2

Honey bees and disease

Honey bees, as they forage for nectar and pollen,play a vital role in the environment and inpreserving biodiversity by pollinating both wildflowers and many agricultural crops. The totaleconomic value of pollination worldwideamounted to €153 billion, which represented9.5% of the value of world agricultural productionin 2005. The economic value of pollination of suchcrops is estimated at £120m-£200m annually inthe UK – and this is in addition to the productionof honey, beeswax and other hive products. Theessential and valuable activities of bees dependupon beekeepers maintaining a healthypopulation of honey bees.

Figure 1: Honey bee colonies pollinating Apple Blossom

and Oil Seed Rape

As with other forms of livestock, honey bees aresubject to a range of harmful diseases. Some ofthese affect adult bees, others affect immaturestages of the bees’ development (larvae andpupae) and these are referred to as brooddiseases. There are several such brood diseasesthat affect honey bee colonies in the UK. Theseinclude the two extremely serious and infectiousfoul brood diseases, which are subject tostatutory control, together with a range ofcommon and less harmful disorders.

Foul brood

The term ‘foul brood’ covers two diseases of thehoney bee larvae, one known as American foulbrood (AFB), and the other European foul brood(EFB). The names bear no relation to thegeographical distribution of the diseases: bothoccur in Great Britain and the economic damagedone by them annually to our beekeepingindustry is considerable. American foul brood isconsidered the most destructive brood disease inGreat Britain. However, European foul brood iscurrently the most widespread, and where itoccurs it often spreads rapidly and is difficult toeradicate unless prompt measures are taken.

Minor brood diseases

There are several other brood diseases anddisorders that, although much less serious thanfoul brood, are extremely widespread.It is essential that beekeepers are able torecognise these and distinguish them from foulbrood.

Varroosis and exotic pests

Infestation of honey bee colonies by the parasiticmite Varroa destructor is the subject of a separateleaflet, Managing Varroa. The two exotic notifiablepests are covered in the following leaflets: Smallhive beetle, a serious new threat to EuropeanApiculture (full leaflet and fact sheet) and inTropilaelaps; parasitic mites of honey bees.

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Honey bees and disease

Figure 2: Fera Bee Inspectors and NBU staff at work

Statutory inspection of colonies for pests and diseases

All the leaflets are available on line through theNational Bee Unit (NBU) website(www.nationalbeeunit.com), the home ofBeeBase, direct from your local Bee Inspector, orfrom the NBU main office at:

The Food and Environment ResearchAgencySand HuttonYorkYO41 1LZ.Email: [email protected]

UK bee disease legislation

Both AFB and EFB are subject to statutorycontrols in the UK. The Bee Diseases and PestsControl (England) Order 2006 (SI 2006 No 342),empowers the Department for Environment, Foodand Rural Affairs (Defra) to take measures tocontrol both diseases in England. There areseparate Orders in Wales, Scotland and NorthernIreland. Beekeepers should be familiar with theprovisions of the Order. Copies are available online from the Office of Public Sector Information(OPSI) website www.opsi.gov.uk/

Any beekeeper in England or Wales who suspectsthe presence of either AFB or EFB in a colony forwhich they are responsible is legally requiredeither to contact The Food and EnvironmentResearch Agency (Fera) NBU in order to have thecolony officially examined by a Fera BeeInspector, or to submit a suspect disease samplefor analysis to the Fera Laboratory at York.Beekeepers should also place the apiary fromwhich the sample is taken under “self-imposed”standstill. Beekeepers elsewhere in the UK whosuspect the presence of AFB or EFB shouldcontact the local office of the relevantGovernment Agriculture Department for advice.

The NBU operates a statutory apiary inspectionand surveillance programme in England andWales. Bee Inspectors inspect bee colonies forfoul brood, free of charge. When foul brooddisease is suspected, a sample is tested using arapid diagnostic field test kit known as a LateralFlow Device (LFD). Sometimes samples are taken

for laboratory analysis. If disease is confirmed aStandstill Notice is issued, prohibiting theremoval of bees and equipment from the apiary.The inspector will then carry out the necessarydisease control measures. Further details aboutthe NBU and its advisory and training servicesare given at the end of this leaflet.

• All colonies in the UK are at risk of contractingfoul brood. If disease occurs but is notdetected and controlled, the infection willnormally spread quickly through the apiaryand into adjacent apiaries belonging to otherbeekeepers. However, if the infection is spottedat an early stage and action is taken to tackleit, no further or only limited spread shouldoccur.

• Good husbandry must be a starting point forcontrol of foul brood. Keep a close eye on thehealth of your bees, and in particular makesure you can recognise the signs of foulbrood infection and any abnormalities in thebrood.

• Maintain apiaries to minimise the effects ofrobbing and drifting.

• Aim to keep strong vigorous colonies and tryto select hygienic strains of bees that do notsuffer from disease.

• As part of routine good husbandry practiceaim regularly to replace old comb. Manybeekeepers replace a minimum of fourcombs per brood box each year. Othersreplace all the combs in the brood chamberseach year as the colony expands in thespring.

• Beekeepers, as keepers of livestock thatcontribute enormously to agriculture and theenvironment, have a responsibility to ensurethat their bees are healthy and that they arenot unwittingly spreading any infectionthrough their beekeeping practices.

• You should be familiar with the signs andcauses of the diseases that may affect yourbees, the action to take if foul brood issuspected, and the measures you should taketo help keep your colonies healthy andproductive.

• “Caveat Emptor”. Be careful what usedequipment and bees you buy. Make sure thatthey are healthy before parting with yourmoney.

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Beekeeper responsibility

• The Bee Inspectors from Fera’s NBU cannotexamine all colonies of bees each year, and itis therefore essential in the control of foulbrood for you regularly to inspect your owncolonies for signs of brood disease. Vigilanceis the key; you must spot the signs ofinfection early.

• If you suspect foul brood, you must contactthe NBU for assistance. It is also very goodpractice to inform other local beekeepers ofthe problem so that they can quickly checkfor signs of disease in their own bees.

Figure 3: Migratory beekeeping has the potential to

spread pests and diseases long distance. It is essential

to check before moving that your colonies are healthy

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1. Make sure you are familiar with the signs and

causes of foul brood and other brood

disorders.

2. Inspect your colonies at the very least every

spring and autumn, specifically to check for

brood disease. If you are unsure, seek expert

advice.

3. Never transfer combs between colonies, or

divide colonies, without first checking for signs

of brood disease.

4. Never bring colonies, combs or beekeeping

equipment into the apiary unless you are sure

that they come from a disease-free source.

