E X P E R I M E N T S A N D INNOVATIONS IN E D U C A T I O N

This series is published in English, in French and in Spanish

Titles in this series:

1. The TEVEC case 2. The school readiness project 3. Innovation in reading in Britain 4 . Understanding change in education:

an introduction 5. Changes in secondary education and their implications for continuing

education in Canada 6. A community school in Yugoslavia 7. The basic secondary school in the countryside:

an educational innovation in Cuba 8. The case of Cameroon: I PAR and the reform of secondary education

* 9 . Educational innovation in Singapore * 1 0 . Educational innovation in Iran "11 . Educational innovation in India "12 . Educational innovation in the Republic of Korea "13. Educational innovation in Indonesia

14. Experimental period of the International Baccalaureate: objectives and results

15. Radio study group campaigns in the United Republic of Tanzania 1 6. Educational'reform in Peru 1 7. Establishing an institution teaching by correspondence 18. Youth participation in the development process:

a case study in Panama 19. Educational innovation in agrarian reform:

Mostaganem Institute of Agricultural Technology, Algeria 20. Post-graduate teacher training: a Nigerian alternative 21 . Roskilde University Centre: an innovation in higher education in Denmark 22 . Educational innovation in Switzerland

"23. In-service training of teachers in Sri Lanka "24. Examination reforms in Sri Lanka "25. Management of educational reforms in Sri Lanka "26 . Integrated approach to curriculum development in primary education in Sri

Lanka

"Titles in Asian series

Experiments and innovations in education N o : 2 6 An International Bureau of Education series

Integrated approach

to curriculum

development

in primary education

in Sri Lanka

by K. Peiris

Director of Education

Ministry of Education. Sri

Study prepared

for the Asian Centre

of Educational Innovation

for Development

The Unesco Press - Paris 1976

The designation employed and the presentation of the

material in this publication do not imply the expression of

any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Unesco

Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country or

territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitations

of the frontiers of any country or territory.

• • ' /

Published in 1976 by the Unesco Press 7, Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris,

France^ arid the; Asian'Ceñtre of Educational Innovation for Development

Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia C.P.O. Box 1425, Bangkok,

Thailand.". ;.-. ,, "-.' •''. - . ' /

English edition W- ISBN 92-3-101373-4

French edition ISBN 92-3-201373-8

Spanish edition ISBN 92-3-301373-1

Printed in Singapore

by Singapore National Printers (Pte) Ltd.

© U n e s c o 1976 | B |

PREFACE

In 1972 Sri Lanka initiated a major reform of its education system. A series of

six studies, of which the present publication is one,1 describe the different aspects of

education and h o w they were affected by the educational reform: in s o m e aspects

totally n e w programmes, designed and developed ground-up, were introduced; in

others, the current programmes were reoriented, with n e w emphases and focal

points.

The reform occurred in an education system which for quite a few decades had

c o m e to be taken for granted because of its steady rhythm of expansion and growth.

A s the present series of studies show, the driving force of the reform c a m e from

outside the education system, and lay in the urgencies of the social and economic

situation. The changes triggered off in consequence within the education system are

both comprehensive and fundamental, and serve to illustrate h o w the processes of

reform and innovation are interlinked.

Major educational reforms and innovations have in most countries — and this

w a s so in Sri Lanka — focused on the curriculum. The present study describes the

background which necessitated an integrated approach to curriculum development

at the primary level, and the strategy used in designing and implementing the plan,

both at the central and regional levels. The two major activities initiated were the

syllabus revision and in-service teacher education. Efforts were also m a d e for

continuous diffusion of innovative ideas in order to build up and strengthen

innovative initiatives at the grassroots.

The Secretariat, while noting that the views expressed by the author are not

necessarily those of Unesco, records its appreciation to her for this valuable

contribution to the series.

The others are:

Ariyadasa. K . D . In-service training of teachers in Sri Lanka.

Premaratne. B. Examination reforms in Sri Lanka.

Ariyadasa. K . D . Management of educational reform in Sri Lanka.

Ranaweera, A . M . Integrated science in the junior secondary school in Sri Lanka.

Diyasena. W . Pre-vocational education in Sri Lanka

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. STRATEGY 7

III. QUALITATIVE DEVELOPMENT 9

IV. EVALUATION 19

APPENDIX I 23

APPENDIX II 25

I. INTRODUCTION

A . S c o p e of Paper

The scope of this case study is dependent upon the meaning assigned to

certain terms in its title. The definition of these terms gives an overview of the field

encompassed.

1. Curriculum development is understood to include a repeating process of

planning based on national policies, production of instructional material, and

implementation of the p rogramme through the allocation of resources and

evaluation.

The detailed specification of educational objectives, within the framework of national and international policy (already enunciated), and .the design and planning of sequences for learning (instructional procedures, guidelines etc.) form the beginning stages of curriculum development. The allocation of resources, communicating the plans and specifications to the execution levels, assisting, supervising and guiding form another stage of such a programme of work. Assessment and evaluation of the execution is the other stage. In this w a y policy and resources (men, materials and time) are harmonized and directed; and then interaction in execution leads to fruition of the programme of work.'

