Innovations in Biosafety Lawcontainment measures for different types of DNA experiments.7 The second...

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0 CISDL Doc. #: 2005- - Pages: 129 Date: June 2005 Distribution: Public Authenticity: Copy Innovations in Biosafety Law A CISDL Working Paper June 2005 Montreal, Canada Martin Endicott, Legal Research Fellow, CISDL Christine Frison, Legal Research Fellow, CISDL Kathryn Garforth, Legal Research Fellow, CISDL with Marie Claire Cordonier Segger, Director, CISDL Jorge M. Cabrera, Lead Counsel, CISDL Sylvestre Manga, Research Fellow, CISDL

Transcript of Innovations in Biosafety Lawcontainment measures for different types of DNA experiments.7 The second...

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CISDL Doc. #: 2005- -Pages: 129Date: June 2005Distribution: PublicAuthenticity: Copy

Innovations in Biosafety LawA CISDL Working Paper

June 2005Montreal, Canada

Martin Endicott, Legal Research Fellow, CISDLChristine Frison, Legal Research Fellow, CISDLKathryn Garforth, Legal Research Fellow, CISDLwithMarie Claire Cordonier Segger, Director, CISDLJorge M. Cabrera, Lead Counsel, CISDLSylvestre Manga, Research Fellow, CISDL

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About the CISDL

The mission of the Centre for International Sustainable Development Law (CISDL)is to promote sustainable societies and the protection of ecosystems by advancingthe understanding, development and implementation of international sustainabledevelopment law.

The CISDL is an independent legal research centre which collaborates with theMcGill Law Faculty in engaging students and interested faculty members insustainable development law research and scholarly initiatives. The CISDL alsoworks in cooperation with a network of developing country faculties of law, and isdeveloping closer ties with the Oxford University Faculty of Law and the Universitéde Montreal, as well as the Yale Law School and the Cambridge University Facultyof Law.

The CISDL is engaged in six primary areas of sustainable development lawresearch, each of which is led by a CISDL Lead Counsel based at a developing ordeveloped country law faculty or international organisation. These include trade,investment and competition law; sustainable developments in natural resourceslaw; biodiversity law; climate change and vulnerability law; human rights andpoverty eradication in sustainable development law; and health and hazards insustainable development law. There are also two Lead Counsels responsible forcross-cutting sustainable development law issues. As a result of its ongoing legalscholarship and research, the CISDL publishes books, articles, working papers andlegal briefs in English, Spanish and French. The CISDL hosts academic workshops,dialogue sessions, legal expert panels parallel to international negotiations, lawcourses and seminar series, and conferences to further its legal research agenda. Itprovides instructors, lecturers and capacity-building materials for developingcountry governments and international organisations in national and internationallaw in the field of sustainable development, and works with countries to developnational laws to implement international treaties in these areas.

CISDL Location & Contact Information

The CISDL is based at 3661 Peel St., Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3A1X1 in officeslent to it by the McGill University Faculty of Law by reason of the involvement ofstudents, graduates and faculty members in its activities. The CISDL also hassubsidiary offices at the University of Oxford, the University of Costa Rica and theUniversity of Nairobi, Kenya.

Directors�: Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger, [email protected] |Ashfaq Khalfan, [email protected] for International Sustainable Development Law, 3661 Peel St. McGill Law Faculty, Montreal,Quebec H3A 1X1 Canada Tel: 001 514 398 8918 / Fax 001 514 398 8197www.cisdl.org

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Table of Contents

1 � � � Background on Biosafety & the Biosafety Protocol 4

2 � � � Progress on Biosafety through National Biosafety Frameworks 14

3 � � � Case Studies of Innovations in Biosafety Law

3.1 � � Innovations dans les provisions législatives en matière de biosécurité des pays africains francophones 24

3.2 � � Innovations in the Biosafety Regulatory Regime of Costa Rica 52

3.3 � � Innovations in the Biosafety Regulatory Regime of NewZealand 55

4 � � � Pressing Sustainable Development Questions in Biosafety Law andPolicy

4.1 � � Socio-economic Considerations in Biosafety Decision-Making 61

4.2 � � The Biosafety Protocol and the Regulation of Genetically ModifiedFood Aid 79

5 � � � Scoping Future Trends in Biosafety 92

Appendix 1: MOP Implementation Chart 108

Appendix 2: Individuals & Sources Consulted on Biosafety Research Questions 114

Biosafety Bibliography 117

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1

Background on Biosafety & the Biosafety Protocol

By Kathryn Garforth,Legal Research Fellow, CISDL

As one of a growing number of hybrid multilateral agreements, the BiosafetyProtocol represents an interesting development in the law of sustainabledevelopment.1 These treaties are not purely economic, environmental or social butincorporate elements of each of these areas of sustainable development. TheBiosafety Protocol has strong links to trade law in that it focuses on thetransboundary movement of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) and their socio-economic implications; links to environmental law through the Protocol’sfoundation in the precautionary principle and the development of sound science;and links to social and human rights law through its elements of public awareness,public participation and the public right to know.

Context

According to the Secretariat to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),biosafety “refers to the need to protect human health and the environment fromthe possible adverse effects of the products of modern biotechnology.”2 As thisdefinition illustrates, biosafety is intricately bound to biotechnology.

1 U.P. Thomas, “The CBD, the WTO, and the FAO: The Emergence of Phytogenetic Governance” in Philippe G.LePrestre, ed., Governing Global Biodiversity: The Evolution and Implementation of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 2002) 177 at 200.2 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention onBiological Diversity: Text and Annexes (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity: Montreal, 2000) at 1.

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Biotechnology, in turn, is a broad term that can encompass a wide range ofactivities in a variety of different fields. As defined by the C a n a d i a nEnvironmental Protection Act, biotechnology means “the application of scienceand engineering in the direct or indirect use of living organisms or parts orproducts of living organisms in their natural or modified forms”.3 This definitionencompasses such age-old activities as the use of micro-organisms in brewing andbread-making and the domestication and selective breeding of crops. Thisdefinition of biotechnology also includes more modern practices like cloning,recombinant DNA technology, and cell fusion that permit humans to manipulatebiology in ways that were not possible in traditional breeding practices. It is alsoto practices of “modern biotechnology” to which the Biosafety Protocol applies.4

The field of biosafety stems from the development of these modern techniques. Inthe early 1970s, American scientists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen collaboratedon a series of experiments that resulted in the creation of the first molecules ofrecombinant DNA and the first genetically engineered bacteria.5 The earlytransformations of bacteria and viruses in the laboratory raised concerns amongscientists that resulted in two sets of guidelines for recombinant DNA research.The first set of guidelines emerged from the international Asilomar Conference onRecombinant DNA Molecules held in February 1975.6 It included recommendedcontainment measures for different types of DNA experiments.7 The second set ofguidelines was produced by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) andpublicly released in June 1976.8 The NIH guidelines similarly created differentlevels of physical containment as well as biological containment for different typesof recombinant DNA experiments according to their potential hazard. The NIHguidelines were stricter than those from the Asilomar Conference:

Because of speculation that the closer the phylogenetic relationshipbetween humans and the species used in recombinant experiments,the greater the risk to humans, experiments that required the use ofDNA from mammals or viruses were terminated and DNA sampleswere destroyed.9

The NIH guidelines also had some legal weight as any institution receivingfunding had to comply with them. Compliance by facilities in the private sector,on the other hand, was voluntary.10

The year after the NIH guidelines were published, they began to be reviewed.Further experience with recombinant DNA experiments had reduced some of the

3 S.C. 1999, c. 33 at s. 3.4 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, Art. 3(i) definition of “modern biotechnology”.5 Susan R. Barnum, Biotechnology: An Introduction (Wadsworth Publishing Company: Scarborough, 1998) at 21.6 This conference is frequently referred to as the second Asilomar Conference, the first having taken place a few yearsearlier in the same location but with primarily only American scientists in attendance. The first conference produced abook, Biohazards in Biological Research, but it did not have nearly the same impact as the second conference, Barnum,ibid. at 22.7 Barnum, ibid. at 23.8 Barnum, ibid. at 24.9 Barnum, ibid. at 25.10 Ibid.

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perceived risks. Revised guidelines were published in 1979 that reduced thestringency of the required containment measures for many types of experiments.11

At the same time, the field of biotechnology began to shift from experiments in thelaboratory to industrial applications in the field. The first environmental releases ofgenetically modified bacteria began in the 1980s as did field trials for geneticallymodified plants.12 Concerns about the possible risks associated with recombinantDNA shifted as well and the risks became more complex.

Up to this point, biotechnology and biosafety were primarily the domain ofdeveloped countries. Recombinant DNA experiments were conducted in thelaboratories of industrialized countries and genetically modified organisms werebeing created to meet needs in developed countries. These same countries werealso implementing some of the first regulatory regimes for GMOs such as Canada’sNational Biotechnology Strategy, created in 1982, or the Coordinated Frameworkfor the Regulation of Biotechnology published in the U.S. in 1986.13

It was in this context that negotiations on the Convention on Biological Diversitybegan in 1987. The emerging role and potential value of genetic resources in theworld economy was becoming increasingly obvious. The U.S. was beginning togrant patents on genetically modified life forms14 and the debate over PlantBreeders’ Rights in UPOV versus Farmers’ Rights had already been raging at theUN Food and Agriculture Organization since 1980. From the very beginning of thediscussions that led to the CBD, developing countries insisted that biotechnologybe one of the key issues addressed in the Convention.15

This insistence was successful and led to the inclusion in the Convention of Article19 on the ‘handling of biotechnology and distribution of its benefits’. In general,the article provides that Parties to the CBD are to take measures to includecountries that provide genetic resources in biotechnology research activities, toshare access to the results and benefits of biotechnology, and to provideinformation about living modified organisms to Parties where they are to beintroduced. Paragraph 3 of Article 19 obliges the Parties to the Convention toconsider the need for a Protocol on living modified organisms resulting frombiotechnology that may have an adverse effect on the conservation andsustainable use of biodiversity. This paragraph was somewhat controversial duringthe negotiations as some countries wanted to make the development of a protocolmandatory.16

11 Ibid.12 Barnum, ibid. at 25-26.13 Barnum, ibid. at 192.14 The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 206 U.S.P.Q 193 (U.S.S.C. 1980) granted a patent ona genetically modified microorganism and found that whether or not something is living is not relevant in determiningwhether or not it is patentable. In 1987, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office issued a statement declaring that“nonnaturally occurring non-human multicellular living organisms” are patentable subject matter, U.S. PTO 1077Official Gazette 24 (21 April 1987).15 Désirée M. McGraw, “The Story of the Biodiversity Convention: From Negotiation to Implementation” in PhilippeG. LePrestre, Governing Global Biodiversity: The Evolution and Implementation of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (Ashgate: Burlington, VT, 2002) 7 at 34.16 Ruth Mackenzie et al., An Explanatory Guide to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety , IUCN Environmental Policyand Law Paper no. 46 (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 2003) at para. 11.

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At the same United Nations Conference on Environment and Development wherethe CBD was opened for signatures, over 140 governments agreed to Agenda 21.Section II of Agenda 21 is devoted to the ‘conservation and management ofresources for development’ and it includes chapter 16 on the ‘environmentallysound management of biotechnology’. The chapter focuses on five areas withinbiotechnology: increasing the availability of food, feed and renewable rawmaterials; improving human health; enhancing protection of the environment;enhancing safety and developing international mechanisms for cooperation; andestablishing enabling mechanisms for the development and environmentally soundapplication of biotechnology. The fourth of these areas is of particular relevancehere and calls for:

further development of internationally agreed principles on riskassessment and management of all aspects of biotechnology, whichshould build upon those developed at the national level. Only whenadequate and transparent safety and border-control procedures arein place will the community at large be able to derive maximumbenefit from, and be in a much better position to accept thepotential benefits and risks of, biotechnology.17

The negotiation of the Biosafety Protocol is well-known and has been well-documented elsewhere.18 At the first Conference of the Parties (COP) to the CBDin 1994, the Parties authorized two meetings to discuss the need for a Protocol.The second of these meetings, by the Ad Hoc Open-Ended Group of Experts,included support by a large majority of the delegations present for the negotiationof a biosafety protocol.19 This report was considered by the Parties at COP-2 in1995 and they agreed to establish the Ad Hoc Working Group on Biosafety toelaborate a protocol on biosafety.20 The Working Group was to endeavour tocomplete its work sometime in 1998.

In the end, it took until the year 2000 for the negotiating countries to reachagreement on the text for a protocol. The negotiations were rocky and reached thebrink of failure when there was no agreement at a February 1999 meeting inCartagena, Colombia. An extraordinary Conference of the Parties was called forJanuary 2000 in Montreal and consensus was finally achieved. Three and a halfyears later, in September 2003, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety entered intoforce.

Without delving into too much detail, some of the most contentious issues duringthe negotiations included the scope of the Advance Informed Agreement 17 Agenda 21, Report of the UNCED, I (1992) UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1, (1992) 31 I.L.M. 874 at para. 16.29.18 See, e.g., Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: A Record ofthe Negotiations (Montreal: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2004); Christoph Bail, RobertFalkner, & Helen Marquard, eds., The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: Reconciling Trade in Biotechnology withEnvironment and Development? (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2003); and IUCN Guide, supra note16.19 “Report of the Open-Ended Ad Hoc Group of Experts on Biosafety” UNEP/CBD/COP/2/7 (3 August 1995) at para.20.20 UN CBD, COP-2, Dec. II/5, “Consideration of the need for and modalities of a protocol for the safe transfer,handling and use of living modified organisms” (1995).

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procedure under the Protocol and the types of organisms it would cover; inclusionof the precautionary principle in the operational text of the Protocol; theallowance for socio-economic considerations in decision-making under theProtocol; and the relationship between the Protocol and other internationalagreements, particularly those of the WTO. Further research is still required in allof these areas, particularly in partnership with developing country researchers.

Just as the negotiations for the Protocol were commencing, UNEP released the“International Technical Guidelines for Safety in Biotechnology”21. According to thePreface, the Guidelines are intended as a contribution to the implementation ofAgenda 21. They were developed “on the basis of common elements andprinciples derived from relevant existing regional and international instrumentsand national regulations and guidelines, drawing upon experience already gainedthrough their preparation and implementation.”22 The Guidelines “providetechnical guidance on evaluating biosafety, identifying measures to manageforeseeable risks and to facilitate processes such as monitoring, research andinformation exchange.”23 In Decision II/5 from COP-2 in 1995, the Parties to theCBD agreed to launch negotiations for a biosafety protocol and recognized in thisdecision that instruments like the UNEP Guidelines could serve as interimmechanisms while the Protocol was being negotiated and could complement theProtocol once it was finalized.24

Much work remains to be done to develop the provisions of the Protocol. The firstMeeting of the Parties to the Protocol was held in February 2004 when the Partiesadopted a number of decisions ranging from capacity-building (BS-I/4 & 5) toliability and redress (BS-I/8). The Parties also adopted a medium-term program ofwork that sets out the subjects to be considered by the second through fifthMeetings of the Parties. These topics include notification procedures under theProtocol, risk assessment and risk management, handling, transport, packagingand identification, liability and redress, socio-economic considerations, publicawareness and participation, subsidiary bodies, monitoring and reporting,assessment and review, and application of the advance informed agreementprocedure (BS-I/12).

Much work also remains to be done in implementing the Protocol. Of the 188Parties to the CBD, 116 have also become Parties to the Protocol.25 While theProtocol does provide default procedures for decision-making on LMOs, manycountries will want to adapt their existing internal processes or create newmechanisms for decision-making in order to implement the agreement in theirjurisdictions. To this end, numerous organizations have undertaken biosafetycapacity-building project.

21 United Nations Environment Programme, “International Technical Guidelines for Safety in Biotechnology” (1995),online: Belgian Biosafety Clearing-House http://www.biosafetyprotocol.be/UNEPGuid/Contents.html (date accessed:11 March 2005).22 Ibid. at “Foreword”.23 IUCN Guide, supra note 16 at para. 119.24 Dec. II/5, supra note 20 at recital 13.25 As of 11 March 2005, online: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, “Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety (Montreal, 29 January 2000): Status of Ratification and Entry into Force”http://www.biodiv.org/biosafety/signinglist.aspx?sts=rtf&ord=dt (date accessed: 11 March 2005).