5. Never buy old combs. Always sterilise second-

hand hives by thoroughly scorching them with

a blow lamp before use.

6. Control robbing in the apiary. Never leave

combs or honey exposed to robbing bees.

Never feed honey from another source to your

bees.

7. If a colony of bees dies out at any time, seal

the hive to prevent the remaining stores being

robbed out, pending examination of the brood

combs for signs of disease.

8. If any colony appears not to be thriving, and

the reason is not already known, examine the

brood for signs of disease.

9. Be suspicious of stray swarms. Hive them on

foundation rather than drawn comb, keep them

“isolated” from the rest of the apiary as the

colony expands and inspect them for disease

once they have become established.

10. Regularly and systematically replace old brood

combs in the apiary by melting them down and

replacing them with frames fitted with

foundation.

10 Rules for Foul Brood Control

Figure 4: Bee disease recognition training in the field

Figure 6: Bee disease recognition training in thelaboratory

Figure 5: Bee disease recognition training in the field

Healthy Brood

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All beekeepers should be familiarwith the

appearance of healthyworker brood, so that they

can recognise any abnormalities immediatelywhich

may indicate the presence of foul brood or other

brood diseases.

The queen lays eggs at the base of cells in thebrood nest. These hatch after three days anddevelop into tiny translucent larvae lying at thebase of the cell in a bed of milky brood food.

After six further days of development, the larvaehave increased in size to almost fill the base of thecell. Healthy larvae are pearly-white in colour.They lie in a distinct ‘C’ shape, with the head andtail curled towards one another. The body of thelarva can be seen to be divided along its length intoa series of segments

Figure 7: An even pattern of eggs

Figure 8: Young healthy worker bee larvae and eggs

Figure 9: Healthy larvae shortly before sealing

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Sources of infection

Infected combs, brood combs

Super combs

Honey (eg in exposed combs or drums)

Beekeeping equipment

Means of spread

Transfer of combs between colonies

Robbing

Drifting

Swarming

The beekeeper through management practices

Purchase of infected stocks of bees

Healthy Brood

Sources of spread of foul brood

When the larvae are nine days old, the cellopening is sealed by adult bees with a cap of wax,and development into an adult bee occurs insidethe sealed cell completing metamorphosis. Thewax cappings on healthy worker brood vary incolour from very light to dark brown (oftenreferred to as digestive biscuit colour), and theyare dry looking and slightly convex. Drone broodcan be distinguished from worker brood by itslarger cells and domed cappings.

A good even brood pattern (refered to bybeekeepers as wall to wall), with very few emptycells within patches of brood suggests that thequeen is laying well and nearly all the larvae aredeveloping normally. Even where the broodpattern is more haphazard, as results from an oldor failing queen for instance, the individual larvaeand cell cappings should still have a normalappearance.

Figure 10: Sealed healthy brood

Figure 11: Healthy capped brood produced in aproductive healthy colony

• Wear full protective clothing and have asmoker well lit.

• Keep the colony subdued with smoke.

• Remove the hive roof and place it on theground by the hive (to the side of the hive orbehind away from the hive entrance).

• If there are supers on the hive, remove themand place them on the upturned roof, keepingthem covered to prevent robbing.

• Remove any queen excluder and examine theunderside for the queen. If she is presentreturn her to the colony. Place the excluderon the ground next to the roof

How to examine a honey bee colonyfor brood disease

• Where two boxes are used for the brood nestexamine the bottom one first.

• Remove the outside comb, which is unlikelyto contain brood, and lean it against a frontcorner of the hive – you will then have roomto work.

• Take each comb in turn, and holding it by thelugs within the brood chamber, give it a sharpshake. This will deposit the bees on thebottom of the hive without harming them, thequeen or brood.

Figure 12: Opening the hive for disease inspection

Figure 13: With the adult bees on the comb you can notclearly see the brood

Figure 14: Shaking adult bees from the comb intothe hive

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• Any bees on a comb may be concealinginfected brood from the beekeeper’s view. Oncombs free from bees, any abnormality iseasily spotted.

• Examine the brood, both sealed andunsealed, quickly but carefully, for any signsof abnormality – such as discoloured larvaeor perforated cappings.

• Look for AFB scales (see page 12 -Figure 22)by holding the combs towards the light andscanning the bottom walls of any open cells.

How to examine a honey bee colony for brood disease

• Look inside any sealed cells with abnormallooking cappings after opening the cell with acorner of the hive tool, matchstick or suitableimplement.

• To establish the consistency of any deadremains present, probe these with amatchstick. Dispose of the used matchstickin the smoker.

• Continue until you have examined all thebrood combs; then reassemble the hive.

• If you suspect EFB or AFB may be present,

you must contact the NBU immediately for

assistance (see key contacts information atthe end of the leaflet for details).

Figure 15: With the bees removed the brood is clearlyvisible

Figure 16: Examining comb for scales

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10

Cause

American foul brood is caused by a spore-forming bacterium called Paenibacillus larvae.Young honey bee larvae become infected whenthey consume P. larvae spores in their food. Thespores germinate in the gut; bacteria then moveinto the tissues, where they multiply enormouslyin number. Infected larvae normally die after theircell is sealed, and millions of infective spores areformed in their remains. These remains dry toform ‘scales’ which adhere closely to the cell walland cannot easily be removed by bees.Consequently brood combs from infected coloniesare inevitably severely contaminated withbacterial spores. If the scales are not spotted andinfected combs are subsequently used anddistributed or moved from colony to colony duringroutine beekeeping management then infectionhas the potential to spread quickly.

The spores are very resistant to extremes of heatand cold, and to disinfectants. They retain theirpowers of germination for many years in honey, inold combs kept in store, or in derelict hives,skeps or boxes.

Once a colony is infected the disease will usuallyprogress until most of the brood is affected. Thecolony then becomes unable to replace theageing adult bee population, causing it to becomeweakened, and finally to die out. The disease maydevelop for months before the colony succumbs,and death may occur at any time of the year.

Spread

The beekeeper is the chief spreading agent of thedisease. If combs, honey or hive equipment aretransferred from an AFB-infected colony to ahealthy colony, it becomes infected. Bees robbinghoney from infected colonies also transmit thedisease. Swarms from infected colonies may alsocarry infection with them and become diseasedafter they are hived.