2 . An integrated approach encompasses the ideas of integration and co­

ordination of:

a) personal viewpoints (viewed as complementing each other) arrived at

through the interpretation of basic objectives and philosophy in different

contexts;

b) all possible methods of instruction directed to achieving the objectives;

c) all resource allocations;

d) subject content.

3 . This case study covers the integrated approach to curriculum development

in primary education in Sri Lanka.

B. Background

The room is full of long benches and writing tables placed in orderly fashion in parallel rows. In the teacher's hand is a cane or stick. The work to be done by the children is written on the huge

' Alles, Jinapala Senior Programme Specialist, Department of Planning, U N E S C O , Paris. A First Step in the Identification of Learning Priorities — (Mimeographed paper) — 1975

blackboard which is far above their reach. There is no other picture or teaching aid in the room. A s the bell rang a group of small children trooped in silently in single file. After roll call they wrote each word given on the blackboard five times on their slates. Later there would be a test on their ability to write these words. Before working s u m s they repeated the tables in chorus. Although they shouted at the top of their voices while reciting in unison, w h e n each child had to recite the tables by himself, s o m e voices reduced in volume noticeably, faltered at times and stopped completely. Until the bell released them, one could hear only the pencils scraping against the slates as the children, with bowed heads, worked through the s u m s that filled every nook and corner of the blackboard. Thereafter the teacher took each child's reading as he read the page assigned for the day, while the rest of the class followed the reading on the identical page in their o w n readers, moving their little fingers along the lines being read. The teacher had to constantly prompt s o m e children w h o read with difficulty, distaste and m u c h mental effort. After reading they had to repeat by m e m o r y n a m e s of islands, mountains and rivers or listen to long and uninteresting tales about wars, kings and queens. The day passed by in an effort to fill the children's minds with a hoard of unrelated facts and to train them to disgorge them in sequential order. There w a s no necessity to induce children to think independently and critically. Their adherence to complete silence and behaviour similar to that of deaf, mutes and rigidity of posture were the outward signs of m u c h applauded 'good discipline and conduct'. The respect of peers for a teacher in charge of such a class w a s high. If children m a d e a noise, spoilt their clothes or were lazy, they had to be beaten.

This extract (adapted to suit the local conditions) from the C E D O publication Children at School w a s used in 1971 as the first working paper at the first discussion between the designers of the plan of action for effecting changes in primary education and selected groups of teachers w h o were to pioneer the cause and work out operational plans. The teachers were invited in five separate groups and the s a m e programme of work w a s followed through with all five. The teachers were invited to respond freely to what they thought w a s being described in the passage, in what locality, and at what point of time. I n every group the reaction w a s remarkably the s a m e .

They smiled to themselves as they read through the passage silently and thereafter looked at each other with knowing friendly and furtive eyes just as a group of small boys would do when caught redhanded as conspirators in a c o m m o n plot for plucking mangoes from the next-door neighbour's garden. Suddenly one would say "Isn't this the type of classroom in which w e studied as children?" There would be m a n y protests at this teacher's attempt to hide their c o m m o n guilty conscience through a falsification of data while the designers watched silently or invited further c o m m e n t . Then, after m u c h cross-talk, someone , as a spokesman for the group, would say "I think in all honesty w e have to accept this as the c o m m o n situation prevailing in m a n y if not all of our classrooms today.

The above anecdotal record is intended to illustrate the realities of the teacher-dominated situation that existed in most primary level classrooms of Sri Lanka until two years ago. The situation w a s a result of long years of conventional teaching procedures in which the formidable adult held sway over his small charges. A closer look at the total picture revealed a number of significant contributory features,

1 Children at School. London. Heinemann Educational Books Limited, 1969.

2

arising from mediator attitudes and behaviour and various aspects of the resultant classroom structure.

C . Changes expected from n e w reforms in primary education

As a result of the analysis of the situation prior to 1 9 7 1 , attention w a s focused on the shortcomings, and it w a s clear that action had to be taken to overcome them. For each deficiency, an acceptable alternative w a s decided upon as a goal. But all these separate goals had fo be woven together nationally into an integrated programme of action in which the strategy of operation w a s of crucial importance. The following alternatives were decided upon:

1. Preferred mediator attitudes and behaviour

a) Firstly the teacher should realize that n e w problems need n e w solutions and that no single teaching procedure or class structure will always remain as the best. Moreover, he should accept that using a variety of teaching-learning methods is a better way to m a k e learning a pleasurable experience for the children and an enjoyable undertaking for the teacher. Try-out of n e w methods and materials by teachers should be openly encouraged and appreciated.

b) Secondly, the teacher should form the habit of seeking knowledge and ideas about education from whatever sources he can. H e should then explore the possibility of using them for practical purposes in the classroom.