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The Cartagena Protocol versus Biosafety

At times, discussions of biosafety at the international level tend to be dominatedby the Biosafety Protocol. But the Protocol is, at best, only a partial answer to theissue. The scope of the Protocol is quite narrow – it does not cover processes ofbiotechnology that may pose biosafety risks, its procedures do not include thedomestic use of modified organisms, and decision-making is always tied to theconservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. There is much more to the issueof biosafety than the Biosafety Protocol.

Countries that simply focus on creating domestic regimes that implement theProtocol will find themselves with partial systems. At the same time, there is a lackof clarity over what falls within the scope of the Protocol and can therefore beincluded as part of the implementation and what falls beyond the Protocol andtherefore needs a different rationale if it is to be incorporated into a biosafetyregulatory system. The issues raised by socio-economic considerations offer oneexample. The Biosafety Protocol permits the inclusion of socio-economicconsiderations in biosafety decision-making where these considerations arise “fromthe impact of living modified organisms on the conservation and sustainable useof biological diversity, especially with regard to the value of biological diversity toindigenous and local communities”.26 How close must the connection be betweenthe LMO and its impact on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity forthis element to be permissible as a socio-economic consideration within theProtocol? Some connections are quite close, such as the link between a possiblereduction in the use of chemical inputs in the production of GM crops and theconservation of biodiversity. Other connections are more distant, such as theadoption of GM crops undermining traditional worldviews leading to reducedconservation of biodiversity. Would both of these socio-economic considerationsfit within the confines of Article 26 of the Biosafety Protocol?

The broader scope of biosafety beyond the terms of the Protocol is also well-illustrated by developments in international trade law. Two recent cases and oneongoing dispute at the World Trade Organization (WTO) highlight the role of thisorganization and its agreements in the field of biosafety. The EC – Beef Hormonesdispute involved complaints by Canada and the U.S. against a ban by theEuropean Communities against the import of beef from cows that had beenadministered certain growth hormones. The dispute settlement panels andappellate body had to interpret various provisions of the Agreement on theApplication of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) relating tolevels of sanitary or phytosanitary measures, risk assessment and precaution.Ultimately, the European ban was found to be violating the provisions of the SPSAgreement. Europe has refused to lift the ban, however, and pays a penaltythrough tariffs on European goods imported in Canada and the U.S.

The Japan – Apples dispute similarly involved provisions of the SPS Agreement.The case concerned a complaint by the U.S. over certain Japanese requirementsand prohibitions on the importation of American apples. The U.S. believed that the

26 Biosafety Protocol at Art. 26.

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Japanese rules contravened articles 2.2 and 5.1 of the SPS Agreement in that theywere maintained without sufficient scientific evidence and were not based on arisk assessment. Japan argued that its measures were provisional based on theinsufficiency of the existing scientific evidence as allowed under article 5.7. Boththe dispute settlement Panel and the Appellate Body found that Japan’s measureswere in violation of articles 2.2 and 5.1 and were not saved by article 5.7.

Finally, there is the ongoing EC – Biotech dispute in the World Trade Organisation.This dispute involves claims by the U.S., Canada and Argentina that the EuropeanCommunities’ de facto moratorium on the approval of genetically modifiedproducts contravenes numerous provisions of different WTO agreements. Theprovisions include the above-mentioned articles 2.2 and 5.1 of the SPS Agreementas well as other SPS provisions on disguised restrictions on trade (art. 2.3),elements of a risk assessment (art. 5.2 and 5.5), and the requirement to seekadditional information where provisional sanitary or phytosanitary measures areapplied in cases of insufficient scientific evidence (art. 5.7), among others. Thedispute also raises aspects of the GATT 1994 Agreement, the Agreement onAgriculture, and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade. The DisputeSettlement Panel expects to issue its report in August 2005.

Countries that are parties to the Biosafety Protocol as well as being members ofthe WTO need to create and implement biosafety regulatory regimes that respondto both international instruments. This is no easy feat and there are no definitiveanswers on how the two sets of obligations can be made to interact in a mutuallysupportive way. What is more, these are not the only two international fora inwhich biosafety discussions are ongoing. The Codex Alimentarius, theInternational Plant Protection Convention, and the World Organisation for AnimalHealth (OIE) are also involved as are regional organizations such as NAFTA. Witheach organization counting different countries as members, establishing who mustdo what becomes very complicated.

In developing countries, particularly in francophone Africa, this morass of legaland regulatory obligations has caused considerable confusion. The lack of clarityhas created difficulties for government officials from environment, health,agriculture, science and technology, industrial development, culture and otherministries, as well as for civil society groups and those working in thebiotechnology industry, to decide on an adequate national biosafety framework,complete with effective regulatory regime, that fit their national policy objectives.These objectives are, of course, particular to each country. And at the local level,most individuals are not concerned with the provisions of the Biosafety Protocolor WTO Agreements. Their questions are more straightforward. Are GM foods safeto eat? Are they easy to grow? Will they save me money or cost more? Will theyharm the environment? These are, of course, the sorts of questions that biosafetyregulatory regimes are ultimately trying to answer but at times, the discussionsbecome bogged down in the minutiae of procedures, decision-making timelinesand notifications. More experience with the use of biosafety regulatory regimesshould help to answer these questions by generating actual results – approvals,refusals, monitoring, etc. – that can be used as evidence to support answers tothese questions. However, this depends on developing countries having the

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capacity to implement their biosafety systems and communicate the results to thepublic. Answering these sorts of questions would also benefit from clear andconsistent information, which, on this subject, tends to be in short supply.

Why Is Biosafety a Concern?

The potential risks of biosafety can be grouped into the three areas of sustainabledevelopment. Environmental concerns include the potential for living modifiedorganisms, released into the environment, to become pests, to out-compete andreplace their wild relatives, to increase dependence on pesticides, or to spreadtheir introduced genes to weedy relatives, potentially creating ‘super-weeds’.27

Social concerns include threats to human health from new allergens in the foodsystem, threats to traditional agricultural practices such as seed-saving, and ethicalconcerns over patenting life and the treatment of animals.28 Finally, economicconcerns include concentration of the life sciences industry in Westernindustrialized countries and potential international trade difficulties caused by thechallenge of integration or mutual recognition of different national biotechnologypolicies and practices.29 Potential social, economic and environmental impactsmust be further studied.30

Evaluating the true risks of environmental and health concerns depends uponimprovements in our science. As we gain experience with genetically modifiedorganisms, we also gain knowledge of their benefits and pitfalls. In the case offood crops, modern varieties of plants may be so far removed from their wildrelatives that they become less hardy and well-suited for persisting as pests in thewild.31 Introduced traits such as herbicide resistance are unlikely to confer anadvantage to a plant, as it is unlikely to be exposed to the herbicide outside anagricultural setting. More research is needed, however, on the release of plantswith traits such as disease resistance or stress tolerance, as these are characteristicsthat may increase fitness in the wild.32 Gene flow is the movement of genesbetween individual organisms and it is a normal part of the process of evolution.In the case of genetically modified organisms, gene flow can result in the spreadof introduced genes to other non-modified individuals. This raises the concernsmentioned above, and could also create difficulties for patent litigation where themodified genes are patented.33 Physical and spatial barriers can help to reduce

27 R. Salazar & M. Valverde, Biosafety, Consumer Protection and International Trade (2000), online: CanadianInstitute for Environmental Law and Policy <www.cielap.org/biotechsp.pdf>.28 Ibid.29 Ibid.30 D. Stabinski, “Bringing Social Analysis Into a Multilateral Environmental Agreement: Social Impact Assessment andthe Biosafety Protocol” Journal of Environment & Development, Vol 9, No. 3, September 2000 at 260-283.31 The Royal Society of Canada, Elements of Precaution: Recommendations for the Regulation of Food Biotechnologyin Canada (Ottawa: The Royal Society of Canada, 2001), online:<http://www.rsc.ca/foodbiotechnology/indexEN.html> at 121.32 GM Science Review Report, An Open Review of the Science Relevant to GM Crops and Food Based on the Interestsand Concerns of the Public (July 2003), online: GM Science Review<http://www.gmsciencedebate.org.uk/report/pdf/gmsci-report1-pt1.pdf>.33 See e.g., Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser , 2004 SCC 34, and Philippe Cullet, Monsanto v Schmeiser : ALandmark Decision concerning Farmer Liability and Transgenic Contamination (2005) 17 Journal of EnvironmentalLaw 83.

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gene flow although enforcing their use can be challenging.34 Further research isneeded in the areas of both science and policy to determine the extent of theproblem and ways to resolve it. This work is particularly important as countriesprepare for the introduction of crops that have been modified to produceindustrial or pharmaceutical chemicals.

The introduction of new genes into an organism destined for human consumptionalso raises concerns about allergies. Genes produce proteins and increasingexposure to proteins never before consumed by humans could pose a problem,particularly in a system where the use of genetically modified products cannot betraced.35 Genetically modified foods are not necessarily unique in this respect,however, as organisms obtained through other breeding techniques can alsoproduce novel proteins. To date, the consumption of genetically modified foodsby large numbers of people over a period of at least five years is not believed tohave elicited allergic reactions.36 Further research on human allergies and geneticmodification is required in order to reduce the risks in the coming years.

How to Make Biosafety Decisions: the AIA & LMOs-FFP

The purpose here is not to give a step-by-step description of the AdvancedInformed Agreement procedure or the procedure on living modified organismsintended for use as food, feed, or for processing. The details in the Protocol makesuch a description a Herculean task. So much of the procedures are dependent ondomestic regimes and circumstances that a close-up look at their possibleoperation is not necessarily a very worthwhile task either. Instead, we provide aquick overview of the AIA and LMOs-FFP procedures before moving on toexamine how some of the variables in biosafety decision-making processes havebeen implemented in practice.

The Protocol divides living modified organisms (LMOs) into several categories. Thetwo main groups of concern are LMOs that are intended for introduction into theenvironment of an importing Party, and LMOs for use as food, feed or forprocessing (LMOs-FFP). The first group of LMOs is subject to the AdvanceInformed Agreement (AIA) procedure contained in Articles 7 through 10 of theProtocol. This procedure requires the party that intends to export LMOs to notify,or to require the exporter to notify, the party that is destined to be the importer.37

The notification must include, at a minimum, the information in Annex I to theProtocol, which includes descriptions of the organism in question, intended use ofthe organism and the regulatory status of the LMO in the country of export. Theimporting party is then required to acknowledge receipt of the notificationincluding “[w]hether to proceed according to the domestic regulatory framework of

34 Supra note 31 at 125. In North America, the most widely grown crop varieties are not native to the area so there arefew wild or weedy relatives available to reproduce with genetically modified varieties. In a country like Mexico, whichis a centre of diversity for corn, the potential for the introduced genes in genetically modified corn to spread is muchhigher. This could jeopardize the wild corn varieties, which are important sources of biodiversity, though this is onlylikely where the genes do increase the fitness of the corn.35 Supra note 32.36 Ibid.37 Biosafety Protocol, Art. 8(1).

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the Party of import or according to the procedure specified in Article 10.”38 Article10, in turn, sets out a decision-making procedure that parties can use to determinewhether to approve or prohibit the import, or request additional information. Theprocedure includes a risk assessment and allows the party of import to useprecaution to avoid or minimize the potential adverse effects of the LMO wherethere is scientific uncertainty.39 The AIA procedure applies primarily to LMOs suchas seeds, fish and other genetically modified organisms that are intended forrelease into the environment.40

The second procedure concerns living modified organisms for direct use as food,feed, or for processing, in other words, LMOs like corn and soy that are traded ascommodities intended for consumption rather than release into the environment.41

Article 11 requires a party that makes a decision concerning domestic use of anLMO-FFP that may be subject to transboundary movement to notify the otherparties of the decision via the Biosafety Clearing-House established elsewhere inthe Protocol.42 The purpose of this provision was to be “relatively speedy [incomparison to the AIA] while allowing an importing country to exercise somedegree of sovereignty and control over the regulation of imports of LMO-FFPcommodities.”43 The procedure still allows countries to make their own decisionsregarding the import of LMOs-FFP and these decisions can be based onprecaution.

38 Ibid., Art. 9(2)(c).39 Ibid., Art. 10(1) & 10(6).40 A. Cosbey & S. Burgiel, The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: An Analysis of Results (2000), online: InternationalInstitute for Sustainable Development <http://www.iisd.org/pdf/biosafety.pdf> at 10.41 Ibid.42 The provisions on the Clearing-House can be found in Art. 20.43 F. Pythoud & U.P. Thomas, “The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety” in Philippe G. LePrestre, ed., Governing GlobalBiodiversity: The Evolution and Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Burlington, VT: AshgatePublishing Co., 2002) 39 at 48.

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2

Progress on BiosafetyThrough National Biosafety Frameworks

Par�:Sylvestre Manga, Chercheur Associé,

Christine Frison, Chercheuse Associée, etMarie-Claire Cordonier Segger, Directrice,

Centre pour le droit international du développement durable.

I Introduction

Les Cadres Nationaux de Biosécurité ont pour but de construire et de mettre enœuvre un cadre normatif efficace en matière de recherche et d’échange desproduits à base d’organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM).

De nombreux pays africains n’ont pas encore de politique entièrement établie enmatière de biosécurité. Le manque de moyens humains, financiers, structurels, etc.est un obstacle évident au développement effectif de la politique nationale debiosécurité. Ces commentaires et recommandations ont pour double objectif demettre en évidence les points forts des CNB africains et de fournir quelquespropositions facilitant le développement et à la mise en place de ces politiquesnationales de biosécurité. Ils ont ensuite pour but de renforcer la confiance que lespays du sud portent en la Communauté internationale et en l’aide qu’elle peut leurapporter. En effet, mettre en place un régime national de biosécurité et une loinationale sur la biotechnologie moderne et la biosécurité en harmonie avec les

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principes généraux en matière de biosécurité est un travail de longue haleine etqui nécessite un soutien concret aux pays africains.

Pour ce faire, la première partie de cet article sera consacrée aux commentairesgénéraux liés au développement des CNB tandis qu’une seconde partie proposeranos commentaires spécifiques dans une perspective d’appréciation de la prise encompte minimale des dispositions du Protocole de Cartagena sur la Prévention desrisques biotechnologiques (PC). Cette dernière partie sera annoncée par une sectiontraitant des conditions du partenariat en biosécurité et sera conclue avec une autresection présentant, dans une approche globale, la perspective commercialesanitaire et phytosanitaire des cadres nationaux de biosécurité en émergence.

Une telle démarche à pour objectif de tirer le meilleur profit des apports de lacharte de mise en œuvre du PC et de mieux cibler les interrogations qui dervraientaider dans la mise en œuvre des CNB.

II Commentaires généraux sur les projets de Cadres Nationauxde Biosécurité

Selon le PNUE-FEM un «�cadre national de biosécurité�» est constitué par lacombinaison de politiques, d’instruments légaux et techniques ainsi que destructures administratives mis en place en vue d’assurer des conditionssécuritaires du recours à la biotechnologie moderne tant sur l’environnementque sur la santé humaine.44 Au regard de cette définition, les CNB doiventremplir ces impératifs et constituer un vrai régime de biosécurité, incluant tousles acteurs existants et potentiels dans le processus.

À la lumière des expériences et des acquis de plusieurs pays développés en lamatière, le PNUE-FEM a pu retenir des constantes dans la structuration de telscadres en dépit de la variabilité des différents cadres nationaux debiosécurité.45 La première constante est la politique gouvernementale enmatière de biosécurité. C’est généralement un aspect de politiques plus largestelles que les politiques générales sur les questions de la biotechnologie, de laproduction agricole, de la protection de la santé ou de la protection del’environnement. La deuxième constante est le régime législatif sur labiosécurité. Celui-ci consiste souvent en un texte législatif accompagné deguides techniques d’implantation et de mise en œuvre. La troisième constanteest un système de traitement des notifications et des demandes d’autorisationsd’activités telles que la libération dans l’environnement d’organismes vivantsgénétiquement modifiés. De tels systèmes prévoient des fonctionsadministratives appropriées, l’évaluation des risques, la prise de décision et laparticipation du public. Le suivi écologique est la quatrième constante. Il s’agitgénéralement de systèmes mis en œuvre pour le suivi des effets d’activités surl’environnement et sur la santé humaine. Enfin, la dernière constante concernel’information et la participation du public.46

44 UNEP, UNEP-GEF Biosafety Projects, What is a National Biosafety Framework?, UNEP-Geneva,.45 Ibid46 Ibid

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Si ces composantes sont bien comprises dans les projets de CNB, quelquessuggestions générales peuvent être envisagées pour parfaire ces cadres. Troispoints sont proposés�:

1. Le plan, la structure générale du CNB et du Projet de Loi:

Si la majeure partie des idées et enjeux du Protocole de Cartagena est présentedans les CNB, une réorganisation de leur présentation et leur suite logiquepeut parfois s’avérer bénéfique. Il est par exemple important d’inclure dans unCNB un projet de loi. Ce projet de loi fait partie du CNB mais c’est undocument à part entière et indépendant, dans la mesure où il est débattu etvoté par une autre institution que celle valildant le CNB. De plus, il estimportant de remplir les moindres obligations administratives requises par leProtocole, puisque c’est grâce à un bon fonctionnement administratif que lesystème national mais aussi international fonctionnera le mieux.