American Foul Brood

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Control

AFB is a notifiable disease under the BeeDiseases and Pests Control Orders (for Englandand Wales) and is subject to official control by aprogramme of apiary inspections carried out bythe NBU. Control of the disease is throughcompulsory destruction of infected colonies,which is a very effective measure. Thiseradication policy has been highly effective sincethe 1940s when first introduced, bringing theincidence of foul brood down from severalthousand infected colonies per year to less than100 nowadays. In recent years disease incidencehas been characterized by sporadic but largeoutbreaks which have been rapidly brought undercontrol by the inspectors and beekeepersworking together. Methods of control of AFBusing antibiotics that are used in some overseascountries are not effective, as they only serve tosuppress signs of the disease without eradicatingit and through frequent use allow thedevelopment of resistant bacterial strains. Theuse of antibiotics to control AFB is not

permitted in the UK.

Diagnosis

For confirmation of AFB, a suspect sample istested using a LFD field kit. Sometimes broodcombs (or suspect larvae in plastic tubes) aresent to the NBU laboratory where larval remainsare examined for the presence of the causativebacteria.

Infected colonies are destroyed by burning underthe supervision of a Bee Inspector.The bees are killed, and together with the combsare safely burned in a deep pit (Fig 17).

Hives and appliances can be sterilised bythoroughly scorching them with a blow lamp (Fig18). Gloves, overalls, footwear and the smokerare then washed thoroughly in washing soda orhot soapy water.

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11

Signs of American foul brood

• AFB generally affects only sealed brood.When infected larvae die within the sealedcell, the appearance of the cell cappingschanges. A good way of remembering is thatAFB = A (after sealing of the cell).

• Wax cappings become sunken and perforatedwhen adult bees nibble holes in them to tryto remove the infected larva within. Theseperforations tend to be jagged and irregularin shape.

• Some cappings may become moist or greasylooking and slightly darker in colour thanother cells.

American Foul Brood

Figure 17: Destruction of an AFB infected colony

Figure 18: Sterilisation of hive boxes with a powerfulblow lamp

Figure 19: AFB – perforated and sunken cappings

American Foul Brood

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• At first only very few cells may show signs ofdisease, and the colony will appear normal inother respects.

• Eventually much of the sealed brood willbecome affected by the disease, causing apatchy or ‘pepper pot’ brood pattern.

• There may then be an unpleasant smellassociated with decomposition.

• At the sunken capping stage the dead larvalremains are light to dark brown in colour, andhave a slimy consistency.

• If a matchstick is inserted and slowlywithdrawn, the remains can be drawn out in abrown, mucus-like thread or ‘rope’ 10-30mmlong. This is called the ‘ropiness’ test and is areliable test for the presence of AFB.

• The ropy condition is followed by a tackystage as the larval remains in the cellgradually dry up and the colour changes todark brown.

• The proboscis of dead pupae may sometimesremain intact, protruding upwards from thebottom edge of the cell (Fig 23).

• Further drying leads to the final stage,which is a very dark brown, rather roughscale lying on the lower side of the celland extending from just behind the mouthof the cell right back to the base (Fig. 22).

• The scales can be detected if the comb isheld facing the light: they reflect the lightfrom their rough surfaces and can easilybe seen, even when their colour is almostthe same as the comb itself.

Figure 20: AFB-”pepper pot” brood

Figure 21: AFB-ropiness test

Figure 22: AFB-scales in the bottom of the cells

Answers

Figure24:AFBScalesarevisibleifyoulookcarefully

Figure25:ThiscolonydiedofstarvationandaheavyinfectionofAmericanfoulbrood.

American Foul Brood

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Figure 23: AFB pupal tongue stage

Figure 25: What happened to this colony?

Figure 24: Can you spot the abnormality?

Cause

European foul brood is caused by the bacteriumcalled Melissococcus plutonius.The bacteria multiply in the mid-gut of aninfected larva, competing with the larva for itsfood. They remain in the gut and do not invadethe larval tissue; larvae that die from the diseasedo so because they have been starved of food.This normally occurs shortly before their cells aredue to be sealed. Subsequently other species ofbacteria may multiply in the remains of deadlarvae as ‘secondary invaders’, such asPaenibacillus alvei, Enterococcus faecalis,Brevibacillus laterosporus, and Lactobacilluseurydice.

Progression of the disease

The development of the disease within a colony iscomplex, and still not fully understood. It appearsthat infection can develop over a period of monthsor years, often debilitating but not killing thecolony. During this time, signs of the disease maybecome more or less severe, or disappearaltogether. Frequently there is a seasonal pattern,with signs becoming most obvious in late spring.This is thought to be because when there aremany larvae relative to the number of nurse bees,larvae tend to receive less brood food overall, andthose infected with EFB are more likely to sufferfrom starvation. At other times, larvae that areinfected but receive an abundance of brood foodmay survive the infection, and develop into healthyadult bees. However, when such larvae pupate,they void their gut contents into the cell,contaminating the comb with millions of infectivebacteria. Eventually the disease is likely to reachthe stage where a high proportion of the brood isaffected and the colony will be weakened andultimately killed.

Spread

The beekeeper is the chief spreading agent of thedisease. If combs, honey or hive equipment aretransferred from an EFB infected colony to ahealthy colony, it is likely to become infected. Bees

European Foul Brood

14

robbing honey from infected colonies alsotransmit the disease. Swarms from infectedcolonies may also carry infection with them andbecome diseased after they are hived.

Migratory beekeeping – moving infected orhealthy colonies into close proximity of infectedapiaries-can also spread disease, as can thepurchase of infected bees (eg nuclei).

Diagnosis

European foul brood cannot be reliablyidentified visually, as the disease signs caneasily be confused with various other broodabnormalities. Suspect infections areconfirmed in the field by Fera Bee Inspectorsusing Lateral Flow Devices. Occasionallysample brood combs (or suspect larvae inplastic tubes) are sent to the NBU laboratorywhere larval gut contents are examined forthe presence of the causative bacteria.

Control

EFB is a notifiable disease under the BeeDiseases and Pests Control Order (for Englandand Wales) and is subject to official control by theexamination of colonies for signs of disease andcompulsory treatment or destruction of diseasedcolonies. Weak colonies and colonies with a highproportion of diseased brood are destroyed, aswith American foul brood, but lightly diseasedcolonies may be treated with an antibiotic.Treatment must be carried out only by anAppointed Officer under the Order, using drugsofficially dispensed following confirmation ofEuropean foul brood in a disease samplesubmitted for diagnosis at an approved laboratoryor by LFD. Treatment is prescribed by thedesignated Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA).

Control of the disease by a husbandry methodknown as the “shook swarm” has also been shownto be effective and is an option available tobeekeepers (see pages 19-23).