c) The attitudes thus created in the teacher should help him to feel that what he is called upon to do is worth doing. H e should set himself the goal of achieving excellence in the quality of his work.

d) The teacher should also realize that the most important single factor affecting children's learning is the rapport between the teacher and the learner. Thus the teacher's duty is to look out for the strengths in every child and to encourage and help them to progress. This is possible only if the teacher learns to respect children as individuals and realizes that no one. including the teacher, is infallible or all-knowing.

e) Just as the teacher needs to change, so must his hierarchical superiors. The supervisor-teacher relationship should be an extremely open and healthy one. Supervisors should cultivate the ability to draw out teachers to talk of their problems. In all his contacts with teachers, he should ask probing but sympathetic questions to help the teacher in any professional w a y he can. This approach would communicate real understanding and concern and would release the teacher's inhibitions against talking about professional problems.

3

ñ There should be evidence of good leadership in all supervisors w h o work

with teachers. A supervisor should be one w h o will break n e w ground...

"pursue a point with higher authority w h e n the needs for change require

it; w h o will encourage Subordinates to experiment and innovate; w h o will

support the work of associates which deviates from the normal in

promising ways ; w h o is himself willing to change; w h o is a m a n of action .

as well as thought and w h o puts personal interest secondary to public

good".1

g) Theteachers and all other professional workers in the programme should

be given freedom to experiment in self-directed activity based on a

c o m m o n and clear understanding of the general goals. By such means it

should be possible to generate the self-confidence necessary at all levels

for making decisions without waiting for orders from above. This should

be facilitated by involving all grades from the initial stages of planning so

that all might feel a personal identification with it.

h) Next, provision should be m a d e for flexibility and creativity at the local

level and encouragement should be extended to local administrators able

and willing to use their responsibility imaginatively and effectively. In this

w a y it should be possible to establish closer meaningful communication

between the schools and the communities they serve. This would m e a n

that variations based on local conditions would be .evident a m o n g

schools in various parts of the island specially in the use m a d e of general

guidelines supplied from the centre.

i) Persons taking leadership roles in the programme should be genuinely

committed to see it through, setting an example to all other grades.

2 . The classroom as it should be

a) The classroom that promotes true learning would always be a place

where the learners c o m e first and everything else finds purpose in the

degree to which it facilitates the learning process. In this classroom

children would be the 'doers' and the teacher would only be a helper.

Learning would take place sometimes through interaction between

children themselves. The teacher would take pride in the growing ability

of the children to work on their o w n .

b) The children would need no external pressure to work because the

nature of the work itself would generate an enthusiasm producing an

internal self-discipline. Dull stereotyped exercises would give w a y to

interesting activities and children would communicate naturally with

1 Griffin. Willis H and Pareek. Udai. op. cit.

4

each other as they work without fear of reprimand or punishment from

the teacher.

c) Studies conducted for understanding h o w children learn have revealed

that the old Chinese proverb which says

'I hear and I forget

I see and I remember

I do and I understand'

still holds true. Active physical participation, working with real three-

dimensional objects, is the one and only w a y in which children really

learn. These insights would influence the total working pattern of the

classroom, changing it from a rigid silent prison into an active workshop

where people would go about their work purposefully.

d) In this classroom, learning would m e a n searching not for isolated facts

but for relevant knowledge. The children would be given opportunities for

perfecting the skills necessary for everyday living — all through

exploration, experiment, observation, questioning and discussion with

each other and with adults. Piaget's warning — "Each time w e try to

teach children something ... w e keep them from reinventing it

themselves" — would be remembered and, unobstrusively, guided-

discovery learning would c o m e into its o w n .

e) Even the information that children would gain would have n e w

significance for them because they would be working on units of

experience, using subject content as and w h e n necessary in their work.

The three-dimensional world outside would sometimes be brought into

the classroom; at other times, pupils would go out into the

neighbourhood and the familiar adults of the community would be their

teachers for the day. This type of work would be facilitated by a flexible

timetable, the teacher using large blocks of time instead of short periods

terminated by the commanding bell. To ensure that the children m a y

work this w a y most gainfully, the teacher would have to shoulder more

responsibility than before, planning projects well in time and deciding

what knowledge, skills and attitudes could be focused on.

f) W o r k undertaken in this w a y would m a k e pupils more responsive to their

o w n environment. They m a y also investigate problems, and explore

possibilities for solving them, thereby shedding old conventional ideas

and gaining n e w information and skills.

g) Competition would be replaced by co-operation and peaceful co­

existence. The natural tendency of ego-centricity in children, would

gradually give w a y to friendliness and consideration for others. It w a s

hoped to achieve these objectives through co-operative group work

towards a c o m m o n goal.

5

h) The incredible changes of today will increase in magnitude and complexity as time marches on, and tomorrow's citizens will feel bewildered unless they are prepared for it. The teacher would therefore groom his students to face any situation undaunted, developing in them the capacities for flexibility and breadth of vision.