Afin de répondre efficacement à ces suggestions, la méthode suivante estproposée�:

- reprendre une à une les obligations du Protocole,- faire une liste des formalités à remplir pour être en accord avec cequi est requis dans le Protocole et ses annexes,- répartir les obligations listées en sous groupe puis en groupe defaçon logique d’un point de vue juridique,- et ensuite seulement, façonner un squelette de CNB et de projet deloi pour avoir un plan claire et détaillé, et pour n’omettre aucuneobligation.

Les pays africains francophones sont, bien entendu, tout à fait libre d’aller au-delà des obligations découlant du Protocole, afin d’aller plus loin dans laréglementation relative aux biotechnologies. Néanmoins, ils seront attentifs àne contrevenir à aucune disposition du Protocole de Cartagena.

2. La méthode:

- Afin de satisfaire aux obligations découlant du PC, les CNB doiventcontenir des descriptions des tâches, activités, compétences et statuts desdifférents acteurs participant à la politique nationale de biosécurité.

- Il s’agit également d’être très précis et rigoureux pour n’omettreaucune obligation découlant du Protocole. Ainsi, après la rédaction d’une souspartie dans un projet de CNB, ou d’un article dans le projet de loi, la relecturede chaque article du Protocole correspondant à la matière discutée permetd’assurer que chaque obligation est bien remplie.

3. La bibliographie, les tableaux, les schémas:

- Les tableaux et schémas explicatifs sont de précieuses aides pour lacompréhension et la clarté d’un projet. Ils sont les bienvenus, dès lors qu’ilssont utilisés à bon escient. Un tableau clairement commenté, expliquant en

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quelques mots sa signification, est très utile dans la compréhension rapide etgénérale d’une procédure ou d’une institution par exemple.

- La présence d’une bibliographie complète est également impérativepour permettre aux acteurs intéressés d’accéder aux informations utiliséesdans le CNB.

Pour terminer, l’ensemble des apports du PNUE-FEM permet d’améliorerdavantage les contours des CNB en leur proposant des orientations tournées nonseulement vers la couverture des exigences minimales de biosécurité consignéesdans le Protocole mais aussi vers l’avenir, dans une perspective de mise à jourcontinuelle et adaptative. Pour ce faire, les pays africains francophonescontinueront d’être actifs dans les activités de mise en œuvre du Protocole debiosécurité comme lors des négociations dudit Protocole. Ainsi, il est attendu desCNB et projets de loi, la création de dispositions permettant, entre autres, uneinteraction continuelle entre les Parties, l’industrie et les ONG essentiellement àtravers les activités du Centre d’échange pour la prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques et celles de la Conférence des Parties au Protocole deCartagena sur la Prévention des risques biotechnologiques.

III Commentaires spécifiques sur les Cadres Nationaux deBiosécurité

2.1 – Le développement des cadres nationaux de biosécurité�: unpartenariat vers l’utilisation sans danger de la biotechnologie moderne

La mise sur pied d’un cadre national de biosécurité n’est pas chose facile. Labiotechnologie moderne est une innovation technologique dont l’adoption par lespays du sud demande l’instauration d’un cadre institutionnel et de mécanismesvariés, concourant à l’utilisation sans danger des OGM dans les activités dudéveloppement national. Un tel défi peut s’avérer de prime abord immense etinsurmontable pour les Parties en développement qui souffrent parfois de manièrechronique, de la faiblesse en ressources humaines qualifiées, en financement et enéquipements et matériels adéquats.

Heureusement, la mise sur pied des régimes nationaux de biosécurité est unprocessus de partenariat sûr au cours duquel les Parties en développementreleveront ce défi à l’échelle nationale aux côtés des institutions spécialisées dusystème onusien et de ses services spécialisés. En réalité, les Parties endéveloppement ne sont pas laissés à elles-mêmes dans cette aventure deconception, de mise sur pied et de mise en œuvre de leurs cadres nationaux debiosécurité. Les Parties en développement peuvent être assurées de bénéficier,dans ce processus, de la pleine participation ainsi que de l’appui continuel etconstructif du Programme des Nations unies pour l’environnement (PNUE), duSecrétariat de la Convention sur la diversité biologique (CDB) et du PC. L’appuifinancier et l’expertise du PNUE-FEM ainsi que les activités du Centre d’échangespour la prévention des risques biotechnologiques peuvent être perçus comme lespremiers signes d’un tel appui.

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Les Parties en développement peuvent ainsi être assurés de pouvoir contribuer àl’utilisation sans risque des OGM sur la base de futurs régimes nationaux debiosécurité efficaces, conçus en fonction des exigences internationales et desattentes, réalités et spécificités nationales. Bien mieux, il est attendu des Parties endéveloppement la conception et la mise sur pied d’un cadre national dont lesdispositions permettront de mettre à profit, de manière optimale, les implicationsprévues dans les activités de mise en œuvre du Protocole de Cartagena sur laPrévention des risques biotechnologiques. Analyser les implications du Protocolede biosécurité dans le développement des cadres nationaux de biosécurité revientà étudier les voies et les moyens qui caractérisent ou qui devraient caractériserl’apport du Secrétariat de la CDB et du Centre d’échanges en biosécurité à la miseen œuvre, au sein des Parties en développement notamment, de stratégies et destructures administratives en vue de l’utilisation sans risque de la biotechnologiemoderne. Un tel apport peut être appréhendé sous deux angles. Le premier angleconcerne les obligations des Parties en développement à l’égard du Protocole. Lesecond angle peut se résumer aux attentes des Parties en développement à l’égarddu Protocole de biosécurité et du Centre d’échanges en biosécurité. Les deuxangles d’approche sont convergents et complémentaires.

2.1.1 - Les obligations des Parties en développement à l’égard du PC

Les obligations des Parties notamment en développement à l’égard du Protocole enfaveur de l’utilisation, sans danger, des OGM ont été élaborées et répertoriées parla Réunion d’Experts à composition non limitée sur le Renforcement des Capacitéspour l’Application du Protocole sur la Biosécurité. Celle-ci s’était tenue à la Havaneau Cuba en juillet 2001. À cette occasion, un dossier dit de mise en œuvre avait étédiscuté et inclus dans la documentation de la Seconde Réunion du ComitéIntergouvernemental pour le Protocole de biosécurité (ICCP2), tenue à Nairobi, auKenya du 1er au 5 Octobre 2001. Les obligations compilées dans le dossier de miseen œuvre sont regroupées en trois catégories à l’annexe I du document. Les troiscatégories sont les tâches administratives (initiales et futures), les obligations et/ouengagements juridiques et les procédures requises (accord préalable enconnaissance de cause)47.

Les Parties ont des obligations à l’égard du PC mais aussi des attentes. Cesdernières diffèrent selon le pays. Les pays développés sont actuellement dans laphase de consolidation de leurs propores législations de biosécurité lesquelles,dans la plupart des cas, ont été mises sur pied bien avant l’ère du Protocole. Enrevanche, les Parties en développement ont réellement besoin d’assistance pour sehisser à un niveau convenable leur permettant de participer de façon biosécuritaireau commerce, sans danger, des produits de la biotechnologie.

2.1.2 – Les attentes des Parties en développement à l’égard du Protocole debiosécurité et du Centre d’échanges

47 UNEP, Dossier de mise en œuvre, Comité intergouvernemental pour le Protocole de Cartagena sur la Prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques, Deuxième réunion Nairobi, 1-5 octobre 2001, création des capacités (articles 22, article 28),UNEP/CBD/ICCP/2/10, Annexe II, 31 juillet 2001, pp. 33-37

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Les obligations dont il a été question dans la section précédente peuvent êtrechoses faites pour la plupart des Parties développées. En revanche, celles-cipeuvent constituer un défi à relever dans le contexte d’une Partie endéveloppement. En effet, les circonstances de la plupart des pays endéveloppement révèlent que tout est à concevoir, à mettre sur pied et à mettre enœuvre dans cette nouvelle problématique du recours sans risque aux OGM dansles activités du développement national. Cette remarque suscite, par ailleurs, lequestionnement quant à la pertinence d’une feuille de route ou d’un dossier sur lesattentes des Parties à l’égard du Protocole et du Centre de biosécurité à l’attention,particulièrement, des Parties en développement. Loin de nous toutefois l’idée deproposer une démarche similaire à celle qui à conduit à la mise sur pied du dossierde mise en œuvre lequel, rappelons-le, a permis la récapitulation des obligationsdes Parties à l’égard du Protocole. Ce faisant, nous souhaitons encourager les unset les autres, dans le sens de l’article 34 du Protocole48, à la poursuite des efforts derenforcement des capacités jusqu’ici entrepris par le Protocole et sa Conférence desParties en faveur de l’appui aux Parties en développement dans ce nouveau défimondial. Dans cet article, les Parties s’accordent en effet à encourager le respectdes dispositions du Protocole et à traiter les cas de non-respect. Les Parties endéveloppement pourront trouver en cette volonté un partenariat face auxépineuses questions de notification, des demandes d’autorisation, du suivi desefforts de renforcement des capacités ainsi que des mécanismes pour laparticipation du public. En réalité, les articles 34 et 33 du Protocole49 offrent unetribune interactive de dialogue entre le Protocole et les Parties surtout endéveloppement. Le Centre d’échanges trouve ici plus qu’ailleurs un sens à sonexistence. C’est aussi dans cette tribune interactive et dynamique que les Parties endéveloppement pourront améliorer et perfectionner leurs cadres nationaux debiosécurité au fil des échanges, des expériences et des innovations enbiotechnologie moderne et ce, en fonction de leurs priorités nationales, de leursspécificités et de leurs obligations en tant que Parties au Protocole.

Les principaux moyens par lesquels les Parties devraient bénéficier de l’apport duProtocole à la mise sur pied et à la mise en œuvre des cadres nationaux debiosécurité sont l’étiquetage50, la traçabilité, la responsabilité 51, la réparation 52 et la

48 Celui-ci traite du Respect des obligations et stipule que :«La Conférence des Parties siégeant en tant que Réunion des Parties au Protocole, examine et approuve, à sa première réunion,des procédures et des mécanismes institutionnels de coopération propres à encourager le respect des dispositions du Protocoleet à traiter les cas de non-respect. Ces procédures et mécanismes comportent des dispositions visant à offrir des conseils ouune assistance, le cas échéant. Ils sont distincts et sans préjudice de la procédure et des mécanismes de règlement desdifférends établis en vertu de l’article 27 de la Convention.»UNEP, Protocole de Cartagena sur la Prévention des risques biotechnologiques relatif à la Convention sur la diversitébiologique – Textes et Annexes, Montréal, ISBN : 92-807-1924-6, 2003, p. 2449 Les rapports seront des moyens de communication efficaces par lesquels les Parties en développement pourront attirerl’attention sur les difficultés rencontrées dans la mise en oeuvre des dispositions du Protocole ainsi que le désir de cesdernières de trouver des solutions à leurs difficultés. L’article 33 traitant entre autres des rapports stipule :« Chaque Partie veille au respect des obligations qui sont les siennes en vertu du présent Protocole et, à des intervallesréguliers décidés par la Conférence des Parties siégeant en tant que Réunion des Parties au Protocole, fait rapport à laConférence des Parties siégeant en tant que Réunion des Parties au Protocole sur les mesures qu’elle a prises pour en appliquerles dispositions. »Ibid50 L’article 18 qui traite entre autres d’identification stipule que :«La Conférence des Parties siégeant en tant que Réunion des Parties au Protocole prend une décision exposant en détail lesmodalités de cette obligation, en particulier la façon dont il faut spécifier l’identité de ces organismes ainsi que touteidentification particulière, au plus tard dans les deux ans qui suivent l’entrée en vigueur du Protocole…La Conférence des

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résolution des différends commerciaux. Sur ces questions, la Conférence desParties au PC prévoit des calendriers de travail pour conduire des programmespour la mise en œuvre du Protocole.

Nul doute que l’ensemble de ces activités en perspective peut donner la confianceaux uns et aux autres quant à la faisabilité d’un projet de partenariat au profit del’utilisation sans danger des OGM dans les efforts de développement des pays dusud.

2.2 – Commentaires spécifiques

Quelques commentaires spécifiques concernant les six structures généralescommunes constituant le carcan des CNB. Ces six points seront doncaccompagnés de quelques suggestions:

- Une politique nationale de biosécurité.Cet impératif constitue le point de départ indispensable à la création et la mise enœuvre de tout CNB. En effet, l’objecftif est multiple�: offrir aux parties concernéesla possibilité de choisir ou non d’importer et d’utiliser les OVM�; assurer lasécurité�; donner la parole�; renforcer les capacités�; assurer une pérennité lorsl’utilisation des OVM�; concrétiser les dispositions du Protocole de Carthagène.

- Un système ou ‘cadre réglementaire’ mis en place pour veiller àl’utilisation en toute sécurité de la biotechnologie moderne.

Ce cadre réglementaire constitue l’application législative de la politique nationalede biosécurité. Les Parties en développement ont pour la plupart établi un état deslieux détaillé de leur cadre réglementaire préexistant. Le Protocole impose auxParties de créer un cadre législatif relatif à l’objectif du Protocole, afin de pouvoirréglementer toute situation liée à cet objectif. C’est ainsi que les parties endéveloppement ont pour la plupart créé un projet de loi relative à la biosécurité. Ilest important d’inclure dans les CNB un projet de loi complet en plus d’un état deslieux détaillé des cadres réglementaires nationaux. Il s’agit donc de deux partiescomplémentaires mais distinctes du CNB.

- Un cadre administratif afin de centraliser la gestion de tous lesdocuments relatifs à l’utilisation d’OGM (importation, exportation,re-exportation, manipulation, etc.).

L’importance d’un cadre administratif est très grande. En effet, l’effectivité desinstitutions et du traitement des procédures sera primordiale dans la phase de miseen œuvre du CNB en particulier. Un cadre administratif effectif permet un meilleur

Parties siégeant en tant que Réunion des Parties au Protocole détermine s’il est nécessaire d’élaborer des normesd’identification, de manipulation, d’emballage et de transport, et fixe les modalités de cette élaboration, en consultant d’autresorganismes internationaux compétents en la matière»Ibid, pp. 14-1551 L’article 27 traitant de la responsabilité et de la réparation précise à cet effet que :«La Conférence des Parties, siégeant en tant que Réunion des Parties au présent Protocole, engage, à sa première Réunion, unprocessus visant à élaborer des règles et procédures internationales appropriées en matière de responsabilité et de réparationpour les dommages résultant de mouvements transfrontières d’organismes vivants modifiés, en analysant et en prenant dûmenten compte les travaux en cours en droit international sur ces questions, et s’efforce d’achever ce processus dans les quatre ans»Ibid, à la p.2052 Ibid

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échange des informations et un traitement efficace des procédures dans lesfrontières domestique comme dans la coopération internationale.

- Un processus décisionnel incluant l’évaluation et la gestion desrisques liés à la libération d’OGM.

Avoir un processus décisionnel efficace permettra d’éviter un maximum d’incidentsliés à l’utilisation et l’échange d’OVM. Afin d’être aussi performant que possible, ceprocessus comporte des mécanismes d’évaluation et de gestion des risques quidoivent nécessairement se conformer aux obligations du PC et notamment auxdispositions des annexes I et III du PC.

- Des mécanismes de participation et d’information du public.L’information et la participation du public sont un pylone essentiel du processusde décision. Cinq raisons influence les pays à se doter de tels mécanismeseffectifs�:• Promouvoir la durabilité c’est-à-dire encourager le sentiment de propriété ausein du public en tant que partie prenante au processus décisionnel;• Améliorer la compréhension du sujet et établir des rapports de confiance et derespect entre les groupes de parties prenantes ayant des points de vue différents ;• Garantir un processus d’inclusion qui implique toutes les parties prenantes�;• Promouvoir un meilleur processus décisionnel fondé sur des informationscorrectes et l’utilisation des ressources et de l’expertise nationales disponibles�;• Promouvoir la transparence et la responsabilité du gouvernement et desprocessus décisionnels relatifs aux OVM.