European Foul Brood

15

Figure 26: Some of the options for laboratory diagnosis of foul brood

Real time Taq Man PCR (Molecular diagnosis) Microbiological identification

Microscopy and Staining techniques Paenibacillus alvae(associated with EFB)

Melissococcus plutonius

(causative organism of EFB)

Detection of foul brood using ELISA(Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay)

Identification of bacteria through lightmicroscopy

European Foul Brood

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Signs of European foul brood

• EFB affects mainly unsealed brood, killinglarvae before they are sealed in their cells.

• An easy way to remember is that EFB = E(early infection before sealing of the cell).

• The EFB infected larva moves inside its cellinstead of remaining in the normal coiledposition characteristic of a healthy larva ofthe same age.

• When it dies it lies in an unnatural attitude –twisted spirally around the walls, across themouth of the cell or stretched out lengthwaysfrom the mouth to the base.

The dead larva often collapses as though it hadbeen melted, turning yellowish-brown andeventually drying up to form a loosely attachedbrown scale. (Fig 30)

The gut of an infected larva may be visiblethrough its translucent body wall. It has a creamywhite colour caused by the mass of bacteria livingwithin it. (Fig 31)

When a high proportion of the larvae are beingkilled by EFB, the brood pattern will often appearpatchy and erratic as dead brood is removed bythe bees and the queen lays in the vacant cells.

A very unpleasant odour may sometimesaccompany severe EFB infection, depending onthe presence of certain other species of bacteriain the remains of dead larvae.

Figure 27: EFB affected unsealed brood

Figure 28: EFB-twisted and discoloured larvae

Some of the infected larvae may die after the cellis sealed. In such cases, there may be sunkenperforated cappings resembling AFB infection.However, the cell contents although brown andsticky cannot be drawn into a ‘rope’ as with AFB.

Where larval remains dry to form scales, theseare variable in colour, loose within the cell andsomewhat “rubbery”, unlike the hard black firmlyattached scales of AFB.

European Foul Brood

17

Figure 29: EFB – severe infection and patchy brood pattern

Figure 30: EFB – dead brood with scales

Figure 31: EFB photograph showing yellow/whitecolour of infected larval gut

Controlling an outbreak of Foul Brood

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If you keep bees for long enough, it is likely thatyou will someday have to deal with an outbreak ofEFB or AFB in your colonies. When this happens,your Bee Inspector will visit you several times tohelp bring the infection under control – firstinspecting your colonies for signs of disease, thentreating or destroying infected colonies, and laterreturning to make sure that there has been nodisease recurrence in the apiary. Bee Inspectorswill work closely with you to bring the outbreakunder control and provide advice on minimisingrecurrence. Please see Statutory ProceduresInformation for Controlling Foul Brood on BeeBase(NBU website).

However, you have an equally important role inbringing the disease under control. This entailsusing some common-sense methods to avoidspreading the infection between colonies, andmaking sure that any new cases of disease arerecognised before they can spread to othercolonies.

Both EFB and AFB are infectious diseases, andcan spread without the intervention of thebeekeeper by the natural processes of robbing,drifting etc. Despite this, unfortunately in practicethe main agent of spread is the beekeeper, ashe/she moves combs, brood, bees and otherdisease carrying materials between colonies.

If careless, an infection that may only affect onecolony in the apiary at the start of the beekeepingseason may easily affect all the colonies by theend. Conversely, however, experience has shownthat even very severe outbreaks of foul broodaffecting many colonies in large beekeepingenterprises can be successfully brought undercontrol so long as cases of foul brood are foundand dealt with faster than new cases are allowedto develop.

Key strategies for controlling anoutbreak of foul brood in yourbees

1. Developing a keen eye: learning torecognise the signs of foul brood.

This is a skill that takes a little time and practiceto acquire. Start by working with your BeeInspector, as he/she inspects your bees. He/shewill be glad to point out the signs that distinguishdiseased and healthy brood. Then every time youinspect your bees, make a point of alwayschecking the brood for signs of disease. Your aimshould be to spot one diseased larva in a comb

of several thousand. You can send individualsuspect larvae to the NBU for diagnosis usinglarval tube sampling kits (available from your BeeInspector).

2. Use quarantine systems to avoidspreading disease

When colonies with signs of foul brood have beenfound and dealt with, there is still a significantrisk that other colonies may be infected but notyet showing signs of disease. Many beekeepershave found ‘quarantine systems’ to be veryeffective in minimising the spread of infectionbetween colonies while a foul brood outbreak isbrought after control. These will also helpminimise the scale of any new outbreaks thatmay subsequently occur.

For instance:

Colony quarantine – avoid moving any combs, beesor equipment from one colony to another. It will benecessary to mark super frames and boxes so thatthey can be individually identified and returned tothe same colonies after extraction. This is the mosteffective quarantine system, and the mostappropriate for colonies that are at particular risk –such as those that have been previously treated,and those that have had close contact with infected


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colonies – but involves significant effort to carry outon a large scale. This has worked very successfullyto bring large outbreaks under control.

Apiary quarantine – avoid moving any bees,combs or equipment between apiaries, but allowsome movement (e.g. super combs) within theapiary. This will not prevent spread within theapiary but involves less work than colonyquarantine to implement on a large scale andhelps prevent moving disease between apiaries.

Isolation apiaries – where an EFB outbreak extendsbetween several apiaries managed by a singlebeekeeper, it can often be advantageous to move allknown infected colonies, and other colonies believedto be at particular risk to a single apiary (underlicence from the NBU inspectors). This keeps to aminimum any contact between diseased andhealthy colonies, and makes it easier to operatequarantine systems appropriate to the level of riskin each apiary.

Disinfecting equipment – where it is necessary tomove items between colonies, treat them to reducethe risk of spreading disease. Wooden hive partscan be made safe by scorching with a blowlamp.Hive tools, gloves, the smoker, etc. can be soakedin or scrubbed with a strong solution of washingsoda. Irradiating equipment is another option (page30).

Transfer colonies to new comb

The pathogens responsible for both AFB and EFBcan exist in a colony’s combs for long periods andremain capable of causing disease to develop.This is particularly true of colonies that have beentreated against EFB with an antibiotic. Asignificant proportion of these colonies can sufferreccurrence of disease within a year or so as aresult of live bacteria remaining in the colonyafter treatment. Any method that removescontaminated comb from colonies and replaces itwith new comb will be helpful in reducing therisks of disease. The more rapid and completethe transfer, the more effective it will be.