/ ) Imitation of others' work in classrooms and attempts to walk along well-trodden paths would be firmly discouraged. Instead creativity in all spheres of physical and mental activity would be positively fostered.

j) The feeling of 'our' against 'mine' would be deliberately nurtured by teachers. Responsibility for using carefully and preserving c o m m o n property first in the group, then in the class, school and neighbourhood would be shared by all m e m b e r s and one's o w n role in this collective responsibility would be clearly understood and appreciated by all students.

k) Earnest attempts would be m a d e to achieve the ultimate global objective of producing good citizens of the country. A n emotional attachment and appreciation of things national would be highlighted as laudable characteristics at all times.

/ ) O n e and two-teacher small schools would be called in periodically to the centre and programmes of action, based on their o w n ideas, would be drawn up. Children would be encouraged to work in mixed groups without concern for grade levels. In this way , the more able children would attend to the more complex tasks, simultaneously helping the younger ones to find their feet.

II. STRATEGY

The possibility of providing an atmosphere of freedom in the classroom depends partly on the attitudes of all grades of mediators. Resistance to change is one of the biggest blocks to progress. In countries where resources are scarce and there is not much evidence of community awareness and involvement in education, the problem becomes highly complex. These factors had to be taken into consideration in drawing up plans for any major changes in the content and structure of education. A total programme of action involving quantitative and qualitative development w a s thus envisaged in order that integration in its widest sense could be used in all stages of curriculum development.

The Overall Plan for Development of Primary Education (See Appendix I) helps to make this process clear. Primary-level programme objectives are laid d o w n and the programme of action is mapped out in quantitative and qualitative terms. Since the quantitative development has crucial relevance for qualitative development, close co-ordination is maintained between the sections of the Ministry of Education dealing with these two aspects. Changes in physical requirements in keeping with the changed objectives and programmes of action for qualitative development are worked out by the Curriculum Development Centre which is responsible for qualitative development and these requirements are passed on to the Schools Organization Division for necessary action.

7

III. QUALITATIVE DEVELOPMENT

The first plan of the Primary Education Programme shows thé limitations of

thinking evident in the last half.of 1971. A comparison between it and the present

overall plan indicates h o w thinking broadened and ancilliary supportive activities

expanded in scope as time went on. It is fortunate that implementation of any

programme of action in Sri Lanka is facilitated by the fact that ours is geographically

a small country without much cultural or social diversity. Thus, managemen t of

change and administrative action are designed at a central level with regional and

local participation at all stages. This ensures that all educational regions, of which

there are 17, follow similar programmes of action, qualitatively comparable in

standards. However, of the various types of projects, only s o m e are centrally

designed and controlled. There are others, in their initial stages, centrally controlled

as yet but designed to be expanded to include regional/local responsibility. Still other

projects are being centrally monitored but locally controlled. The Plan shown in

Annex I indicates the operational stages of these projects.

A . Central participation

1. Primary Education Curriculum Committee

In 1971, committees were set up to design programmes of work in the

different areas and levels of education. It was during this first period that the

Primary Education Curriculum Committee c a m e into being and w a s m a d e

responsible for designing curricular content, methods of teaching and

supportive services during the first five years of schooling. All work related to

qualitative development in the original plan is designed by this committee with

the assistance of other committees at the Curriculum Development Centre and

some co-opted from outside to meet particular project needs. The committee is

headed by a Director of Education and supported by people working fulljtime,

drawn from various levels of educational personnel. The committee works

under the general guidance of the Deputy Director General of Education w h o is

responsible to the Director General of Education. The Primary Education

Committee handles many sub-projects and for each sub-project one or two

members of the committee are specially responsible. They invite views of other

members or initiate informal discussions to enrich their o w n thinking and the

9

programme itself. However, the team works as one group and all m e m b e r s are

expected to support and offer constructive criticism to their team mates to

upgrade the quality of performance.

N o individual m e m b e r can be retained on a team permanently or for a very long

period at a time. O n principle, periodic reversion of curriculum workers to

positions involving direct contact with classroom situations and commissioning

others, fresh from such experiences, to curriculum work, is insisted upon.

2 . In-service education and continued support

O n the assumption that, at the primary level, the process of learning takes

precedence over the product of learning, an in-service education project w a s

carried out before the production of curricular materials. Also, since w e

envisaged a complete change both in the concept of education and in teaching

methods, it w a s only fair to teachers to give them a breathing space in which

they could get a feel for the n e w w a y of working. W e felt that the teachers

should first gain confidence in using the old content in n e w ways. They would

then be better prepared to implement the full range of changes.

a) Direct contact.

i. Orientation (pilot teacher)