- Des institutions et systèmes pour le suivi.Il est important pour les Parties en développement de se doter d’institutions et desystèmes de suivi afin de pouvoir s’adapter rapidement et concrètement auxévolutions de la biotechnologie moderne, domaine en mouvance perpétuelle et quinécessite un investissement constant de la part des acteurs concernés.

2.3 – Perspective commerciale, sanitaire et phytosaniatire du cadrenational de biosécurité

Le Protocole de Cartagena est un cadre normatif dynamique. Le texte actuel apermis de jeter les balises qui aideront les Parties à amorcer un travail de mise surpied et de mise à jour continuelles des régimes nationaux de biosécurité et ce, aufil des apports et de l’évolution des innovations en biotechnologie moderne. De cefait, le Protocole et sa Conférence des Parties, par les activités du Centred’échanges, devront coordonner les changements et les acquis ainsi que larépercussion de ceux-ci dans les régimes nationaux. Les principaux moyens utiliséspar le Protocole pour continuer à contribuer à la mise en œuvre des régimesnationaux de biosécurité sont l’évaluation et la gestion des risques, l’étiquetage, latraçabilité, la responsabilité, la réparation et la résolution des différendscommerciaux. S’agissant de ce dernier point, les perspectives d’une jurisprudenceen droit du commerce international des produits agricoles à base d’OGM laissententrevoir la conduite d’activités de soutien mutuel entre le jeune mécanisme derèglement des différends de la CDB et le puissant organe de règlement des

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différends (ORD) de l’OMC.53 C’est ainsi que dans le préambule du Protocole sur labiosécurité, les Parties «s'accordent à comprendre que le texte ne vise pas àsubordonner le Protocole à d'autres accords internationaux».54 Bien plutôt, cesdernières «se sont accordées à souligner que ledit Protocole ne sera pas interprétécomme indiquant une modification quelconque des droits et obligations d'unePartie en vertu d’autres accords internationaux en vigueur».55 Mieux encore, lesÉtats ont précisé «que les accords sur le commerce et l’environnement devraient sesoutenir mutuellement en vue de l’avènement d'un développement durable».56

D’autre part, pour ce qui est de l’évaluation et de la gestion des risquesbiotechnologiques, l’intensité des activités concernant la biosécurité au sein desorganisations internationales, des États, des ONG et dans l’industrie laisse présagerune convergence, dans un avenir plus ou moins rapproché, vers des effortsd’harmonisation des moyens et techniques de prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques. On peut en effet, espérer que la bonne volonté et la bonne foides différents intervenants concouront à donner les moyens au Centre d’échangepour la prévention des risques biotechnologiques en faveur de la standardisationdes méthodes d’évaluation du risque biotechnologique, des méthodes de détectiondes gènes ainsi que des procédés et techniques de traçabilité. Les techniques detraçabilité devraient permettre, en cas de problèmes, de retirer les produits descircuits commerciaux et alimentaires. Il en est de même de la standardisation desseuils de nocivité et d’innocuité ainsi que la standardisation des seuils de présencedes OGM dans les aliments aux fins de l’étiquetage en vue de l’exercice du librechoix des consommateurs. Pourrait aussi être envisagé, l’établissement de moyensde recours en litige et en modes alternatifs de résolution des conflits.

53 Le Protocole de biosécurité et l’Accord SPS de l’OMC qui sont les principaux cadres normatifs compétents dans lecommerce international des produits agricoles devraient se soutenir mutuellement. Le préambule du Protocole stipule à cesujet que : «Estimant que les accords sur le commerce et l’environnement devraient se soutenir mutuellement en vue de l’avènement dudéveloppement durable,Soulignant que le présent Protocole ne sera pas interprété comme impliquant une modification des droits et obligations d’unePartie en vertu d’autres accords internationaux en vigueur,Considérant qu’il est entendu que le présent préambule ne vise pas à subordonner le Protocole à d’autres accordsinternationaux, …»Ibid, à la p.254Ibid55 Ibid56Ibid

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IV Conclusion générale�: des CNB pour tirer profit des attentesdes parties en développement à l’égard du PC et du Centred’échange

Les Parties en développement devront concevoir des régimes aptes à l’intégrationdes acquis accumulés au cours des activités des différents programmes de mise enœuvre du Protocole et en fonction des expériences du Centre d’échanges enbiosécurité. Certes, le cadre national de biosécurité devrait viser en priorité laprévention du risque biotechnologique dans les territoires nationaux. Toutefois, lerisque environnemental n’étant pas confiné dans les frontières terrestres, cesrégimes devraient également se doter d’une dimension internationale sanscommune mesure. Il en est de même pour ce qui est du respect des obligationsdes Parties sous le Protocole de biosécurité. Pour ces principales raisons, le cadreadministratif soutenant les activités du régime de biosécurité devrait être en mesurede conduire avec efficacité, les rapports avec le Secrétariat de la CDB notammentle Centre d’échange. Mais surtout, les cadres institutionnels devraient permettre laréception, l’étude et le traitement en toute efficacité, des notifications et desdemandes d’autorisation. Il est donc attendu des CNB l’instauration de dispositionssouples dynamiques et aptes à l’intégration de nouvelles données favorablementau commerce sans danger des OGM agricoles. Il est également attendu des cadresnationaux, la mise sur pied d’une structure administrative propice à l’intégrationdes mesures et des matériels du suivi des activités de renforcement des capacitésainsi que l’intégration de la participation efficace et constructive du public dansl’utilisation sans danger des OGM au profit du développement national.

L’état actuel des activités du PNUE-FEM et des Parties en développement du PCrelativement à la mise sur pied et à la mise en œuvre des cadres nationaux debiosécurité donne confiance aux uns et aux autres quant à la viabilité et à lafaisabilité d’un projet de partenariat au profit de l’utilisation sans danger des OGMdans les efforts de développement des pays du Sud.

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3.1

Case Studies I:Innovations dans les Provisions Législatives en

matière de Biosécurité des Pays AfricainsFrancophones

(Innovative Biosafety Laws Provisions in Francophone African Laws)

By Christine FrisonLegal Research Fellow, Droit de la Biodiversité, CISDL

I Introduction

Cette étude de cas est basée sur les cadres nationaux de biosécurité élaborés parles douze pays africains francophones suivants�: Algérie, Bénin, Burkina Faso,Union des Comores, République du Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinée, Madagascar,Mali, Niger, Sénégal, Togo57. L’objectif de cette étude est de mettre en avant lesinnovations créées par ces pays dans l’élaboration de leurs cadres nationaux debiosécurité (CNB) et de leurs projets de lois relatifs à la biosécurité.

La première chose qu’il est important de noter est l’effort considérable fournit parl’ensemble des pays participants au projet PNUE/FEM sur le développement descadres nationaux de biosécurité. Le projet PNUE/FEM sur le développement des 57 Les CNB finaux de tous ces pays, excepté pour l’Algérie, sont disponibles sur le site Internet du PNUE/FEM :http://www.unep.ch/biosafety/parcountrieslist.htm. (Visité le 01/06/05).

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cadres nationaux de biosécurité a représenté pour ces pays l’opportunité deprendre des décisions d’ordre techniques et politiques relatives au transfert, à lamanipulation ou à l’utilisation sans risques d’organismes vivants modifiésconformément aux dispositions du Protocole de Carthagène, grâce à un suivicontinu de la part du PNUE/FEM durant l’exécution du projet ainsi qu’à unecoopération internationale importante. Ces pays ont pu fonder leur projet decadres nationaux sur certaines bases communes disponibles. Il s’agit notammentdu texte même du Protocole de Carthagène, mais aussi d’autres documents relatifsau projet de développement des CNB fournis par le PNUE/FEM, de la loi modèlede l’Organisation de l’Unité Africaine, des cadres nationaux de biosécuritéprovenant des pays faisant partie de la phase pilote et étant déjà passé à la phasede mise en œuvre du projet PNUE/FEM. Ces bases communes nécessaires à lacompréhension générale du projet ont permis aux pays participants decomprendre tous les enjeux du projet et de déterminer la direction à suivre dansleur développement et leur application nationaux. Ces bases communes ontégalement facilité la mise en évidence claire et précise des obligations impérativesincombant aux Etats membres du Protocole de Carthagène. La détermination deces droits et obligations découlant du Protocole s’est révélée être une étapeprimordiale dans le processus de développement des cadres nationaux car elle aconstitué le carcan sur lequel se sont ensuite greffées les particularités nationalesde chaque pays. Ainsi, certaines structures générales communes, certainsmécanismes constituant ce carcan sont exprimés par�:

- Une politique nationale de biosécurité;- Un système ou ‘cadre réglementaire’ mis en place pour veiller à

l’utilisation en toute sécurité de la biotechnologie moderne;- Un cadre administratif afin de centraliser la gestion de tous les

documents relatifs à l’utilisation d’OGM (importation, exportation, re-exportation, manipulation, etc.);

- Un processus décisionnel incluant l’évaluation et la gestion desrisques liés à la libération d’OGM;

- Des mécanismes de participation et d’information du public;- Des institutions et systèmes pour le suivi.

Pour aboutir au développement optimal de ces cadres nationaux, le PNUE/FEM aétabli un processus d’exécution en quatre étapes du projet sur le développementdes cadres nationaux de biosécurité. C’est notamment à travers ces différentesphases d’exécutions que les particularités de chaque pays sont ressorties et ont puêtre exprimées dans leurs CNB et projets de lois. C’est particulièrement dans ladernière phase d’exécution du projet que ces particularités ont été exprimées leplus clairement et qu’elles se sont traduites en des innovations législativesnationales.

Les quatre phases d’exécution du projet déterminées par le PNUE/FEM, qui ontconcouru à la mise en lumière de caractéristiques nationales propres à chaque Etatparticipant, sont�:

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- Phase O�: Détermination de la raison d’être du projet, ses principesdirecteurs, la mise sur pied des structures gestionnaires et cadresinstitutionnels.

- Phase 1 : Réalisation d’études et élaboration d’inventaires dans différentssecteurs relatifs à la biosécurité et à la biotechnologie dans chaque pays.

- Phase 2 : Identification des centres de décision, des activités deconsultation, des analyses et des formations nécessaires permettant decerner les priorités et les paramètres de l’avant-projet des cadresnationaux de biosécurité.

- Phase 3 : Elaboration de l’avant-projet du cadre national de biosécurité,ce qui inclut les concertations avec les centres de décision pour leurapprobation.

Chacune de ces phases a abouti à la mise en évidence de caractéristiquesnationales propres à chaque pays. Or, se sont ces caractéristiques particulières quiont mené à la création de provisions législatives uniques et originales d’un pays àl’autre.

Pour l’exécution de la phase 0, l’Etat devait formuler sa vision nationale en matièrede biosécurité. La détermination de cette vision nationale impliquaitnécessairement de se baser sur les structures et cadres institutionnels présents dansle pays. La détermination des principes directeurs du projet était égalementconcentrée sur le contexte national préexistant au projet PNUE/FEM. Certes, laplupart de ces principes étaient prévus et exprimés dans le Protocole deCarthagène même (tel l’approche de précaution58 par exemple). Néanmoins, lespays participants au projet ont tenu à construire leur projet en se reposant sur lesmentalités et les principes de vie nationaux. Par conséquent, l’élaboration de lavision nationale de l’ensemble des Etats participants a abouti à un foisonnementde visions nationales en matière de biosécurité similaires dans leur objet, maisdifférentes dans leur contenu et leur procédure d’exécution.

Pour ce qui est de la phase 1, qui s’attache à la réalisation d’études et l’élaborationd’inventaires dans différents secteurs relatifs à la biosécurité et à la biotechnologiedans chaque pays, les résultats ont variés largement d’un pays à l’autre. La raisond’être de cette phase se justifie par la nécessité des pays de connaître l’état deleurs systèmes juridiques, administratifs, scientifiques, décisionnels sur lesquels sefondent leurs cadres nationaux réglementant la biotechnologie et la biosécurité.C’est pourquoi ces études et inventaires se sont basés sur les caractéristiquesgéographiques, commerciales, industrielles, sociales et démographiques,scientifiques, structurelles etc. particulières à chaque pays. Ainsi, la situation enmatière d’importation de tel aliment en Algérie ne saurait être la même qu’auSénégal. Partant, le résultat obtenu à la fin de cette phase d’études et d’inventairesétait obligatoirement différent d’un pays à l’autre. Les particularités nationales ontencore une fois été indirectement exprimées dans cette phase 1 d’exécution du

58 Protocole de Carthagène, Article 1.

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projet, par la mise en évidence dans ces études et inventaires de donnéesstrictement locales et nationales.

Le même schéma se retrouve lors de l’exécution de la phase 2, relative àl’identification des centres de décision, des activités de consultation, des analyseset des formations nécessaires permettant de cerner les priorités et les paramètresde l’avant-projet des cadres nationaux de biosécurité. Cette phase met l’accent surl’analyse et la consultation des informations recueillies lors des enquêtes de laphase 1 afin d’identifier les lacunes et d’établir les priorités de la structure nationalde biosécurité. Ainsi, la consultation de toutes les parties prenantes, privées oupubliques, de secteurs liés à la biosécurité a permis l’identification descomposantes de la structure nationale de biosécurité en parfaite connaissance ducontexte national. A ce stade, les droits et obligations internationaux découlant duProtocole de Carthagène ont été débattus, discutés et adaptés aux circonstancesnationales, afin d’obtenir la création d’un cadre national de biosécurité le plusadapté possible.

Enfin, c’est dans la dernière phase, la phase 3�sur l’élaboration de l’avant-projet ducadre national de biosécurité, que toutes ces particularités nationales ont étéexprimées sur le papier. La reconnaissance des spécificités nationales a permisl’identification de provisions législatives uniques et originales faisant l’objet decette étude. Néanmoins, il est possible de déterminer certains éléments communsdans les différents cadres réglementaires sur la biosécurité étudiés. Trois catégoriesde provisions sont distinguées:

- Provisions générales (objectif, champ d’application, définitions,principes directeurs, etc.)

- Provisions opérationnelles (utilisation en milieu confiné /ouvert,procédures de prise de décision sur l’importation / l’exportation, letransit, le transport et la commercialisation, évaluation des risques,révision des décisions / système d’appel, établissement d’institutions,etc.)

- Autres provisions (surveillance, étiquetage et traçabilité, informationconfidentielle, gestion des connaissances, information nouvelle,questions socio-économiques et éthiques, mesures d’urgence, délitset peines, responsabilités et réparation, l’entrée en vigueur de la loi)

Certaines des ces provisions permettent plus facilement que d’autres l’expressiondes particularités et originalités nationales. Elles facilitent l’adaptation des normesinternationales aux particularités nationales. Ce sont ces provisions législativesinnovantes qui seront examinées ci-dessous. Pour plus de clarté, elles serontexaminées dans l’ordre établi des articles du Protocole de Carthagène.

II Dispositions générales (Articles 1- 6 PC)

Les dispositions du Protocole qui sont considérées comme faisant parties de cegroupe d’obligations sont constituées par les articles 1 à 6 compris. Elles délimitentl’objet et le champ d’application du traité�de même qu’elles en définissent lesnotions importantes. Les Etats parties au Protocole ont l’obligation de respecter et

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appliquer ces dispositions, mais ils ont une certaine marge de manœuvre dans lesmoyens de leur application. Ainsi, l’article 2.1 dispose que�:

«�[c]haque Partie prend les mesures juridiques, administratives et autresnécessaires et appropriées pour s'acquitter de ses obligations au titre duProtocole.�»

L’Etat est donc libre de choisir la manière dont il va s’acquitter de ses obligations.

Objectif et Champ d’Application

Malgré cette rigidité d’application, les Etats ont la possibilité d’élargir l’objet et lechamp d’application du Protocole, qui est restreint à�:

«�assurer un degré adéquat de protection pour le transfert, lamanipulation et l'utilisation sans danger des organismes vivantsmodifiés résultant de la biotechnologie moderne qui peuvent avoir deseffets défavorables sur la conservation et l'utilisation durable de ladiversité biologique, compte tenu également des risques pour la santéhumaine, en mettant plus précisément l'accent sur les mouvementstransfrontières59�». (Nous soulignons)

L’élargissement de l’objet et du champ d’application du Protocole ne doitnéanmoins pas contrevenir aux autres obligations du Protocole. L’article 2.4dispose en effet que�:

«�[r]ien dans le présent Protocole ne doit être interprété commerestreignant le droit d'une Partie de prendre des mesures plusrigoureuses pour la conservation et l'utilisation durable de la diversitébiologique que celles prévues par le Protocole, à condition qu'ellessoient compatibles avec l'objectif et les dispositions du Protocole et enaccord avec les autres obligations imposées à cette Partie par le droitinternational�».