Shook swarm

The ‘Shook Swarm’ method aims to removecompletely contaminated comb by transferringthe colony to entirely new combs in one operation.This is done by shaking the adult bees into aclean hive fitted with frames of foundation duringthe season. The removed combs are thendestroyed by burning. Although this method caninvolve significant labour and expense, recentresearch at the NBU suggests that it is extremelyeffective at combating EFB and reducingsubsequent recurrence of disease. Manybeekeepers have found that colonies, whentreated by shook swarm, are capable of quicklybuilding up to gather a good crop of honey, andthat the reduced risk of reccurrence of EFBmakes it a sensible strategy for dealing withaffected colonies, and other colonies thought tobe at particular risk. For further details ofmethods that can be used to help control foulbrood contact the NBU or your local BeeInspector.

Integrated Pest Management

All of the above amount to integrated pestmanagement, (usually abbreviated to ‘IPM’) whichis a principal that has been widely used inagriculture, especially where it is desirable to keepchemical or medicinal inputs to a minimum.Significantly, no attempt is made to eradicatecompletely the pests or disease. Instead, the aim isto keep them below the level where they causesignificant harm by using a combination of controlsapplied at different times of the year. More or fewercontrols are employed depending on the levels ofdisease present. This is a much more effectiveapproach than the alternative of waiting untilpathogen numbers have reached a damaging levelbefore applying controls, or applying the samecontrols each year regardless.


Figure 32: Shook Swarm Technique. The bees from infected colonies are ‘shaken’ from the combs one by one into aprepared sterilised brood chamber containing frames with foundation or with clean drawn comb as an alternative.

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Low risk

Check for signs twice a year

Basic apiary hygiene

Periodic comb change

Shook swarm/ destroy affectedinfected colonies

Medium risk

Check several times a year

Careful apiary hygiene

Regular systematic combreplacement

Shook swarm/ destroy infectedcolonies

Apiary level quarantine

High risk

Check at each inspection

Strict apiary hygiene

Shook swarm/destroy infectedcolonies

Shook swarm contact colonies

Colony level quarantine

Maintain ‘hospital’ quarantineapiaries

This general approach can also be illustrated in the following Foul brood Control Calendar and Quad Chart (Fig 33 and 34)

Sterilise supers and combs.

Replace old wax with

foundation

Routine comb change (3-4

older combs per brood box)

Mark supers placed on

individual hives

Monitor for disease signs

Shook swarm

Antibiotic treatment

Biological control treatment

Colony destruction

Apiary/colony quarantine

(barrier management)

Control robbing

Extraction hygiene

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

21

An IPM programme for foul brood control (with particular emphasis on EFB)

IPM is a principle that can be readily applied to control of many bee pests and diseases.

An IPM approach to foul brood control would aim to include:

• A varied mix of controls working in different ways and at different times of year according to the level ofrisks (see Table 1 below and Figures 33 and 34)

• A mixture of prevention and intervention

• Graded response depending on level of problem

• Control at several points of the year makes it harder for the disease/pathogens to reach harmful levelsor threshold levels.

• Use of management methods can reduce the need for antibiotic use.

• Control strategies can be easily altered to reflect changing circumstances, infection levels

Table 1: Management action to take based on risk assessment

Figure 33: Foul Brood Control Calendar

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Years

Infected

colonies

r=0.9

r=1.1

r=1.0

22

The conceptual graph above shows the big difference that small changes to “r” the reproductive rate ofdiseased colonies. (i.e. how many diseased colonies end the year compared with those at the beginning)can make to incidence of disease. Just a little below 1 and it dies away, just a little above 1 and it soarsout of control.

By implementing the recommended means of control illustrated throughout this leaflet (IPM and goodhusbandry) r should be < 0.9 and this can be shown in detail with the case study opposite.


Prevention

Intervention

Gentle Action Intensive ActionQuarantine (apiary level) Quarantine (colony level)

Select for resistant stocks

Routine apiaryhygiene

Routinecomb

Exchange

Strict apiaryhygiene

Shookswarm‘contactcolonies’

Super combsterilisation

Colonydestruction

Antibiotictreatment(EFB)

Shookswarminfectedcolonies

Figure 34: Control options for foul brood

Figure 35: Influence of new infection rate on changes in disease levels

23

Case Study: Shook Swarm and good husbandry in practice


The graph shows a reduction in the incidence ofEFB both in terms on the numbers of infectedcolonies and infected apiaries from a level of 25%(confirmed clinical cases) to zero in five years. Thisis an actual case involving a bee farm of 400colonies in the south of England. This success isdue to good husbandry, barrier management andan Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach.

The beekeeper

• has learnt to recognise disease.

• sends off suspect tube samples to the NBUlaboratory frequently.

• is willing to carry out shook swarms, evenvery early in the year or on small colonies andwill follow up treatment with as much feedingas is required to build the colonies into usableunits.

• is happy to shake good colonies ontoclean comb.

• is happy to shook swarm whole apiaries to tryto remove any latent EFB in colonies withoutclinical signs.

• does not like to burn colonies to eliminateinfection but will do so with poor performingand susceptible colonies if considerednecessary.

• removes all supers at the end of theseason and takes them back to base.

• fumigates supers with acetic acid routinely.

• then has the frames/combs refitted andsterilised with acetic acid.

• sterilises all the boxes with a blowtorch.

• marks supers and returns them to the samecolony and to the same apiary. The supersthen stay with those colonies throughout theseason.

Generally this means the beekeeper finds anddeals with disease faster than it spreads. Thereforethere is a general downward trend in diseaseincidence. With improved disease control it hasbeen found that honey production has increased. Itis worth mentioning that this case is especiallyimpressive considering that EFB is generallyprevalent in the area in which the bees are kept.

Figure 36: Reduction in Incidence of European foul brood 1998-2008

1998-2008

103

46

12

36

9 60 0 0 1 0

21

113

83 3 0 0 0 1 00

20

40

60

80

100

120

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Year

Num

bers Number of infected

colonies

Numbers of infectedapiaries

Common Brood Disorders

24

In addition to the foul brood diseases, there arehoney bee brood disorders generally consideredless serious such as sacbrood, chalkbrood, bald-brood, laying workers and drone-laying queens. Itis important that beekeepers are able todistinguish between these and foul brood. Thesedisorders will also affect colony productivity andcan occassionally be serious problems forsusceptible stocks of bees.

Sacbrood

Sacbrood is a very common virus diseaseaffecting brood. In most diseased coloniesrelatively few larvae are visibly affected, and itrarely causes measurable harm to colonies.However, the signs can sometimes be mistakenfor those of AFB.