The first in-service course, conducted in 1971 and 1972 in six cen­

tres, introduced the n e w thinking to about 5 0 0 pilot teachers, two

committed grade 1 teachers being nominated by each Circuit Educa­

tion Officer. There are around 2 5 0 such circuits in the island and the

supervisors were each asked to nominate two teachers from typical

schools in their circuits, not from schools where facilities were above

average. In the preliminary design of this in-service course for pilot

teachers m u c h discussion took place a m o n g the m e m b e r s of the

Primary Education Committee. The discussions usually centered

round topics like the establishment of the course objectives, selection

of suitable content, establishing priorities, methods of presentation

and activities to be included. After the design of the course had been

decided upon, there remained the task of preparing handouts, charts,

pictures, cartoons and diagrams, collecting other materials, and put­

ting together tapes, slide sequences, etc. The course provided for a

variety of techniques including reading assignments, the use of films,

tapes and slides, workshops, group reports, etc., in addition to the

traditional method of direct lectures which w a s kept to the min imum

as far as w a s possible. The content of the course comprised lectures

on the Ministry's general objectives and plans of action, study of n e w

material in the subject area, aspects of psychology and learning,

assessment methods, community participation, etc.

A n altogether n e w method of learning, through integrated activities

undertaken in groups, w a s being advocated and since environmental

content could be used, the narrow cognitive component of learning

and recalling bits of knowledge w a s de-emphasized. Pride of place

w a s given instead to critical thinking through exploration and ex­

periment, creativity, flexibility and consideration for others. To

promote these as well as the skill and attitudinal components as

worthwhile dimensions in education required of the teachers a high

level of competence, imagination and commitment. M u c h care w a s

therefore taken and considerable time spent on details such as a per­

sonalized letter of invitation, an intriguingly worded timetable, a c o m ­

mittee to receive the 'guests' and see to their comforts, an informal

orientation session to get to know each other etc. It w a s expected

that, by giving attention to these details, the enthusiasm of the

teachers for the pioneering work in the programme could be built up.

The possibility for informal discussions with the tutorial staff, w h o liv­

ed on the premises, helped to convince the teachers of the

desirability of trying out n e w methods instead of continuing the old

dreary teaching techniques of which they themselves were tired. In

general, a personalized atmosphere w a s generated in the course by

treating the teachers as 'honoured guests'. Moreover, the course aim­

ed at not only enriching the cognitive domain but also appealing to

the affective as illustrated by a theme picture in which a little child

makes the following appeal to his teacher "If you make decisions for

m e , I shall never be able to make m y o w n . If you tell m e what type of

a person I should be, I shall lose even 'myself. Please help m e to

think for myself".

Heads of pilot schools

It w a s realized that however committed the teacher might be, no

major change could take place unless the head of the school himself

had an idea of the nature and the enormity of the task facing the

teacher. Thus all heads of pilot schools met in six centres throughout

the country and a day's session w a s organized. A discussion on the

philosophy behind the changes w a s held and group reports were

produced on the role of the head teacher in translating the philosophy

into action.

Supervisory personnel

To the initial orientation course for pilot teachers were invited the Cir­

cuit Education Officers from all over the island. It w a s from their cir­

cuits that the teachers c a m e and the 'confrontation' w a s expected to

bring these two groups into closer contact with each other so that

11

they would understand the reform objectives, and work harmoniously

together.

iv. Teacher educators

For s o m e time after the programme w a s initiated, the biggest draw­

back w a s the very large number of teachers (about 10,000) w h o

needed training each year. The reason for this w a s that the

programme had not yet b e c o m e an intogral part of the curriculum of

teachers' colleges. In order to ease the situation, in 1 9 7 4 the

Curriculum Development Centre, with assistance from two British

consultants, ran a residential in-service education institute on primary

education for teacher educators. This work with teacher educators

will continue for two more years, after which it is expected that they

will be able to train teachers w h o can fit into the school system

without further in-service education.

v. District teachers

Since the programme of in-service education for all categories has

had to be undertaken at the regional and district levels, nominations

are called for each year from the regional and district committees.

Nominees are expected to have followed the pilot in-service courses

as observers. With additional in-service training, it is hoped that they

will be competent enough to undertake the training of all teachers in

the districts.

b) Distant contact

i. Newsletter

Lack of facilities for the diffusion of ideas is one of the major reasons

for the failure to implement beautifully designed projects. In this case,

such a failure would be especially damaging because if the

enthusiasm generated in the pilot teachers at the course w a s to be

maintained, a follow-up plan of action had to be put into operation

and carried through at least until the end of the first cycle of the pro­

ject. With this end in view a newsletter w a s started for the pilot

schools and distributed three times a year. This newsletter, called Ex­

periences, gave accounts of innovative ideas tried out by teachers,

practical hints, c o m m e n t s by heads of schools, supervisors and

visitors to the school and formal articles on n e w thinking in primary

education. This document proved to be very popular,

ii. Files and communication

To ensure the commitment of pilot teachers to the programme, the

committee maintained files on all pilot schools and kept up a cons­

tant communication with them. Details about each school, a m a p

12

showing the access to it and other relevant data were filed and an

officer, specially detailed for the job, sent immediate replies to all

teachers' letters.

iii. Reports, occasional papers

In addition to the above measures, the committee also decided to

write short reports, anecdotal booklets and occasional papers for use

in the in-service education of other teachers. T w o booklets have so

far been published. The first, Light for the Beginners, is an anthology

of all the long presentations m a d e at the initial orientation course.