De plus, les Etats membres doivent également tenir compte des décisions de laConférence des Parties définissant certains OVM comme peu susceptibles d’avoirdes effet néfastes sur l’environnement ou la santé. L’Article 7§4 du PC dispose eneffet que�:

«�[l]a procédure d'accord préalable en connaissance de cause nes'applique pas aux mouvements transfrontières intentionnels desorganismes vivants modifiés qui, dans une décision de la Conférencedes Parties siégeant en tant que Réunion des Parties au Protocole, sontdéfinis comme peu susceptibles d'avoir des effets défavorables sur laconservation et l'utilisation durable de la diversité biologique, comptetenu également des risques pour la santé humaine.�»

59 PC, Art. 1.

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En application de ce droit, les douze cadres nationaux de biosécurité des paysafricains francophones examinés dans cette étude ont élargi le champd’application du Protocole aux Organismes Génétiquement Modifiés (OGM)60. Parexemple, le projet de loi relative à la biosécurité en Algérie dispose en son articlepremier que�:

«�Dans la perspective d’un développement durable et bénéfique pourl’intérêt national, la présente loi a pour objet de déterminer�:- les conditions de collecte, de circulation et d’utilisation des ressourcesbiologiques et des connaissances qui leur sont associées,- les conditions de détention et/ou d’usage d’organisme génétiquementmodifié, ainsi que les règles de sécurité liées à la prise en charge desrisques découlant de l’utilisation des biotechnologies modernes, aux finsde protection de l’ensemble des écosystèmes en général, et desressources biologiques en particulier61�». (Nous soulignons)

Si cet élargissement ne constitue pas une situation isolée en tant que telle, puisquel’ensemble des pays africains étudiés a choisi d’y recourir, il n’en reste pas moinsque cela démontre une nette volonté de la part de ces pays de créer des cadresnationaux efficaces et complets face aux situations actuelles et futures qui peuventadvenir en matière de biosécurité. Cela peut également traduire une applicationrelativement stricte de l’approche de précaution consacrée par le Principe 15 de laDéclaration de Rio sur l'environnement et le développement.

Produits pharmaceutiques

Un autre article du Protocole permettant la délimitation du champ d’applicationdes CNB concerne l’Article 5 du PC sur les produits pharmaceutiques. Le protocoleprévoit que�:

«�[n]onobstant l'Article 4 et sans préjudice du droit des Parties desoumettre tout organisme vivant modifié à une évaluation des risquesavant de prendre une décision concernant son importation, le présentProtocole ne s'applique pas aux mouvements transfrontièresd'organismes vivants modifiés qui sont des produits pharmaceutiquesdestinés à l’homme relevant d'autres accords ou organismesinternationaux pertinents.�»

L’enjeu est important dans un contexte où la majorité des pays en développementsont incapables de payer les médicaments dont leurs populations ont besoincontre les épidémies et pour les soins courants. Ainsi, le Burkina Faso reconnaîtque la biotechnologie moderne constitue une possibilité «�d'augmenter lescapacités de soins de santé et de protection sanitaire par les traitements avec desproduits pharmaceutiques et de vaccination qui en sont issus�» même si cela risqued’entraîner une «résistance du corps humain aux antibiotiques dérivés des OGM62». 60 Voy. les § relatifs aux objectifs et aux champs d’application des 12 CNB.61 Algérie, Projet de loi n° …….du ……correspondant au ……relative à la circulation des ressources biologiques, au contrôledes organismes génétiquement modifiés, et a la prise en charge des risques liés a l’usage des biotechnologies modernes. (Texteprovisoire)62 Burkina Faso, p. 11.

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Cette possibilité «�d'augmenter l'espérance de vie des populations par l'utilisationdes vaccins dérivés d'OGM63�» encourage ces pays à réfléchir au problème et àétablir une réglementation efficace.

Le Congo, quant à lui, estime que�: «�[e]n dépit des réformes structurellesentreprises depuis 1993, la situation sanitaire se caractérise par un fait notoire quiconsiste à ce que le Congo ne dispose pas d’une structure de production demédicaments. Ainsi, il demeure dépendant de l’étranger. En l’an 2002 par exemple,la facture annuelle d’importation de médicaments était estimée à plus de 28milliards de francs CFA. Les infrastructures et équipements sanitaires existants secomposent d’un secteur public et d’un secteur privé de soins constituésessentiellement d’hôpitaux, de centres de santé, de dispensaires et de laboratoiresdont un de santé publique et un autre d’hygiène de l’eau et des aliments tousdeux spécialisés dans l’analyse des prélèvements. En somme, la politique sanitairedu Congo est plutôt orientée vers l’amélioration de l’état de santé des populationsque vers la production des médicaments dont l’importation se fait dans l’esprit del’Article 5 du Protocole de Cartagena64�». Cette politique sanitaire explique lamanière dont le Congo à décider d’orienter sa «�politique sanitaire […] versl’amélioration de l’état de santé des populations [plutôt] que vers la production desmédicaments dont l’importation se fait dans l’esprit de l’Article 5 du Protocole deCartagena65�».

En tenant compte de leurs contextes différents, les pays concernés ont élaboré despolitiques également différentes, afin de gérer au mieux ces questions épineuses,tout en respectant les dispositions du PC. C’est la raison pour laquelle, les Etatsparties ont transposé cette disposition de diverses manières.

Certains pays ont appliqués l’Article 5 du PC tel quel, car cela semblait le plusapproprié au contexte national. Ainsi, le Sénégal prévoit que�:

«�Le champ d’application de la loi sur la biosécurité couvre l’utilisationen milieu confiné, la dissémination volontaire dans l’environnement,l’importation, l’exportation, le transit et la mise sur le marchéd’organismes génétiquement modifiés. Sont exclus de ce champd’application, les produits biotechnologiques à usage pharmaceutiqueet vétérinaire faisant l’objet d’une autre réglementation66.�» (Noussoulignons)

D’autres ont une approche mitigée, c’est-à-dire que l’Article 5 est respecté maisque l’Etat prévoit une exception pour les OGM à double fonction agricole ETpharmaceutique. Par exemple, Madagascar prévoit dans son «� Arrê téinterministériel portant réglementation de l’importation et de l’exportation, dutransit, de la commercialisation, de la manipulation et de l’utilisationd’Organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM) et/ou produits dérivés�» que�:

63 Ibid. p.12.64 Avant projet de cadre national de biosécurité du Congo, juillet 2004, p. 9.65 Ibid, p. 11. § II.4.66 Sénégal, p. 7, Loi sur la Biosécurité § 3-3- Champ d’application.

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«�Sont exclus du champ d’application du présent arrêté, les organismesgénétiquement modifiés et produits dérivés qui sont des produitspharmaceutiques destinés à l’homme et relevant des accordsinternationaux pertinents, à l’exception des OGM agricoles à doublefonction médicale67�». (Nous soulignons)

D’autres pays68 élargissent complètement leur champ d’application aux OGMutilisés pour les produits pharmaceutiques destinés à l’homme. Ce genre dedisposition respecte le PC dans la mesure où le produit pharmaceutique n’est pasréglementé par d’autre traités ou accords internationaux ou régionaux. Le Togo achoisi cette possibilité en prévoyant que:

«�[l]e cadre juridique de gestion de la biosécurité que le Togo s’engageà élaborer, vise à préserver la santé humaine, l’environnement et lestissus socio-économiques des risques liés à l’utilisation de labiotechnologie moderne. Il s’articule autour des composantesessentielles ci-après : (i) le champ d’application qui ne se limite pas auconcept réducteur d’organisme vivant modifié, mais couvre toutorganisme génétiquement modifié et produit dérivé, y compris ceuxutilisés dans la production pharmaceutique destinés à l’utilisationhumaine69�». (Nous soulignons)

Cette hétérogénéité de choix dans la façon de se conformer au PC traduit unegrande diversité de situations des domaines pharmaceutiques et sanitaires, mêmepour des pays très proches géographiquement parlant. Ainsi, les particularitésnationales ont été exprimées diversement et de manière adaptée dans chaque paysparticipants. En cela, les cadres nationaux de biosécurité qui ont résulté du projetPNUE/FEM expriment chacun des innovations en la matière.

III Procédure d’Accord Préalable donné en Connaissance deCause/Procédure à suivre pour les organismes vivants modifiésdestinés à être utilisé directement pour l'alimentation humaineou animale ou à être transformé (Articles 7-11, Annexes I et II)

Selon l’ouvrage «� La prévention des risques biotechnologiques et l’environnement�:Introduction au Protocole de Cartagena relatif à la Convention sur la Diversité

67 Madagascar, Art. 2, p. 36 ; de même à l’Annexe 5, Projet de Loi relative au Régime de la Biosécurité, Titre I, p.46.« Article premier :La présente loi régit les mouvements transfrontaliers, le transit, la commercialisation, la manipulation et l’utilisation detout organisme génétiquement modifié (OGM) et produits dérivés susceptibles d’avoir des effets défavorables sur lasanté humaine, animale et végétale, et sur la biodiversité et l’environnement.Article 2 :Sont exclus du champ d’application de la présente loi, les OGM et produits dérivés qui sont des produitspharmaceutiques destinés à l’homme et relevant des accords internationaux pertinents, à l’exception des OGMagricoles à double fonction médicale. »68 Comme pour la Guinée également, p.35, « Le champ d’application s’étend à tous les OGM et les produits dérivés, ycompris ceux utilisés dans la production pharmaceutique ou qui sont des produits pharmaceutiques destinés àl’utilisation humaine ».69 Togo, p.vii, § 2.2 Orientations pour le cadre juridique de gestion de la biosécurité.

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Biologique70�» publié par le PNUE/FEM, la procédure d’accord préalable enconnaissance de cause (APC) peut être définie comme�suit�:

«�[l]es règles et procédures les plus strictes concernant la prévention desrisques biotechnologiques s’appliquent exclusivement aux [OVM]destinés à être introduits intentionnellement dans l’environnement.Elles concernent notamment les semences, les poissons vivants etautres organismes destinés à se développer et possédant les qualitésnécessaires pour transmettre leurs gènes modifiés aux générationssuivantes. L’exportateur doit d’abord communiquer par écrit au paysimportateur des informations détaillées, y compris une description del’organisme, avant l’envoi. L’autorité nationale compétente du paysimportateur accuse réception de ces informations dans un délai de 90jours et autorise ensuite explicitement l’envoi dans un délai de 270jours ou motive son refus – bien que l’absence de réponse ne doivepas être interprétée comme impliquant un consentement. La Procédured’accord préalable en connaissance de cause garantit ainsi audestinataire la possibilité d’évaluer les effets défavorables potentielsd’un [OVM] avant d’accepter son importation. La procédure d’APC nes’applique qu’au premier mouvement transfrontière intentionnel d’unOGM destiné à être introduit dans l’environnement. Elle ne s’appliquepas aux [OVM] en transit dans un pays, aux [OVM] destinés à êtreutilisés en milieu confiné (dans un laboratoire scientifique, parexemple) ou aux [OVM] destinés à être utilisés directement pourl’alimentation humaine et animale, ou à être transformés (tels que maïsou tomates). Toutefois, un pays peut, conformément à son cadreréglementaire national et dans la mesure où cela est compatible avecl’objectif du Protocole, décider de soumettre de tels [OVM] à uneévaluation des risques ou à d’autres exigences.�»

La procédure à suivre pour les organismes vivants modifiés destinés à être utilisédirectement pour l'alimentation humaine ou animale ou à être transformé est doncdifférente dans la mesure où elle concerne uniquement les OVM destiné aumarché de l’alimentation humaine ou animale (AHA). C’est une procédure plussimple, puisqu’elle n’impose pas aux parties de passer par la longue procédure dela notification. Néanmoins, les parties peuvent rendre obligatoire un examen desrisques avant toute autorisation d’importation sur le territoire d’OVM destinés àl’AHA. Cette procédure doit tout de même être conforme à l’objectif du Protocole,ce qui exclut tout abus. Cette procédure a donc été établie pour simplifierl’échange d’OVM destiné à l’alimentation humaine ou animale et par conséquentd’en faciliter le commerce.

Que ce soit par conviction politique ou non, certains Etats parties ont choisi de nepas appliquer cette procédure distincte pour les OVM destinés à l’AHA. Ainsi, laCôte d’Ivoire définit l’APC et institue cette procédure dans son CNB comme

70 La prévention des risques biotechnologiques et l’environnement : Introduction au Protocole de Cartagena relatif à laConvention sur la Diversité Biologique, p.8, disponible sur : http://www.biodiv.org/doc/press/presskits/bs/cpbs-unep-cbd-fr.pdf (Visité le 01/06/05)

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l’unique procédure permettant l’importation, l’exportation, l’utilisation d’OGM. Elleprévoit en effet que�:

«�[t]oute utilisation d’OGM en Côte d’Ivoire, quelles qu’en soient lesraisons, doivent faire l’objet d’une autorisation préalable donnée enconnaissance de cause par le gouvernement après avis de la CNBIOS.Aucun OGM n’est par conséquent exempt de la procédure d’APCC. Lapremière étape du processus d’autorisation est la notification à laCNBIOS par le requérrant, de son intention d’utiliser des OGM sur leterritoire Ivoirien. Le contenu de la notification doit être rédigé enFrançais et être dans tous les cas conforme, au minimum, auxdispositions du Protocole de Cartagena. La CNBIOS peut exiger desinformations complémentaires surtout en ce qui concerne les OGM noncouverts par le Protocole de Cartagena. La Partie Exportatrice ou l’Etatqui cautionne l’exportateur d’OGM vers la Côte d’Ivoire doit veiller à ceque la responsabilité juridique de l’exportateur soit engagée quant àl’exactitude des informations fournies par ce dernier dans la notification.La CNBIOS accuse réception de la notification conformément auxdispositions de l’article 9 du Protocole de Cartagena71.�» (Noussoulignons)

Madagascar adopte la même attitude en disposant dans son projet de loi que�:

«�Toute importation/exportation d’OGM ou produits dérivés est soumiseà la formalité d’accord préalable en connaissance de cause72�».

A l’opposé, le Mali a décidé de permettre l’application de la procédure à suivrepour les organismes vivants modifiés destinés à être utilisé directement pourl'alimentation humaine ou animale ou à être transformé afin de faciliter l’échangede produit alimentaire issus ou contenant des OGM. Il prévoit que�:

«�[t]oute personne souhaitant importer un organisme génétiquementmodifié ou un produit d'organisme génétiquement modifié directementdestiné à l'alimentation humaine ou animale ou à la transformation,devra soumettre à l'Autorité Nationale Compétente une demande parécrit comprenant une référence à l'information sur le matériau qui setrouve au Centre d'échanges73�».

Cela permet donc à un importateur par exemple de passer par une procédure plussimple avant de pouvoir importer son produit, dès lors que le matériau est déjàréférencé au Centre d’échange et qu’il atteint un certain degré de fiabilité. Cetteattitude peut s’expliquer entre autre par un besoin très élevé pour un paysd’importer des produits alimentaires pour subvenir aux besoins de sa population.

71 Côte d’Ivoire, p. 27.72 Madagascar, Annexe 3, p. 40, De l’accord préalable en connaissance de cause, Article 9.73 Mali, p. 24.

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Les Etats concernés par le projet PNUE/FEM ont donc choisi d’appliquer soit laprocédure d’APC uniquement, soit d’ajouter la procédure pour les AHA enfonction de leurs sensibilités et de leurs besoins nationaux.

IV Procédure simplifiée (Article 13)

Suivant l’Article 13 du PC, la procédure simplifiée permet à un Etat de déterminer�:- les cas où un mouvement transfrontière intentionnel dont il est la

destination peut avoir lieu au moment même où le mouvement luiest notifié,

- de même que les importations d'organismes vivants modifiésexemptés de la procédure d'accord préalable en connaissance decause.