Disease signs

Larvae that have died from sacbrood become likefluid-filled sacs, stretched on their backs with theirheads towards the top of their cells. Adult workerbees eventually uncap them. Diseased larvae turnfrom the normal pearly-white colour to pale yellowand the head curls up as the body dries to a thin,dark brown scale lying along the bottom wall of thecell. These are often referred to as ‘ChineseSlippers’

The scale of a sacbrood infected larva has adistinctive gondola shape and is easily removed inone piece from its cell using a matchstick.

Treatment and control

There is no specific treatment for sacbrood. Whenmuch of the brood is obviously affected, thequeen should be replaced by one from a colonyshowing no signs of the disease. Combs can bere-used; any sacbrood virus present on thembecomes non-infectious within a few weeks.

Figure 37: Sacbrood infected larva(cell mouth enlarged for photograph)

Figure 38: SacbroodTop: “Chinese slipper”Bottom: removed from cell for photograph


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Varroosis

Colonies that are severely infested with varroamites (Varroa destructor) frequently suffer fromdeath of brood. This is normally most apparent incolonies that are very severely infested; especiallythose that are collapsing from the infestation inpoorly treated or unmanaged colonies. Thedamage results not only from the mitesthemselves through feeding on the haemolymphand depriving the developing bee of vitalnourishment, but also from viruses that aretriggered by the infestation or, in the case ofcollapsing colonies, from the bees failing to careadequately for their brood.

Disease signsSigns of damage to brood in varroa-infestedcolonies can be very variable. Most commonlysealed brood appears affected, with dead anddiscoloured brood in various stages belowperforated cappings. The larval remains may befirm or watery, but never ropy (as with AFB).Close examination will reveal numerous varroamites in floor debris, brood cells and on adultbees. (See Managing Varroa leaflet for furtherdetails).

Figure 39: Varroa infested comb from collapsing colony

Figure 40: Varroa infested comb from collapsing colony

Chalkbrood

Chalkbrood is an extremely common brooddisease caused by the fungus Ascosphaera apis.The thread-like, vegetative growths (‘hyphae’) ofthe fungus invade the body tissues of infectedlarvae, killing them after they have been cappedover in their cells.

Disease signsAdult bees usually tear down the brood cellcappings to remove the dead larvae. Theseappear as hard, chalky-white or mottled greyremains (‘mummies’) lying along the length of thecell. Infected larvae often take on the hexagonalshape of the cell itself before shrinking in size, atwhich point the bees are able to remove themfrom the comb. They are often noticeable on thehive floor or at the hive entrance.


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The spread of chalkbroodLarvae affected by chalkbrood may releasemillions of spores that all have a sticky coating,enabling them to adhere to combs and to adultbees. These are the dormant phase of the fungusand can remain infectious for three years ormore.

Figure 41: Chalkbrood infected brood Figure 42: Chalkbrood “mummies” on a hive floor

Both the transfer of combs by the beekeeper andthe drifting of bees transmit chalkbrood sporesbetween colonies. Signs of chalkbrood are probablypresent in the majority of colonies at some time,and spores of A. apis can be detected even inapparently unaffected colonies. However, it is rarelya serious disease, and the effect on most coloniesis slight. Chalkbrood is most likely to be serious incolonies that are finding it difficult to careadequately for their brood, and is therefore mostprevalent in weak colonies and during early spring.

Treatment and controlThere are no specific treatments available on themarket for chalkbrood. The most effective controlresults from avoiding the conditions favourable toits increase by maintaining strong and vigorouscolonies, and bees that show marked hygienicbehaviour. In severe cases, re-queening with aqueen from a chalkbrood-free colony isrecommended. It is reported that Apiguard (avarroacide treatment based on thymol) mayassist in the control of this fungal infection.


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Bald Brood

Normally pupae are sealed in their cells underwax cappings until they are ready to emerge asadults. Colonies with bald brood may have smallpatches of live and normal looking pupae in cellsthat are incompletely capped. The partial cappingfrequently has a raised lip that protrudes fromthe comb.

Figure 43: Bald brood

Figure 44: Domed cappings of drone brood in worker cells

The cause of bald brood is not always clear;however, the most common reason is infestationof brood combs by wax moth larvae. These canoften be found tunnelling below the surface of thecomb close to patches of bald brood.

Drone Brood in Worker Cells

The characteristic domed cappings of sealeddrone brood are present in virtually all coloniesduring the summer months on areas of dronecomb, usually situated at the edge of the broodnest. However, there are common abnormalitiesthat can cause drone brood to be reared inworker cells along with, or in place of, workerbrood. Such drone brood is usually very irregular;capped pupae are interspersed with either vacantcells or cells containing larvae at every stage ofdevelopment. There are two possible causes – adrone-laying queen or laying workers.Beekeepers often confuse these conditions withserious brood diseases.

Drone-laying queenWorker bees develop from eggs that have beenfertilised, before they are laid, by sperms storedin the queen’s sperm sac (spermatheca). If thesupply of sperm becomes exhausted (eg: if thequeen was poorly mated), only unfertilised eggsare laid, which develop into drone brood. Hence,queens may become drone-layers in later life orearlier if they have not properly mated. Theseshould be replaced with queens of proven fertility.

Laying workersWhen colonies lose their queen and have noyoung worker brood from which to rear areplacement, the workers may develop functionalovaries and begin to lay eggs. These eggs, beingunfertilised, develop into drones; the signs aresimilar to those of the drone-laying queen, exceptthat the brood pattern is often less compact. Also,there may be several eggs present in some cells,most often on the walls as well as at the bottomof the cell. Colonies with laying workers are verydifficult to requeen, and are usually in poorcondition. It is generally advisable to unite themwith a strong colony, or to destroy them. Shakeout the bees on the ground (on a sheet if wet) sothat they return to other colonies in the apiary.


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Figure 45: Typical comb showing signs of a failed queen orlaying workers

Figure 46: Signs of laying workers

Figure 47: Chilled brood

Chilled broodSometimes relatively large areas of brood in allstages die at the same time and turn very dark incolour. This is usually diagnosed visually as ‘chilledbrood’. However, even young larvae can survive forseveral hours at temperatures well below thebrood nest heat of 35°C. It is probable, therefore,that ‘chilling’ of brood is the result of broodbecoming isolated from the adult bees and beingneglected by them. As a result the brood dies froma combination of starvation and prolonged lowtemperatures.

No pathogenic organism is responsible. Examiningcolonies in cold weather should not cause chilledbrood. Keeping colonies in thriving condition withample bees to cover and nurture the brood canprevent chilled brood.