The other, Background for Growth seeks to draw attention to the gulf

between children's natural method for learning and the artificial

atmosphere of the formal school.

iv. Radio

There has also been a very small project of teacher education through

radio.

3. Curriculum work

After the in-service education of pilot teachers w a s complete, 15 of them,

representing the 15 regions at that time, were invited to the Centre and sat

with the committee to produce the general guidelines for each content area.

This involved listing experiences for primary-level children and placing them in

relevant blocks of a cube, the three dimensions of the cube standing for time,

place and h u m a n needs.' Then a further categorization of these experiences

w a s m a d e in terms of 11 broad themes from which a spiral curriculum

emerged taking the 11 themes into greater and greater complexity from grade

to grade. This had the added advantage of being suitable for use with multi-

graded groups in small rural schools.

These guidelines were tried out by the pilot teachers in grade 1 during

1 9 7 2 / 7 3 then, after further revision, they were used in all schools in 1974 . The

revisions suggested by the pilot teachers were found to be very useful in

developing lesson plans, timetables and teaching sequences which went into

the first Teachers' Handbook for grades 1 and 2. This handbook attempts to

help the teacher to organize integrated learning through project work, at the

s a m e time paying attention to building up basic skills, e.g., language and

mathematics. Pupil texts, produced by the state in Sri Lanka, constitute

another component of curriculum work. However, this project is handled by the

Educational Publications Department; it is included here only to s h o w the

totality of the programme.

Peiris, Kamala: "Primary Education in Sri Lanka" Bulletin of the Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia Number 14, June 1973 pp. 157-176 — Bangkok. Thailand — U N E S C O

13

Curriculum work also involves the production of a large number of supportive documents. Prototypes of assessment sheets to record students' work have been prepared and discussed at in-service education sessions. They are n o w in use in grades 1 and 2 . Assessment of the total programme by heads of schools and supervisors and the guidance of teachers have been ensured by the publication of appropriate guidelines. For parents w h o want information about their children's progress, a report card usable in grades 1 and 2 has been designed. The production of these and other documents is centrally controlled. Production of such material at a local level is neither necessary nor economical because Sri Lanka is small and, for all prac­tical purposes, m a y be considered culturally and socially homogeneous. 4 . Action research

The curriculum work described above cannot be undertaken effectively unless it is supported and fed by m a n y action-research projects designed for particular purposes. In Sri Lanka m a n y such projects are initiated to meet special needs. The child development studies project w a s designed to find out h o w children develop concepts in mathematics. This w a s a pre-requisite for the 1968 production of primary-level mathematics material. Investigations based on Piaget's work have been undertaken for this purpose. A need for similar work in other curricular areas became evident as the overall changes in curriculum development were launched in 1971. This activity continues to feed the curriculum work and provides insights helpful to the committee in in-service courses on the nature of children's thinking in Sri Lanka. Early dropouts from school and large numbers of repeaters in the primary grades have long been the bugbear of educationists. O n a hunch that they m a y be due to the insensitivity of a uniform academic curriculum to the various socio-economic backgrounds of the children, it w a s decided to experiment in the use of vertical grouping in a few schools, treating grades 1 and 2 as one block in which individualized instruction w a s the method of work. At present a teacher's handbook is being produced specifying the practical organization of such an approach, so that schools which want to use it will have the option of doing so. Another c o m m o n feature in many of Sri Lanka's small rural schools is that one teacher is in charge of more than one grade, although the number of children in each grade is often less than ten. The production of a spiral curriculum described earlier has been done to meet the needs of these children. Further investigations are n o w being held, in about 15 small schools, into the possibilities of erasing grade barriers and using a multi-graded approach which would allow children of different developmental levels to work together on the s a m e project, doing tasks commensurate with their' individual levels of comprehension and skill.

14

The dropout and repeater problems have also been attacked through a study of

c o m m o n weaknesses children display in dealing with academic skill-building

subjects such as language and mathematics. Children with no experience in

developing concepts and skills in these subjects were isolated and a plan of

action to develop supplementary remedial material for them w a s put through.

A s a result a handbook for teachers in grades 1 and 2 titled Help for Learning

has been published and distributed to all schools. The first draft of the second

handbook of this series, for use in grades 3 — 5, is being tried out in pilot

schools this year (1975) for publication later.

Through the years it has been noticed that discovery-learning, which is

advocated as a crucial component, is hampered by the fact that literature

available for children does not meet our requirements of variety or suitability.

To fill this gap a n e w project w a s initiated in 1 9 7 4 to produce resource reading

materials that can supplement the remedial programme. These materials are

produced by groups of practising teachers working under the guidance of the

Curriculum Development Centre and by teacher trainees working with

assistance from teacher educators.