Cette procédure facilite et accélère donc les échanges d’OGM ou de produitsd’OGM connus, fréquents et relativement sûrs. Elle traduit, comme pour laprocédure à suivre pour les organismes vivants modifiés destinés à être utilisédirectement pour l'alimentation humaine ou animale ou à être transformé, unecertaine confiance dans les OGM et les contrôles effectués lors de leursimportations/exportations. Encore une fois, les particularités nationales et lecontexte de chaque pays va favoriser ou non son intégration dans les CNB. Ainsi,un pays comme l’Algérie ne prévoit pas l’application de cette procéduresimplifiée74, alors que son voisin le Mali a mis en place un système permettant ledéveloppement des échanges de produits à base de ou susceptibles de contenirdes OGM. Le Mali prévoit en effet que,�dans le cadre de la procédure simplifiée et«� [p]our obtenir une autorisation pour l’importation, l’utilisation confinée, ladissémination ou la mise sur le marché d’un organisme génétiquement modifié, lenotifiant devra effectuer une étude pour contrôler et évaluer les risques demanière continue pendant une période proportionnée au cycle vital de l'espèce,tel que déterminé par l'Autorité Nationale Compétente. Aucune autorisation nepourra être accordée si la preuve n’est pas établie que l’organisme génétiquementmodifié ou le produit dérivé d'organisme génétiquement modifié est sans risquesignificatif pour la santé humaine, la diversité biologique ou l’environnement. Encas d’éventualité de dommages graves ou irréversibles, l’application du principe deprécaution doit être la règle.�» 75

Le Togo a également choisi d’appliquer cette procédure comme une exception à laprocédure APC. Son CNB prévoit en effet que�:

«[l]a procédure simplifiée comportera deux variantes qui consisteront àindiquer :- sous quelle condition, certains mouvements transfrontières d’OGMdestination du Togo pourront avoir lieu sur la base d’une simplenotification à l’ANC et au même moment que la notification;- les types OGM exemptés de la procédure d’accord préalable enconnaissance de cause.

74 Cette information provient du CNB provisoire, elle peut donc être modifiée dans la version finale du CNB algérien.75 Mali, p. 26, § 3.3.4- Procédure simplifiée.

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Dans le premier cas la notification devra comporter au moins, lesinformations et renseignements exigés par l’annexe 1 du Protocole,comme dans le cas d’une notification faite en application de laprocédure d’accord préalable en connaissance de cause76�».

Par conséquent, on constate que peu d’Etats prévoient cette procédure77. Il s’agitdonc bien d’une innovation au niveau de certains pays africains francophones quiont choisi de l’appliquer dans leur CNB.

V Evaluation et gestion des risques (Articles 15 et 16, Annexe III)

L’évaluation et la gestion des risques constituent l’une des parties les plusimportante du Protocole. En effet, dès l’article premier énonçant l’objectif duprotocole, l’accent est mis sur le respect du principe de précaution consacré par leprincipe 15 de la Déclaration de Rio sur l’environnement et le développement78. Ils’agit donc bien de limiter au maximum et de gérer au mieux les risques liés auxmouvements transfrontières d’OVM et par extension d’OGM. Tous les Etats partiesau Protocole ont l’obligation de veiller à ce que soir effectuée une évaluation desrisques selon «�des méthodes scientifiquement éprouvées�» pour toute importationd’OVM lors d’un processus de prise de décision. Elles ont également l’obligationde mettre en place et d’appliquer des mesures et des stratégies visant à maîtriserles risques associés à l'utilisation, à la manipulation et aux mouvementstransfrontières d'organismes vivants modifiés.

Une fois encore, les Etats ont une certaine liberté dans les moyens de satisfaire àces obligations. Certes, les article 15 et 16, et surtout les dispositions de l’AnnexeIII du Protocole doivent être respectés. Néanmoins, les dispositifs de gestions desrisques peuvent varier d’un pays à l’autre, selon les caractéristiques nationalesmatérielles, structurelles, scientifiques, économiques, alimentaires etc. En effet,tous les pays ne sont pas menacés par les mêmes risques. C’est pourquoil’établissement d’un système de gestion des risques varie d’un pays à l’autre.

Ceci est la raison pour laquelle il est très important pour un pays procéder à uneétude rigoureuse déterminant quels sont les risques qu’il doit gérer pour protégerson environnement, sa population et son territoire lors de mouvementstransfrontières d’OGM. Le Niger a, par exemple, déterminé différents types derisques encourus. Il a élaboré une classification des risques afin de faciliter leurévaluation.Il s’agit des risques sanitaires, des risques de la construction génétique, des risquesenvironnementaux, des risques toxiques, allergiques, et alimentaires pour l’hommeet l’animal. Cette méthode traduit une volonté de tenir compte de tous leséléments pouvant intervenir dans la gestion des risques. La politique du Nigerprévoit en effet que�:

76 Togo, p. 63, 6.2.2 La procédure simplifiée.77 Mali, p. 22; Togo p. 63; Comores, p. 26.78 Principe 15 de la Déclaration de Rio sur l’environnement et le développement : « Pour protéger l'environnement, desmesures de précaution doivent être largement appliquées par les États selon leurs capacités. En cas de risque dedommages graves ou irréversibles, l'absence de certitude scientifique absolue ne doit pas servir de prétexte pourremettre à plus tard l'adoption de mesures effectives visant à prévenir la dégradation de l'environnement ».

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«�[l]’objectif de la gestion des risques est scientifiquement satisfaisant,commercialement viable quand il intègre des mesures visant à réduireou prévenir les risques, tout en tenant compte des aspects sociaux,éthiques, politiques et juridiques. La gestion des risques inclut lanécessité de prendre en compte l’évaluation des risques, sans perdre devue la nature et l’ampleur de l’ensemble des risques identifiés, tout endéfinissant des procédures afin de réduire les risque à leur strictminimum. Il est nécessaire de faire en sorte que les décisions de gestiondes risques tiennent compte de la diversité des points de vue parmiceux qui sont concernés par l’introduction dans l’environnementd’organismes vivants modifiés, de façon à garantir qu’une diversitéd’évaluations techniques, de valeurs publiques, de connaissances etd’opinions soit prise en compte. La gestion des risques repose sur uneanalyse méticuleuse de l’importance des preuves scientifiques quicorroborent les conclusions relatives à des risques potentiels sur la santéhumaine et l’environnement. La plupart des procédures de gestion desrisques qui ont été utilisées n’ont pas eu pour objet d’empêcher lesrisques, mais plutôt de les réduire au minimum. La prévention estdifficile à réaliser, étant donné que les risques ne peuvent jamais êtrenuls.79�».

Un autre exemple élaboré de politique d’évaluation et de gestion des risques estcelui constitué par le cadre national de biosécurité du Sénégal. Celui-ci détermineles principaux points–clés pour une gestion optimale des risquesbiotechnologiques à prendre en considération. Il s’agit des caractéristiquesbiologiques de l’organisme donneur, de l’organisme receveur, du type de vecteurutilisé de l’insert ou du gène introduit, ainsi que le type d’application souhaitéec’est-à-dire qu’il peut s’agir d’une recherche adaptative en laboratoire en milieuconfiné ou d’une dissémination volontaire dans l’environnement ou encore d’unephase de commercialisation d’un produit biotechnologique déjà soumis auxcontrôles bio sécuritaires.Le Sénégal prévoit en effet que�:

«�[à] chaque niveau d’utilisation intervient le facteur échelle d’utilisationet méthodes de gestion des déchets. Dans le premier cas où larecherche s’effectue en milieu confiné, le type de laboratoire disposantde garanties élevées en matière de sécurité sanitaire répond le mieux auproblème ci-dessus évoqué. Lorsqu’il s’agit de mener des essais en serreou en milieu naturel, le dispositif de sécurité (serres de confinement,champs clôturés et respectant les distances réglementaires) doit êtrerespecté afin d’assurer une garantie de fiabilité des essaisL’environnement récepteur potentiel est aussi un élément clé quiintervient dans l’évaluation et la gestion du risque biotechnologique.Chaque organisme réagit de manière spécifique avec l’environnementoù il se trouve. Cette disposition est très importante lorsqu’on utilise desmicro-organismes recombinés qui lorsqu’ils sont lâchés dans le soldeviennent difficiles voire impossibles à suivre. Compte tenu de cesdifférentes considérations, il est évident qu’il est nécessaire d’étudier au

79 Niger, p. 30-31, § 3.3.3 La gestion des risques.

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cas par cas chaque nouvelle introduction. Cependant, la persistance d’unorganisme dans un environnement donné, sa probabilité derecombinaison avec les espèces apparentées peuvent être connues sil’on est familier avec l’organisme ce qui ne signifie pas que le risque estnul mais signifie qu’on maîtrise les paramètres de sa gestion.Les évaluations des risques doivent être basées sur :- des connaissances scientifiques régulièrement mises à jour- le renforcement des capacités institutionnelles (équipement scientifiquede haut niveau)- le renforcement des ressources humaines (formation adéquate enbiosécurité)- la mise en place d’un système d’échanges de données au planinternational et régional.- la sensibilisation l’information et l’éducation des acteurs et desdécideurs sur la prévention des risques liés à l’utilisation ou au transfertd’OGM80.�»

Madagascar a également développé une politique très détaillée en matièred’évaluation et de gestion des risques liés à l’usage des biotechnologies modernes.Deux chapitres et 13 articles qui seront complétés par des décrets réglementairesd’application traitent de cette obligation. L’accent est notamment porté sur lerespect du principe de précaution, puisque Madagascar assure des mesures desécurité très stricte lors de toute utilisation, manipulation ou transports d’OGM. Ils’agit entre autre de mesures de mise en quarantaine, de destruction des produitsdangereux, de décontamination des déchets contaminés par OGM etc81.

L’étude de ces régimes d’évaluation et de gestion des risques démontre clairementqu’il est important de se baser sur les particularités nationales pour appliquer aumieux l’approche de précaution selon les obligations du PC et de la CDB et enfonction également des besoins de chacun. Cela met encore une fois en lumièrel’existence de ces particularités nationales et des innovations provisionnelles en lamatière.

VI Mouvement transfrontières non intentionnels et mesuresd’urgence (Article 17)

Cet article impose principalement aux Etats membres de prévenir le Centred’échange pour la prévention des risques biotechnologiques, aux Etats risquantd’être touchés et aux organisations internationales pertinentes, en cas d’incidentdont ils ont connaissance qui relève de leurs compétences et qui a pour résultatune libération entraînant ou pouvant entraîner un mouvement transfrontière nonintentionnel d'un organisme vivant modifié susceptible d'avoir des effetsdéfavorables importants sur la conservation et l'utilisation durable de la diversitébiologique, en tenant compte également des risques pour la santé humaine dansces Etats. La notification est donnée dès que la Partie concernée prend

80 Sénégal, p. 11-12.81 Madagascar, Annexe 5, p.52-53, Projet de Loi relative au Régime de la Biosécurité, Chapitre IV.

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connaissance de cette situation. La notification doit contenir les différentesinformations pertinentes permettant une réponse prompte et adaptée au danger.Les Etats ont également la possibilité de structurer des mesures d’urgence afin depalier le plus rapidement possible à tout incident.

Un exemple de mesures d’urgence peut être pris dans le cadre national debiosécurité du Bénin, qui établit cinq méthodes�:

«�1.. Méthodes et procédures mises en œuvre pour garder le contrôle surles OGM ou produits de tels organismes en cas de disséminationimprévue ;2.. Méthodes de décontamination des zones infectées, par exempleéradication des OGM ou produits de tels organismes;3.. Moyens de destructions et mesures d'hygiène envisagés pour lesinstallations, les animaux, les sols, etc. qui ont été exposés durant ouaprès dissémination ;4.. Méthodes mises en oeuvre pour isoler la zone concernée par ladissémination ;5.. Plans prévus pour protéger la santé humaine et l'environnement encas d'effet indésirable82�».

L’Union des Comores prévoit également la mise en place de mesures d’urgence encas de mouvement transfrontière involontaire. Elle dispose dans son CNB que�:

«�[e]n cas de mouvement transfrontière involontaire, à partir du territoirenational, d’OGM ou partie d’OGM, qui pourraient avoir des incidencessur l’environnement ou la santé humaine, l’Union prend, avec diligence,des mesures appropriées pour informer tous les pays affectés ou quipourraient l’être, ainsi que le Centre d’échange pour la prévention desrisques biotechnologiques.La notification aux pays affectés ou qui pourraient l’être comportera aumoins les informations spécifiées par le Protocole, ainsi que d’autresinformations qui pourront être précisées par la loi.La loi détermine les modalités et les mesures d’urgence à prendre danspareille situation, les responsables politiques et techniques ainsi que lesinstitutions qui doivent être impliqués dans sa gestion83�».

Le contrôle des mouvements transfrontières involontaires et la mise en placede mesures d’urgence permettent également aux Etats d’exprimer leursparticularités nationales à travers la transposition de ces obligations dans leurCNB. Certes, la coopération régionale et internationale est primordiale pour lebon fonctionnement d’un régime d’urgence biotechnologique, mais celan’empêche pas la valorisation de certaines spécificités nationales.

82 Bénin, p. 22, §4..2 - Plan de réponse d'urgence.83 Comores, p. 33, §II.2.17 Dissémination involontaire et mesures d’urgence.

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VII Autorité National Compétente (Article 19)

Le rôle central que joue l’autorité nationale compétente dans la création et la miseen œuvre du cadre national de biosécurité des pays africains est démontré parl’importance que porte le Protocole à son établissement. En effet, il est primordialde créer une structure institutionnelle effective et complète pour gérer au mieux leplus grand nombre de cas de figure en rapport avec les mouvementstransfrontières d’OVM. L’autorité nationale compétente est le pylône central decette structure institutionnelle. Elle est assistée d’autres institutions, tels desComités publics de biosécurité, des Commissions de contrôle et de suivi, descellules de biosécurité etc. Nous verrons dans ce paragraphe comment se sontmanifestées caractéristiques nationales des pays africains francophones lors de latransposition de l’Article 19 du Protocole de Carthagène dans leur CNB.

L’Article 19 §1 dispose que «�[c]haque Partie désigne un correspondant nationalchargé d'assurer en son nom la liaison avec le Secrétariat. Chaque Partie désigneégalement une ou plusieurs autorités nationales compétentes chargées des'acquitter des fonctions administratives qu'appelle le Protocole et autorisées à agiren son nom dans l'exécution de ces fonctions. Une Partie peut confier à uneentité unique les fonctions de correspondant national et d'autorité nationalecompétente.�»Ainsi, certains Etats ont décidé d’instituer leur Ministère de l’environnement enAutorité Nationale Compétente. C’est le cas du Bénin par exemple, dont le CNBprévoit que�:

«�La biosécurité est un défi nouveau au Bénin et ailleurs dans le monde.Il n’existe pas au Bénin une réglementation spécifique en matière deGestion des OGM. Dans le cadre du présent projet, le gouvernement duBénin a adopté le décret n°2004-293 du 20 mai 2004 portant créationattributions et fonctionnement du Comité National de Biosécurité(CNBS) auquel a été confié un rôle déterminant dans la gestion desOGM..Le Ministre de l’environnement, autorité compétente, devra proposer uncorrespondant national chargé d’assurer au nom de l’autoritécompétente la liaison avec le Secrétariat de la CDB. L’autoritécompétente nationale sera chargée du suivi, de la surveillance et ducontrôle de l’application de la loi relative à la Sécurité en BiotechnologieModerne au Bénin84.�»

Ce choix a également été fait par la Guinée85, le Niger 86 ainsi que le Togo, quipropose une structure très détaillée des compétences, fonctions et attributions de

84 Bénin, p. 15.85 Guinée p. 40, §3.2 - SUIVI ET CONTROLE : Autorité nationale sur la biosécurité, « La mise en œuvre du CadreNational de Biosécurité sera coordonnée par une structure qui fera office d’Autorité Nationale sur la Biosécurité. Cettefonction sera assurée par le Ministère de l’Environnement. Elle aura pour mission de :- définir les politiques et procédures au niveau national ;- veiller à la mise en œuvre de la réglementation relative aux biotechnologies dans le pays ;- d’agir au nom des parties à la mise en œuvre du Protocole ;- de recevoir les notifications et de les traiter ;