Diseases of uncertain originEggs, larvae and pupae sometimes die for reasonsunconnected with infectious disease, and thecause of the death is often difficult to establish. Apatchy brood pattern might be the result of pooregg-laying by the queen, or caused by a geneticdefect in some of her eggs, preventing them fromhatching or developing from larvae into adults orenvironmental contamination of some form oranother. Usually the workers quickly remove thedead brood. Brood death of this kind may happenin many colonies, however, the numbers ofabnormal eggs or larvae are probably so low thatthey are removed by the bees before thebeekeeper even notices. If a genetic defect or afaulty queen appears to be the cause of a brooddisorder then replacing the queen with another isthe most effective course of action.

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Normal brood

American foul brood

(Paenibacillus larvae)

European foul brood

(Melissococcus plutonius)

Chalkbrood

(Ascosphaera apis)

Sacbrood

(Sacbrood virus SBV)

Bald brood

Drone laying queen or

laying workers

Chilled brood

Varroa infestation

(Varroa destructor)

Summary of Brood Signs, Causes and Control

Signs

Uncapped: Pearly white, ‘C’ shaped larvae.Capped: Uniform brown colour, domedcappings.

Affects only sealed brood sunken concavecappings, uneven brood pattern, ‘pepper pot’or mosaic pattern, scales on bottom walls ofopen cells, brown decomposing larvae that‘rope’ using matchstick test, moist darkperforated cappings.

Affects mainly unsealed brood. Infected larvaediscoloured yellow-brown lying in abnormalpositions in cell with ‘melted’ appearance.Some dark sunken cappings may be present,but cell contents will not form a ‘rope’.

Affects only sealed brood. Perforated cappingsover cells containing hard white or mottledgrey chalk like remains (‘mummies’).

Affects only sealed brood. Perforatedcappings. Larvae become yellow-brown fluidfilled sacs (‘Chinese slipper’). Watery contentswill not form ‘rope’.

Abnormal cell cappings over sealed brood.Affected cells have round hole in cappingsometimes with a slight protrusion. Pupaehave normal appearance. Signs of wax mothlarvae may be visible in comb.

Domed drone cappings over worker cells.Abnormally small drone pupae within cells.May be multiple eggs per cell. Unsealed broodmay be neglected and dying.

Dead brood usually present in all stages.Unsealed brood turns very dark brown orblack in colour.

Signs vary. Sealed brood may be partiallyuncapped, dead pupae discoloured brown orblack, watery or firm, but never ropy.

Control

None required

Notifiable disease

A Fera Bee Inspector burns infectedcolonies and the hives are sterilised byscorching.

Notifiable disease

Several choices are available to thebeekeeper. Infected colonies can be:“Shook swarmed”, a Fera BeeInspector can treat lightly infectedcolonies with antibiotic and severecases of EFB are destroyed as withAFB.

No specific treatment. Keep strongcolonies. Re-queen severely affectedcolonies.

No specific treatment. Requeenseverely affected colonies.

No specific treatment. Control waxmoth infestation.

Replace drone laying queen. Unitecolony with laying workers to anothercolony. Shake bees out in front of thehive so that they return to othercolonies slowly.

Avoid conditions that prevent beesbeing able to care for brood.

Control varroa infestation to low levelsusing appropriate treatment. (seeManaging Varroa leaflet for details).

What to do if you suspectfoul brood

1. Close the hive.

2. Reduce the size of the entrance and take anyother steps necessary to prevent the hivebeing robbed by other colonies.

3. Disinfect gloves and other beekeepingequipment with a strong solution of washingsoda before examining other colonies.

Either:

a) Contact the NBU to arrange a visit by yourlocal Bee Inspector.

b) Send a whole comb containing diseased broodwrapped in several layers of paper and sealedin a cardboard box so that it can not leakhoney in transit to the NBU, with a notestating your name and address, the location ofthe apiary and the identity of the affected hive.Alternatively, an infected larvae can be sent tothe laboratory with all your details in asample tube (such as an “Eppendorf” typetube). The NBU can provide samples to localassociations and local bee health advisers.

4. You must not remove any hives, bees, orequipment from the apiary until the disease, ifpresent, has been controlled. Place the apiaryunder Standstill.

Sterilising hives and equipment

It is very good practice to sterilise spare andempty hives routinely before re-use. This appliesparticularly to second-hand equipment and thatwhich might have been associated with foul broodinfection, but also will help to reduce thelikelihood of transmitting foul brood or otherdiseases between colonies, if applied as part ofnormal apiary management.

HeatWooden hive parts can be sterilised by firstscraping off brace comb and propolis, and thenscorching with a blowlamp until the woodreaches a uniform coffee-brown colour. Particular

Further Information

30

attention needs to be paid to the corners and anycracks or crevices. Such treatment will destroythe infective stages of all the bee diseases.Alternatively, empty hive boxes and frames can besterilised by immersion in molten paraffin waxheated to 150°C for 10 minutes. Care should betaken if using this method.

Chemical sterilisation

There are no chemicals that have been shown tobe fully effectve for the sterilisation of storedcombs against foul brood. The spores of AFB inparticular are strongly resistant to virtually allsterilising agents. Combs can, however, besterilised to destroy the spores of chalkbrood(and Nosema disease of adult bees), using aceticacid vapour. In general it is better practice to meltdown or burn old combs and replace them withnew frames fitted with foundation.

Brood boxes, supers, queen excluders and otherbee-keeping equipment, which has beenthoroughly cleaned, of all wax and propolis canbe effectively sterilized by using commercialdisinfectants (e.g. bleach, Virkon S and others). Itis important that the manufacturer’s instructionsare complied with.

Irradiation of equipmentEquipment such as stored supers and emptycombs which may have been associated withcolonies infected with foul brood, but do not showany disease signs, can be sterilised by gammarays from a radioisotope of cobalt. This will killthe spores of the bacteria that cause diseasewithout damage to equipment. Infected combsmust not be irradiated if scales or other diseasesigns are present as these would remainindistinguishable visually from infectiousuntreated disease signs. Firms specialising inirradiation use 25 kiloGrays (kGy) to killPaenibacillus larvae (AFB) and its spores oncombs and hive equipment. Currently there is norecommendation for the treatment withirradiation for Melissococcus plutonius (EFB), butit is likely that 25 kGy is sufficient to killMelissococcus plutonius.

Further Information

How a Lateral Flow Device works

The routine diagnostic method used by the NBUto confirm the presence of foul brood is a field kitcalled a lateral flow device (or LFD). The termlateral flow refers to the suspect larval materialflowing horizontally across the kit membrane intowhich specific antibodies have been incorporated.The kits were specifically developed to confirmfoul brood and work on the same principles as ahuman pregnancy test. They are based on specificmonoclonal antibodies to AFB or EFB. There aretwo kits in use and each is specific for the foulbrood disease in question.