The last of the projects using investigation and trial of materials before

adoption is still in its initial stages and is therefore being undertaken in a very

informal manner. It is the design of buildings, land, layout, furniture, play and

learning equipment, educational toys, etc. It has not been possible to

concentrate m u c h effort on this important project yet because of the d e m a n d

from other more urgent aspects of the programme. However, s o m e informal

studies, based on work done elsewhere, have been prepared for try-out in

schools, with a view to obtaining comments .

All the action research programmes described above are n o w centrally

controlled because of time and resource constraints. But it is expected that in

the future these activities will involve local initiation and participation.

5. Information flow

In a programme like this, the needs of various types of people have to be

catered to. S o m e are directly involved in the programme, others experience its

impact through contact with their children, others look speculatively at its

influence on the community and still others want details of its working

methods and implications for use in other contexts. A number of information

channels are kept open to meet the needs of the people listed above. Firstly, in

addition to normal face-to-face discussion, it has been found necessary to

maintain contact with them through written communications, stating the

requirements of the programme and soliciting their support. Secondly, the

teachers are regularly addressed through periodicals and newssheets of the

Ministry, and from other sources, for the purpose of providing general

15

information. Thirdly, for parent education and community support, the same

m e a n s as outlined above plus filmstrips and slide sequences, are used. For

instance, on the day the programme c o m m e n c e d in grade 1 of all schools a

feature article by the Director General of Education appeared in many widely

read newspapers. Lastly, information is supplied through seminars and

publications prepared for distribution to national and international institutions,

an example being this case study itself.

B. Regional/local participation

After the first year of trial (1973) by grade 1 pilot teachers, this programme had

to be introduced to the whole country in year-by-year stages. This necessitated the

development of administrative machinery in the regions paralleling that of the

committee at the Curriculum Development Centre and the other sections of the

Ministry of Education. The most urgent requirement w a s for a unit to be responsible

for the programme at the regional and district levels. Regional and district curriculum

committees were appointed under the guidance of the Regional Director of

Education. This officer himself, or a Circuit Education Officer committed to the

programme, w a s to be selected as secretary. Through consultations with the

committee, he w a s responsible for the academic content and administrative

procedures necessary to work out a programme at the regional and district

levels.

1. In-service education

a) Direct contact

i. Initial orientation (all teachers)

In-service education for all teachers of a particular grade had to be

undertaken in a particular year so that the regional/district

programme could keep pace with the central pilot programme. Initial

orientation sessions for all teachers are being undertaken year by

year by the district training committee, briefed earlier at the centre.

Local pilot schools and teachers having one year of experience were

used as resource institutions and personnel; this encouraged the

average teacher to venture into n e w methods of teaching,

ii. Heads (all schools)

At periodic intervals, the heads of schools are brought in to discuss

methods of improvement and their o w n roles in bringing them about.

The district training committee handles these sessions with

guidance from the Centre,

iii. Study groups

W h e n the teachers have tried out the n e w methods for one year, they

are called in for informal study and discussion on work undertaken.

16

problems encountered and solutions found. This activity is still in its

initial stages and is largely guided by the district trainers. It is ex­

pected, however, that the désire for an exchange of ideas will later

derive from the teachers' experience and that they will meet on their

o w n rather than at the behest of a superior officer,

¡v. Teachers' centres

This m o d e of action is expected to create a need for teachers' centres

where teachers m a y discuss informally, examine n e w materials and

teaching aids, get ideas for n e w approaches and read recent

publications put out by the central committee. This is an activity for

the future and is expected to derive from the informal study group

work described earlier.

b) Distant contact

At the m o m e n t , for lack of resources, the only distant contact m a d e

by the regional/district committee for primary education is the

publication of the regional/district newsletter, a counterpart of the

newsletter published by the central committee for pilot teachers. This

is a n e w approach and with exchange of these newsletters between

the regions, it is expected that the teacher working in an im­

poverished rural setting will be encouraged to see what he himself

can do if he can read what others like him have done.

As the programme progresses and financial support is strengthened,

additional means of distant contact will b e c o m e possible.

2 . Curriculum work

The plan in Appendix I which indicates that all curriculum work is being

controlled centrally could be understood to m e a n that there is no field

participation in it. Actually, the themes for syllabuses were completely

developed by 15 pilot teachers and the central committee working together.

Then too, all guidelines in the form of syllabuses are tried out as drafts by pilot

teachers all over the country before final printing. The syllabuses themselves

are flexible guidelines and complete freedom is allowed for teachers to draw up

their lesson units and teaching sequences using the materials available locally.

3. Action research

All the action research programmes listed in the plan are as yet undertaken by

the team at the centre, because of the scarcity of resources at the field level.

But as the programme expands and increased financing b e c o m e s possible,

professional staff development and action research projects at the field level

are expected.