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l’ANC. Par ailleurs, au Togo, l’ANC est assistée par des Cellules de biosécurité«�dans les départements ministériels et institutions directement concernés parl’utilisation de la biotechnologie moderne et les missions de biosécurité. En outre,elle assurera les fonctions de secrétariat technique et administratif du ComitéNational de la Biosécurité et du Comité Scientifique et Technique de Biosécurité.[…] Les Cellules de biosécurité représentent au sein des ministères et autresinstitutions identifiées les structures de gestion de la biosécurité. Elles sontincarnées par une direction technique, une division ou un service selon le cas.Elles sont les points de relais de l’Autorité Nationale Compétente, structure decoordination au niveau national de la gestion de la biosécurité. Elles assistent cettecoordination nationale dans ses missions de coordination et de suivi desévaluations et de gestion des risques biotechnologiques dans leurs domainesd’intervention respectifs. Elles ne s’identifient pas aux cellules de l’environnementexistantes. Elles peuvent dans certains cas être une sous structure de celles-ci87.�»

D’autres pays ont choisi de former une structure plus indépendante du Ministèrede l’environnement, en créant une institution regroupant l’ensemble des Ministèreconcernés par la biosécurité. C’est notamment le cas de la Côte d’Ivoire, quiprévoit que�:

«�La Commission Nationale de Bio Sécurité (CNBIOS) constitue l’autoriténationale compétente en Côte d’Ivoire. Elle est placée sous la tutelle duMinistère en charge de l’environnement. Sa compétence couvre toutesles demandes relatives à toutes les utilisations de tous les OGM, qu’ellesproviennent de l’extérieur ou de l’intérieur de la Côte d’Ivoire. ElleInstruit les demandes d’autorisation sur lesquelles elle donne un avistechnique. La CNBIOS est constituée de�:• Un Comité Interministériel de Suivi (CIS) comprenant desreprésentants des services compétents des ministères directementimpliqués dans l’utilisation ou la gestion des OGM. Le Président de ceComité est l’un de ces représentants élu par ses pairs. Il est le Présidentde la CNBIOS ;• Un Secrétariat Permanent (SP) dont la mission est de gérer auquotidien les tâches administratives nécessaires au fonctionnement de laCNBIOS. Il est assuré par le Ministère en charge de l’Environnement ;• Des Commissions Scientifiques Spécialisées (CSS). Elles regroupentdes spécialistes et experts dans divers domaines d’intérêt pour labiosécurité. Ainsi, devront en faire partie des spécialistes en BiologieMoléculaire, Génétique, Microbiologie, Toxicologie, Environnement,Immunologie, droit, économie, sociologie, etc88.�»

- d’assurer la liaison entre la Guinée et les différents partenaires (le Secrétariat du Protocole, les Mécanismes Sous-Régionaux et Régionaux). »86 Niger, p. 57-58, « L’analyse du cadre actuel de gestion de l’environnement, montre que le ministère chargé del’environnement (MHE/ LCD) est la principale institution gouvernementale chargée de définir et d’appliquer lespolitiques et stratégies nationales en matière d’environnement. A ce titre, il est habilité et ce conformément aux vœuxde l’écrasante majorité des participants au Forum du Cadre National de Biosécurité tenu à Niamey le 15 décembre 2004à jouer le rôle d’Autorité Nationale Compétente. Le CNEDD veillera à l’application correcte des missions de l’ANC. »87 Togo, p. 78, §7.2.4 Autorité Nationale Compétente, §7.2.5 Cellules de biosécurité.88 Côte d’Ivoire, p. 24-25.

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Cette structure d’ANC, plus indépendante du gouvernement, est par conséquentdirigée par un groupe de représentants provenant d’horizons divers. Le monopoleexercé par un Ministère est donc moins évident, même si, pour la Côte d’Ivoirepar exemple, l’ANC reste sous la tutelle du Ministère de l’environnement. L’Algériea aussi examiné cette possibilité de créer une institution plus indépendante. Selonson projet de CNB�:

«�[d]eux propositions ont été avancées lors de la tenue des différentsateliers�:- Désignation d’une Direction Centrale créée et placée au niveaud’un des ministères suivants�: Ministère du Commerce, Ministère del’Aménagement du Territoire et de l’Environnement, Ministère del’Agriculture et du Développement Rural, Ministère de la Santé, Ministèrede l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique. Cetteautorité doit être accompagnée de tous les moyens infrastructurel etfinancier pour pouvoir mener à bien ses missions.- Création d’une Agence de Biosécurité sous la direction d’un desministères cités ci-dessus ou pour spécifier la transversalité du domaine,sous la direction de la Chefferie du Gouvernement.En tout état de cause, quel que soit le choix de l’autorité compétente,celui de regrouper les ministères concernés par le processus et de baserl’autorité au niveau de la Chefferie du Gouvernement ou, celui dedéfinir plusieurs autorités en fonction du type d’organismesgénétiquement modifiés, il est urgent de définir les procéduresadministratives de prise en charge des notifications89.�»

Cette proposition d’Agence de Biosécurité a d’ailleurs retenu la plupart des voixlors de l’Atelier National de Biosécurité organisé en avril 2005. Il est donc fortprobable que cette solution sera retenue dans le CNB final de l’Algérie. Cettevolonté de créer une ANC rattachée ou non à un Ministère précis participe ànouveau à l’expression des sensibilités nationales particulières à chaque pays.

VIII Informations confidentielles (Article 21)

L’enjeu lié à la confidentialité des informations divulguées dans la notification dedemande de mouvement transfrontière d’OVM est très simple à comprendre. Unindustriel voulant exporter un produit modifié génétiquement afin de lecommercialiser et d’en tirer profit ne s’y risquera jamais en sachant que lesinformations précisées dans les demandes d’autorisation d’exportation ne serontpas protégées et que tout un chacun aura accès à ces informations. En effet, unefois les secrets de fabrication divulgués, cet industriel ne pourra plus tirer profit dela vente de son produit. Par conséquent, afin de dynamiser le commerce et derassurer les différents intervenants en protégeant les informations, il est importantpour les pays membre du Protocole de respecter cette obligation de confidentialitédes informations fournies au moment de la notification.

Bien sur, le droit d’accéder aux nouvelles technologies et aux informations les plusrécentes constitue également un argument important en faveur de la divulgation

89 Algérie, p. 14-15.

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des informations relatives aux OVM. C’est la raison pour laquelle certainesinformations essentielles ne peuvent jamais être considérées commeconfidentielles. Il s’agit de�:

a) Le nom et l'adresse de l'auteur de la notification;b) Une description générale de l'organisme ou des organismes vivants

modifiés;c) Un résumé de l'évaluation des risques d'impact sur la conservation et

l'utilisation durable de la diversité biologique, tenant compte égalementdes risques pour la santé humaine;

d) Les méthodes et plans d'intervention d'urgence90.

Les pays africains francophones ont réagit différemment les uns par rapport auxautres relativement à cette obligation. L’Union des Comores a par exemple insistésur la protection de la propriété intellectuelle ou des information commercialeslors de la procédure de notification. Néanmoins, elle réclame le droit de demanderdes justificatifs sur la nature confidentielle de telle ou telle information. Son cadrenational de biosécurité dispose en effet que�:

«�[l]a loi comorienne sur le biosécurité comportera des dispositions envue de protéger la propriété intellectuelle ou les informationscommerciales dont la divulgation pourrait porter préjudice à leurspropriétaires. Cependant, l’autorité nationale compétente pourrademander des justificatifs sur le caractère confidentiel de certainesinformations. L’autorité nationale compétente pourra contester lecaractère confidentiel de certaines informations et en informer l’auteurde la notification.Dans le cas où les OGM ou produits d’OGM sont destinés à êtrevolontairement disséminés dans le milieu naturel, les informationsrelatives à l’objectif de la dissémination, le lieu où cette disséminationest prévue d’avoir lieu et les usages prévues ne peuvent être considéréscomme confidentiels au regard de la loi comorienne91�».

Le Mali, quant à lui, prévoit que «�l’ANC veillera à consulter les auteurs desnotifications et à réviser les décisions en cas de désaccord sur la confidentialité desinformations92�».

La manière dont les Etats ont géré cette obligation traduit différentes manièresd’assurer la confidentialité des informations. Encore une fois, les pays africainsfrancophones ont exprimé leur individualité à travers la transposition de cetteobligation en droit national. En effet, cette obligation permet aux Etats de jonglerentre développement du commerce national grâce à la sécurisation du marché etcontrôle et gestion optimale des demandes de notifications de mouvementstransfrontières d’OVM en fonction de leurs impératifs.

90 PC, Art. 21 §6.91 Comores, p. 30, §II.2.11 Informations confidentielles.92 Mali, p. 30-31.

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IX Sensibilisation, éducation et participation du public (Article23)

L’article 23 du PC insiste sur la participation et sur l’action d’encourager lasensibilisation et l’éducation des populations en matière de biotechnologie afin deleur permettre de participer efficacement à la prise de décisions sur le transfert, lamanipulation et l’utilisation sans danger d’organismes vivants modifiés, au niveaunational.

L’article 23 se comprend mieux à la lumière du principe 10 de la Déclaration deRio, qui indique que :

“La meilleure façon de traiter les questions d'environnement estd'assurer la participation de tous les citoyens concernés, au niveau quiconvient. Au niveau national, chaque individu doit avoir dûment accèsaux informations relatives à l'environnement que détiennent les autoritéspubliques, y compris aux informations relatives aux substances etactivités dangereuses dans leurs collectivités, et avoir la possibilité departiciper aux processus de prise de décision. Les États doivent faciliteret encourager la sensibilisation et la participation du public en mettantles informations à la disposition de celui-ci. Un accès effectif à desactions judiciaires et administratives, notamment des réparations et desrecours, doit être assuré.�»

Le droit de participer au processus décisionnel, et les responsabilités qui y sontafférentes, font partie intégrante de nombreuses conventions et accordsinternationaux, notamment la Déclaration universelle des droits de l’Homme, ainsique de nombreux accords internationaux sur l’environnement.

Selon le document «� Trousse à outils –phase 2�: Consultation et Analyse �» fournitpar le PNUE/FEM pour projet de développement des structures nationales debiosécurité�:

«�Le degré de participation indique comment une société fonctionne, etpeut prendre plusieurs formes, selon le contexte culturel et politique dela société en question (figure 2). Le degré et le type de participationdépend des systèmes politiques et culturels d’un pays donné, du niveaude gouvernance (locale ou nationale), du type de décisions à prendre, etde l’authenticité de l’engagement à respecter et à apprécier lescontributions de toutes les parties prenantes. Les processus departicipation ont également besoin de temps. La participation, de par sanature, est un phénomène politique puisqu’elle dépend du degré decontrôle que les groupes et les individus ont sur des questions quiaffectent leur vie93�».

Toujours selon ce document, il existerait cinq formes de participation, qui sont�: laresponsabilisation, la consultation, la participation interactive, la participation 93 PNUE/FEM,document intitulé « Trousse à outils –phase 2 : Consultation et Analyse, p. 5, disponible sur :http://www.unep.ch/biosafety/devdocuments.htm (Visité le 01/06/05).

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fonctionnelle, la participation passive94. Les pays africains francophones ontchacun mis en place des régimes de participation du public très différents les unsdes autres. La nécessité d’adapter l’obligation de sensibilisation et de participationdu public aux spécificités socio-culturelles locales constitue la raison principale deces variations.

La stratégie du Burkina Faso prévoit par exemple que�:

«�Le mécanisme d'information, de sensibilisation et de participation dupublic vise à permettre à ce public de prendre en considération lesquestions liées à la biosécurité dans les actions entreprises pour laprotection de l'environnement productif, l'augmentation des rendementsagricoles, l'autosuffisance en aliments de qualité, et la protection de lasanté publique. Cette approche permet à la population d'acquérir lescompétences en matière de biosécurité pour une prise de décision defaçon responsable.Les méthodes utilisées pour l'application de cette approche portent sur:• Les ateliers, séminaires et conférences d'information et de formation• L'audiovisuel par le biais des médias publics et privés (radios,télévisions, presse écrite) pour traiter des questions en matière de labiotechnologie et la biosécurité à travers la diffusion de l'information surles enjeux qui y sont attachés, des débats sur des questions précises, etdes écrits sur des opinions personnelles.Les ateliers, séminaires, conférences et l'audiovisuel sont destinés auxdifférentes catégories d’acteurs et à l'ensemble de la population. Il s'agitspécifiquement de:- les structures étatiques, toutes confondues,- les chercheurs du secteur public ou privé,- les juristes privés, notamment les avocats,- les producteurs et leurs organisations,- les consommateurs et leurs organisations,- les élus du peuple, notamment les députés et des responsablescommunaux et municipaux,

94 Selon le document du PNUE/FEM « Trousse à outils –phase 2 : Consultation et Analyse, » il existe cinq modes departicipation :« Responsabilisation : Des formations et l’accès aux ressources aident les individus à acquérir les compétences et lesmoyens de participer afin qu’ils puissent prendre des décisions eux-mêmes et comprendre les mécanismes décisionnels,actuels ou nouveaux, du gouvernement.Consultation : Cette forme de participation est la plus courante et se pratique partout dans le monde à cause de son bonrapport qualité prix et de son efficacité. Les individus sont encouragés à donner leurs opinions sur des questions ou desprojets particuliers. Cela peut être une forme de participation efficace si les résultats des consultations aident à formulerdes décisions ou des projets, ou si les décisions sont modifiées selon les résultats des consultations.Interactive : Les individus prennent part à l’analyse commune des questions et défis que leur pays confronte, et àl’identification de solutions. Cette forme de participation est à la fois un droit et une responsabilité. Elle garantit defaçon systématique la prise de décision en connaissance de cause lors de la planification et de l’application despolitiques, ainsi que la création de consensus sur les actions à prendre. Comme les parties prenantes sont impliquéesdans l’analyse et la planification, cela encourage l’appropriation, l’engagement et l’utilisation efficace des ressources.Fonctionnelle : Le gouvernement informe le public de ses projets et lui demande de participer à leur mise en œuvre etde les soutenir. Le gouvernement reconnaît la nécessité d’obtenir le soutien et la contribution de tous les secteurs de lasociété afin de réaliser ses objectifs, mais il prend les décisions finales au nom du public.Passive : Cette forme de participation se produit quand un gouvernement promeut la participation en incluant des‘représentants du public’ au sein des organes décisionnels. »

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- les organisations paysannes,- les Organisations Non-Gouvernementales,- les opérateurs économiques,- les confessions religieuses,- les promoteurs des règles coutumières.• L'outil des nouvelles technologies de l'information, notamment lesMécanismes des Centres d'Echange d'information du Burkina Faso et duProtocole de Cartagena sur la prévention des risques biotechnologiques,pour la diffusion de l'information et des instruments du pays relatifs à laprévention des risques biotechnologiques95.�»

Cette stratégie pourrait rentrer dans le cadre de la définition de la participation«�responsabilisation�» déterminée par le PNUE/FEM.

En revanche, le régime de participation du public au Mali co_nciderait mieux avecla définition de la «�consultation�». En effet, le Mali insiste sur la sensibilisation etl’éducation du public, notamment grâce à «�l’utilisation des techniquestraditionnelles de communication (Sketch, Théâtre, Crieurs publics, Griots)96�» pourtoucher le plus grand nombre. Mais il prévoit aussi que�:

«�[l]Le public pourra donner son avis par écrit dans un délai qui seraspécifié par l’Autorité Nationale Compétente. Toute personne qui récusel’avis de l’Autorité Nationale Compétente peut solliciter une contreexpertise en prenant en charge les frais y afférents.L’Autorité Nationale Compétente peut décider d’organiser uneconsultation publique concernant un projet d’importation, d’utilisationconfinée, de dissémination ou de mise sur le marché d’un organismegénétiquement modifié ou d'un produit dérivé d'organismegénétiquement modifié. La consultation devra alors être annoncée dansdes médias nationaux et avoir lieu au moins 15 jours avant que ladécision soit prise.L’Autorité Nationale Compétente doit, lors de l’examen ou du réexamende sa décision, tenir compte des opinions et des préoccupations dupublic, notamment les demandes de contre expertise le cas échéant97.�»

Le Sénégal rappelle que «�l’approche adoptée pour informer, sensibiliser, éduquerle public sur les questions de biotechnologies et de biosécurité, en vue de saparticipation dans le processus décisionnel diffère en fonction du contexte socio-culturel98�». Il insiste sur le fait que «�une participation effective nécessite aupréalable une appropriation des idées, des concepts relatifs à la biotechnologie etla biosécurité et ensuite leur traduction dans un langage accessible au public99.�»

Quant à la Côte d’Ivoire, elle a particulièrement développé sa stratégie en matièrede sensibilisation et d’éducation du public, en renforçant une politique en matière 95 Burkina Faso, p 29-30, §A) Le mécanisme d'information, de sensibilisation et de participation du Public.96 Mali, p.21, §3.2.2- Plans futurs pour le Système d’Information, et la Stratégie en matière d’Information-Education-Communication.97 Mali, p. 23-24, § 3.3.2.98 Sénégal, p. 12, §3.8 – Participation du public.99 Ibid, §3.9 – Information et sensibilisation.