The principle of the LFD relies upon the captureof target bacterium between an immobilised lineof target specific (AFB or EFB) antibody on anitrocellulose membrane (Test line) and a bluecoloured latex-antibody conjugate to display avisible confirmation of target presence. A line ofanti-species antibody is incorporated into thedevice to provide visual verification of latex flow(Control line), resulting in two lines as anindication of positive detection and a single linefor a negative result.

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Figure 48: The mechanics of the lateral flow device.

Figure 49: Using a Lateral Flow Device (LFD)(These kits were developed by the Central ScienceLaboratory, which became The Food and EnvironmentAgency on 1st April 2009, on behalf of Vita Europe Ltd.Website: www.vita-europe.com)

Further Information

Figure 50: Using a Lateral Flow Device (LFD) A sample of suspect infected larval material is placed in the buffer bottle andshaken for about 20 seconds. 2-3 drops of the resulting suspension are then placed on the lateral flow device. The bluelines at the C (Control) and T (Test) line indicate a positive result for foul brood infection.

(Diagram courtesy of Vita Europe Ltd)

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The National Bee Unit

The Food and Environment Research Agency(Fera) National Bee Unit provides an integratedand statutory and advisory service tobeekeepers in England and Wales. It providesdiagnostic, consultancy and research servicesto Defra, Welsh Assembly Government,commerce and beekeepers. The Unit’slaboratories are fully compliant with theinternational Good Laboratory Practice (GLP)and ISO 9001 quality schemes to ensure a highprofessional standard and uses as a base theOffice International des Epizooties (OIE)Manuals of Standard Diagnostic tests forlaboratory diagnosis. All staff are trainedpractical beekeepers as well as scientists, andare supported by teams of specialists acrossthe rest of Fera. (Website addresshttp://www.defra.gov.uk/fera)

Further Information

33

Figure 51: Fera, Sand Hutton, York

Figure 52: An example Foul brood disease Incidence Mapconfirmed in tested apiaries

Figure 53: Disease control co-ordination from theNBU BeeBase on line

apiary surveillance programme which includesthe control of foul brood, Bee Inspectors provideadvice and assistance to beekeepers on a rangeof bee health issues and run training courses forbeekeepers on disease recognition and control,and good husbandry often in conjunction withlocal beekeeping associations. NBU staff deliveraround 800 training events per year.

Further help and advice

The NBU has a bee health inspection andadvisory service, operating in England and Wales,comprising a regional network of inspectors. TheHead of the Inspectorate is the National BeeInspector (NBI). Regional Bee Inspectors (RBIs)reporting to the NBI manage teams of SeasonalBee Inspectors (SBIs) throughout England andWales. As well as the statutory inspection and

EFB

AFB

NoFoulbrood

Further Information

34

For further information see the key contactsinformation on the NBU BeeBase website. Inmany areas, beekeeping associations operatelocal disease control schemes, and providepractical help and advice to members on beedisease recognition and control. Contact yourlocal beekeeping association for details.

Bee Diseases Insurance Ltd

An insurance scheme to compensate againstlosses incurred through destruction of foul broodinfected colonies is organised by Bee DiseasesInsurance Ltd, a specialist insurance companyoperating with the aim of reducing the incidenceof the foul brood diseases. Beekeepers can takeout insurance either individually or through theirlocal beekeeping association.

Acknowledgments

Leaflet revised by Mike Brown, Selwyn Wilkinsand Richard Ball.

All photographs supplied by Fera National BeeUnit.

Fera National Bee Unit (NBU)National Bee Unit, Sand Hutton, York, NorthYorkshire, YO41 1LZTel: 01904 462510Fax: 01904 462240Email: [email protected]: www.nationalbeeunit.com

Office of the Chief Veterinary OfficerWelsh Assembly Government OfficerHill House Picton TerraceCarmarthen SA31 3BSTel: 01267 245 007Web: www.wales.gov.uk

Scottish GovernmentPentland House 47 Robb’s Loan EdinburghScotland EH14 1TYTel: 0131 2446178Web: www.scotland.gov.uk/

Science and Advice for Scottish AgricultureSASA, Roddinglaw RoadEdinburgh EH12 9FJTel: 0131 244 8890Fax: 0131 244 8940Email: [email protected]: www.sasa.gov.uk

European Union(website for details of European Communitylegislation in force)Web: http://.eur-lex.europa.eu/en/index.htm

European UnionWeb: http://europa.eu/index.htm

Defra Veterinary Laboratories AgencyNew Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NBTel: 01932 341111Email: [email protected]: www.vla.gov.uk

Department of Agriculture & RuralDevelopment, Northern Ireland (DARDNI)Dundonald House, Belfast BT4 3SB,Northern IrelandTel: 02890 24488Web: www.dardni.gov.uk

Defra Veterinary MedicinesDirectorate (VMD)Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone,Surrey KT15 3LSTel: 01932 336 911Web: www.vmd.gov.uk

Office of Public Sector Information(European Community and UK Legislation)Web: www.opsi.gov.uk/

Veterinary Laboratories AgencyWeybridgeNew HawAddlestoneSurreyKT15 3NBWeb: http://www.defra.gov.uk/vla/

ISOTRONSynergy Health plcGround Floor StellaWindmill Hill Business ParkWhitehill WaySwindon SN5 6NXWeb: http//www.isotron.com

British Beekeepers’ Association(county and local beekeeping associations)National Agricultural Centre, StoneleighWarwickshire, CV8 2LZTel: 01203 696679Web: www.britishbee.org.uk

Welsh Beekeepers’ AssociationWeb: www.wbka.com/

Scottish Beekeepers’ AssociationWeb: www.scottishbeekeepers.org.ukEmail: [email protected]

Bee Farmers’ Association of theUnited KingdomWeb: www.beefarmers.co.uk

International Bee Research Association(library and beekeeping information services)18 North Road, Cardiff, Wales CF10 3DTTel: 02920 372409Web: www.ibra.org.uk

Ulster Beekeepers’ AssociationWeb: www.ubka.org

World Organisation for Animal health, OfficeInternational des Epizooties (OIE)Web: www.oie.int

Bee Diseases Insurance Ltd (BDI)Registered OfficeNational Beekeeping Centre, NACStoneleigh, Warwickshire, CV8 2LG

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Useful Addresses

Sand Hutton, YorkYO41 1LZ, UK

Tel +44 (0)1904 462 000Fax +44 (0)1904 462 111

E-mail [email protected]/fera

B0030/0809

Foul Brood Disease of Honey Bees - Blackburn and East Lancs

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