17

4 . Information flow

The information flow at regional and district levels is not as extensive nor as widespread as that disseminated centrally. However, since most of the regional and district contact is m a d e in person, it has a more direct impact and it can have more effective results. In addition to direct in-service education to teachers, there is need to keep all teachers informed since their co-operation is needed to bring about the changes envisaged. This is achieved through the publication of articles in locally produced magazines, and through conferences organized by teachers' unions. Parents are met by particular schools or circuits at parent-teacher meetings coupled with such other means as exhibitions of children's work, personal communication, etc. Using the same means community support is solicited through parent-teacher associations. Their effectiveness is reflected in the fact that considerable contributions in money, labour and kind have been given to schools for various purposes. A s the programme expands, an information flow between the regions is anticipated.

C . Phased progress

A s described above, the programme implementation is in two stages. The two major activities which are supported by all others and which make effective implementation possible are syllabus revision and in-service teacher education. These two activities were undertaken for grades 1 and 2 in 1 9 7 1 / 1 9 7 2 and the programme w a s introduced in pilot schools in grade 1 during the following year. In the s a m e year, syllabus revision and in-service education of all grade 1 teachers were undertaken. During the next year (1974) all six activities were carried out and the programme w a s for the first time put into operation in all grade 1 classes. In this way it is expected that all five grades at the primary level will be implementing the programme in 1978. (See Appendix II).

18

IV. EVALUATION

The most difficult and time-consuming aspect of this type of programme -seeking to change the behaviour of people — is evaluation. There are indications, in comments received from children, parents, teachers, heads of schools, supervisors and foreign visitors, that the children on the whole are now happy at school, and that there is marked improvement in their self-confidence, general awareness, inquisitiveness, creativity and co-operativeness. But this general feeling needs to be investigated in greater detail and the weaknesses or limitations should be isolated. For this purpose, this year (1975) an interim evaluation of a sort will be undertaken in 1975. Three broad aspects will be-covered in it.

A . Children's progress

Firstly, detailed pupil assessment sheets, introduced for continuous evaluation by teachers and replacing periodic tests, will be studied from a sample of schools. O n this basis, the general pupil performance will be judged and the assessment sheets may be revised. A card used for reporting progress to parents, no longer bearing marks but indicating special strengths and weaknesses, will also be used in this first evaluation.

B. Classroom indications

To make self-evaluation and continuous voluntary upgrading possible for each teacher, a hundred questions covering all aspects of classroom work have been offered as a self-correcting checklist. Responses to this document will be studied, then a random sample of the" responses, entered in a supervision sheet, will be analysed to obtain a cross check of the former results. Here too in addition to seeking patterns of work in classrooms, an attempt Will be made to refine the instruments for further use.

C . Programme design

This programme is an integrated approach by many persons and agencies. Such a vast and complex network of operations can be improved for later stages of implementation if a general evaluation of its design is undertaken after the first

19

stages. A n attempt will therefore be m a d e to evaluate the in-service education component which is crucial for bringing about the behavioural changes envisaged. This will be done through direct observation and written responses. In addition, the overall effects of the programme will be studied through questionnaires sent to various categories of personnel, through a s u m m a r y of supervision data obtained from Circuit Education Officers, through direct supervision of classes by the primary curriculum committee and through anecdotal records obtained randomly.

20

V. THE FUTURE

Without scientific evaluation, only a vague guess m a y be m a d e as to the

impact of this total effort on the average classroom. After the first year of operation,

there are indications that about 2 0 per cent of the teachers are early adoptors w h o s e

classrooms resemble busy contented workshops. In about 3 0 per cent of the

classrooms, the teachers are trying genuinely to improve their methods of work. In

the next 4 0 per cent there are signs of s o m e change, be it ever so little. There still

remains the last 10 per cent — the laggards w h o do not seem to be affected by the

changes taking place around them. Perhaps it is unrealistic to expect a more

extensive change a m o n g people whose ways have been set through long years of

tradition and accustomed practice. One thing however is clear: It augurs well for the

future that the gulf between teachers and children and that between supervisors and

teachers is slowly narrowing. There are n o w definite indications that, as time goes

on, more and more professional workers in education in Sri Lanka will band together

to echo Khalil Gibran's words to adults about children:

"You m a y strive to be like them,

but seek not to m a k e them like you,

For life goes not backward nor

tarries with yesterday"

21

APPENDIX I OVERALL PLAN FOR DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

GENERAL EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PRIMARY LEVEL OBJECTIVES

OVERALL]PLAN FOR DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

¡QUANTITATIVE DEVELOPMENT-t-

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5

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regional local projects

later

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23

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25

The titles appearing in the Asian series were prepared by

educators in Asian M e m b e r States at the request of the

Asian Centre of Educational Innovation for Development

which is associated as one of the partners in IERS.

The Asian Centre of Educational Innovation for

Development at Bangkok (Thailand) is a co-ordinating

mechanism for a network of national centres and institutions

in the M e m b e r States in Asia through which educational

innovations relevant to the development needs of

participating M e m b e r States are promoted.