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d’environnement existant dans le pays depuis 1996�: le Plan National d’Actionpour l’Environnement100. Se renforcement se traduit notamment par l’établissementde programmes scolaires (au niveau du primaire, du secondaire et des étudesuniversitaires) qui incluent des enseignements liés à l’environnement et auxbiotechnologies. De plus, la Côte d’Ivoire perfectionner un régime departicipation des populations au processus de décision déjà existant et nommél’enquête de « commodo et incommodo ». Selon son CNB, «�[f]ace aux limites de cetype d’enquête et à l’occasion de la généralisation des Evaluations d’Impact surl’Environnement (EIE), il a été jugé opportun d’adopter un mécanisme spécifiquede participation du public au processus de décision. Le décret N 96 – 894 du 08novembre 1996 déterminant les règles et procédures applicables aux étudesrelatives à l’impact environnemental des projets de développement instaure en sonarticle 16 une enquête publique préalable à la prise de décision. Les aspectsnovateurs de la disposition sont :

• le caractère systématique de l’enquête ;• l’audition obligatoire de tous les dépositaires d’enjeux ;• les comptes rendus des auditions comme pièces constitutives du dossier

d’EIE ;• la restitution de l’EIE aux populations avant la prise de décision.

Aujourd’hui le mécanisme est fonctionnel101.�»

Pour ce qui est du CNB de la Guinée, il expose sa stratégie de façon extrêmementdétaillée, en définissant très précisément la manière dont la Guinée va se servirdes médias audiovisuels, de la presse écrite, des ateliers et séminaires de formationetc. La Guinée prévoit également la tenue de rencontres publiques régulières,d’organiser des manifestations culturelles sur les thèmes de l’environnement et desOGM et de promouvoir les activités culturelles comme le théâtre. Enfin, la Guinéebase sa stratégie sur plusieurs principes facilitant la communication. Il s’agit dedévelopper les partenariats entre les différents intervenants, de favoriser leurconsultation et leur participation102. Cette stratégie correspond plus de laparticipation «�interactive�».

Ces exemples de stratégies révèlent le large éventail de possibilités permettantl’adaptation optimale de cette obligation internationale aux particularités et auxnécessités nationales. Cette diversité de dispositions réglementaires exprime ànouveau des innovations législatives en matière de biosécurité.

X Considérations socio-économiques (Article 26)

100 Côte d’Ivoire, p. 37-38, Chapitre 5.101 Côte d’Ivoire, p.34, § 5.1.3. - Implication des populations dans le processus de prise de décision.102 Guinée, p. 45-48, Chapitre IV.

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L’article 26 du Protocole de Carthagène prévoit que�:

«1.�[l]es Parties, lorsqu'elles prennent une décision concernantl'importation, en vertu du présent Protocole ou en vertu des mesuresnationales qu'elles ont prises pour appliquer le Protocole, peuvent tenircompte, en accord avec leurs obligations internationales, des incidencessocio-économiques de l'impact des organismes vivants modifiés sur laconservation et l'utilisation durable de la diversité biologique, eu égard àla valeur de la diversité biologique pour les communautés autochtoneset locales, en particulier�».

Cette disposition provient de la nécessité de prendre en compte un maximum defacteurs pouvant intervenir dans la prise de décisions relatives aux mouvementstransfrontières d’OGM et sur lesquels ces mouvements risquent d’avoir des impacts(positifs comme négatifs). Certains Etats africains ont donné une importanceparticulière à cette disposition, comme par exemple le Congo, qui fait ladistinction entre les impacts des OGM sur les communautés autochtones et locales,des exigences d’ordre éthique et socio-économique. Le CNB du Congo dispose eneffet que�:

«�Eu égard à la valeur de la diversité biologique pour les communautésautochtones et locales, des considérations socio-économiques doiventviser l’impact de l’introduction d’OGM sur l’utilisation par cescommunautés de ladite diversité dont dépend leur survie et leursmoyens de subsistance traditionnels. Ces considérations socio-économiques comprennent notamment l’impact que les décisionsd’importation ou d’autres mesures réglementaires nationales relativesaux OGM peuvent entraîner sur :- la sauvegarde et la diversité des ressources biologiques dans lesrégions habitées ou exploitées par des autochtones ou locales ;- la perte d’accès à des ressources génétiques et à d’autres ressourcesnaturelles, en raison d’une perte de diversité biologique précédemmentdisponible sur le territoire des communautés autochtones ou locales ;- la perte de tradition, de connaissances et de pratiques culturelles dansune communauté autochtones ou locale en raison de la perte de ladiversité biologique sur leur territoire.

Toute dissémination intentionnelle des OGM sur le territoirenational implique la réalisation d’une étude minutieuse des impactsd’ordre éthique et socioéconomique sur les populations locales ouriveraines. Cette étude […] inclut les effets sur le marché traditionnel etles revenus de l’exportation ; la santé ; les systèmes de production ; lesconsidérations éthiques, morales et sociales ; la valeur économiqueréelle des espèces traditionnelles susceptibles d’être affectées parl’introduction des OGM.

Les parties coopèrent à la recherche et à l’échange d’informationssur leurs études d’impact103.�»

103 Congo, p 46 § III.3. Considérations socio-économiques, § III.3.1. Impact des OGM sur les communautésautochtones et locales, § III.3.2. Exigence d’ordre éthique et socio-économique.

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Un autre pays prévoit que�:

«�[l]’Autorité Nationale Compétente ne peut délivrer une autorisation quesi elle s’assure que l’importation, l’utilisation confinée, la disséminationou la mise sur le marché de l’organisme génétiquement modifié ou d'unproduit dérivé d'organisme génétiquement modifié :- profite au pays sans causer de risque important pour la santé humaine,la diversité biologique ou l’environnement ;- participe au développement durable ;- ne nuit pas à l’environnement socio-économique ; et- répond aux valeurs éthiques et aux préoccupations des communautéset ne menace pas les connaissances et technologies descommunautés104�».

Quant au Bénin, il prévoit six axes déterminants afin de prendre en compte cepoint dans sa politique de biosécurité.

«�Les principaux axes de ce volet du Cadre béninois de biosécurité sont :1. Modifications attendues des habitudes sociales et économiquesexistantes résultant de l'introduction de l'organisme vivant modifié ouproduit d'un tel organisme2. Menaces éventuelles sur la diversité biologique, les culturestraditionnelles ou autres produits, et en particulier, les variétés agricoleset l'agriculture durable ;3. Risques posés par la substitution éventuelle des technologiesautochtones et des cultures et produits traditionnels par le biais de labiotechnologie moderne en dehors de leurs zones agro climatiquesd'origine ;4. Coûts sociaux et économiques attendus en raison de la perte de ladiversité génétique, d'emploi, des opportunités commerciales et engénéral des moyens de subsistance des communautés risquant d’êtreaffectées par l’introduction d’organismes vivant modifiés ou des produitsde tels organismes ;5. Pays ou communautés menacés par des perturbations d’ordre social etéconomique ;6. Menaces pesant sur les valeurs sociales, culturelles, éthiques etreligieuses des Communautés en raison de l’utilisation ou de ladissémination d'organismes vivants modifiés ou de produits de telsorganismes105�».

Le caractère strictement local des considérations socio-économiques permet, àtravers l’application de cette obligation, l’expression des particularités nationalesen matière sociale et économique. Cela a permis une fois encore aux paysafricains francophones d’innover en matière de dispositions réglementaires sur labiosécurité.

104 Mali, p. 26.105 Bénin, p. 26, § 4..5 - Considérations d'ordre socioéconomique.

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XI Responsabilité et réparation (Article 27)

L’Article 27 du Protocole de Carthagène n’impose pas aux Etats membres deprévoir telle ou telle mesure précise de détermination des responsabilités en casd’infraction à la loi nationale de biosécurité et partant, au Protocole. Il n’imposepas non plus d’échelle financière ou temporelle en matière de réparation et depeine civile ou pénale. Cet Article accorde plutôt la possibilité pour un Etatmembre de prévoir dans sa législation certaines dispositions établissant un régimede responsabilité et de réparation en cas de dommage causé par OGM. La seuleobligation consiste en l’ouverture de négociations au sein de la Conférence desParties, siégeant en tant que Réunion des Parties au présent Protocole, afind’élaborer des règles et procédures internationales appropriées en matière deresponsabilité et de réparation pour les dommages résultant de mouvementstransfrontières d'organismes vivants modifiés, en analysant et en prenant dûmenten compte les travaux en cours en droit international sur ces questions. Cesnégociations doivent, autant que faire se peut, s'achever dans les quatre anssuivant la première réunion de la Conférence des Parties.

L’application de cette obligation se traduit par exemple, en Union des Comores,par une�:

«�[…] loi [qui] prévoira que toute personne qui produit, fait transiter,importe, exporte, utilise en milieu confiné, dissémine ou met sur lemarché un organisme génétiquement modifié ou produit d’organismegénétiquement modifié est tenue strictement responsable des dommagescausés. Ces dommages doivent être entièrement réparés. Toutes lesactivités portant sur tout type d’OGM et produits d’OGM sur l’ensembledu territoire national engagent la stricte responsabilité du promoteur.L’autorité nationale compétente ou toute personne ou groupe depersonnes qui s’estime lésée par des OGM ou produits d’OGM, ainsique par les activités liées aux OGM ou produits d’OGM pourrademander réparation à la juridiction compétente. Tous les types dedommages seront pris en compte par la loi, notamment les dommagessur les ressources, les moyens de production et de subsistance, les bienspersonnels et collectifs, le cadre de vie et la santé.En cas de constat d’un dommage supposé découler d’un OGM ouproduit d’OGM, un délai suffisant sera observé pour établir sanséquivoque le lien entre le dommage et l’OGM ou produit d’OGMincriminé.La responsabilité et la réparation seront régies par le régime de droitcommun en matière de responsabilité civile de l’Union des Comores106�» .�

L’Union des Comores a donc choisi d’associer son régime de responsabilité et deréparation au régime de droit commun en matière de responsabilité civile. D’autresEtats n’ont pas forcément choisi cette solution. Certains n’ont pas encoredéterminé la nature du régime de responsabilité et réparation, comme au Niger,

106 Comores, p.32, § II.2.16 Responsabilité et réparation.

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qui prévoit, à ce stade, le développement d’un «�projet de décret portant sur lesréparations des dommages nés de l’utilisation des OGM sur les biens des tiers107�».

Quant au Togo, il fonde son régime de responsabilité sur le principe de pollueur-payeur. Son CNB explique ainsi que�:

« �[l]es régimes de responsabilité et de réparation en matièred’environnement sont généralement fondés sur le principe du pollueurpayeur. Le principe du pollueur payeur vise à imputer au pollueur lescoûts écologiques, économiques et sociaux de la pollution qu'ilengendre. Ce qui traduit un mécanisme de responsabilité pourdommage écologique couvrant tous les effets d'une pollution nonseulement sur les biens et les personnes, mais aussi sur la nature elle-même. En terme économique, il s'agit de l’internalisation des coûtsexternes ou de la théorie des externalités qui permet d'imposer destaxes ou redevances de dépollution au pollueur sans faire supporter ladépollution par l'ensemble des citoyens. Le principe du pollueur payeurs'applique aux personnes physiques et morales tant publiques queprivées. Plusieurs dispositions de la loi n° 88-14 du 3 novembre 1988instituant code de l'environnement sont fondées sur ce principe108.�»

Plus précisément, son CNB prévoit que�:

«�[l]e responsable de tout dommage sera tenu de réparer les préjudicesdirects ou indirects induits par le ou les produits en cause, sur labiodiversité, les tissus socio-économiques et les normes culturelles. A ceteffet, le droit d’ester en justice sera reconnu, sous réserve de certainesconditions, à toute personne, qui a un intérêt personnel à agir ou pourdéfendre l’intérêt général en vue de demander la réparation d’undommage ou faire stopper sa menace. Ce droit pourrait également êtreexercé au nom d’une personne, qui pour certaines raisons, ne peutl’exercer elle-même. Ainsi, devront être considérées comme infractions :- l’exercice de toute activité d’importation, de dissémination, d’utilisationconfinée ou de mise sur le marché d’un OGM ou produits dérivés sansautorisation et l’inobservation de l’une des conditions d’autorisation ;- inobservation ou le manquement aux obligations d’étiquetage,d’emballage et d’identification d’OGM ou de produits dérivés ;- tout manquement aux dispositions relatives à l’importation et àl’exportation ;- tout refus d’aider à l’application de la loi.Outre les responsabilités civiles auxquelles ils pourront être assujettis,les auteurs et les complices de ces infractions pourront encourir dessanctions administratives et/ou pénales109�».

Cette diversité de dispositions réglementaires représente à nouveau unfoisonnement de nouveautés législatives en matière de responsabilité et réparation.

107 Niger, p. 55.108 Togo, p. 64, § 5.2.2.3 Principe du pollueur payeur.109 Togo, p. 70, § 6.7 Régimes de responsabilité, de réparation et de répression.

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Ce foisonnement est d’autant plus large et innovant qu’aucune règle ni procédureinternationale appropriée en matière de responsabilité et de réparation pour lesdommages résultant de mouvements transfrontières d'organismes vivants modifiés,n’a à ce jour été mise au point dans les travaux en cours en droit international.

XII Conclusion

Cette étude des cadres nationaux de biosécurité de douze pays africainsfrancophones démontre par conséquent le dynamisme innovant de ces pays dansleurs transpositions nationales des normes internationales relatives à la biosécurité.Le processus de compréhension et d’adaptation des droits et obligations découlantdu PC au niveau national constitue un lourd travail, particulièrement difficile pourdes pays où le manque de moyens financiers, humains, logistiques etinformationnels est un obstacle parfois très handicapant par rapport aux paysdéveloppés. Cela augmente d’autant plus la valeur de l’aboutissement de ceprocessus, qui représente un pas supplémentaire vers une plus grandecompréhensions et un meilleur contrôle de l’utilisation et de l’échangeinternational d’OGM ou de produits d’OGM par les pays africains francophones.Les dix thèmes sur lesquels sont basés les exemples de cette étude ne sont paslimitatifs. En effet, l’ensemble des droits et obligations découlant du Protocole aentraîné des adaptations et des innovations réglementaires au niveau national. LesCNB étudiés constituent une source infinie de politiques et de normes législativesoriginales et particulières au contexte africain en général et surtout au niveaunational en particulier. Il a été démontré en effet que la transposition nationale desprovisions du PC n’est pas forcément identique d’un pays à l’autre, et que laproximité géographique ne peut pas être tenu comme facteur décisif dans ceprocessus. Néanmoins, il est certain que la coopération locale, régional et mêmeinternational joue un rôle important dans le développement de ces CNB et quecette coopération doit être maintenue et encouragée lors de la phase de mise enœuvre de ce projet PNUE/FEM, afin d’optimiser au maximum ses chances deréussite et de permettre la réalisation concrète des innovations réglementaires enmatière de biosécurité de ces pays.

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3.2

Case Studies II:Innovations in the

Biosafety Regulatory Regime in Costa Rica

By Jorge Cabrera, Lead Counsel, CISDL

Introduction

Costa Rica has had a lot of experience dealing with the field testing andexperimentation of GMOs. Since 1992, the country has approved the field testingof several agricultural GMOs (see Table 1) through interpretation of the scope andprovisions of the Plant Health Law No. 6248 of 1978. In 1997, the new PlantProtection Act No. 7664 of 1997 and its regulations No. 26921 of 1998 replaced thePlant Health Law. The Plant Protection Act includes a chapter (arts. 40 to 44)dedicated to the regulation of GMOs in agriculture.

In 2002, a UNEP-GEF Project for the development of a National BiosafetyRegulatory Framework (NBF) was initiated. The project had as one of its mainoutcomes the drafting of a new legal framework for biosafety to be in compliancewith the Cartagena Protocol. A National Executive Agency and a National AdvisoryGroup were established. The main lessons, difficulties and divergences arisingfrom the process of drafting the NBF were as follows:

- For the first time, a participatory process was launched for the drafting of aregulation on GMOs, including the extensive participation of the Health and

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Environment Agencies, universities and researchers. NGOs and the private sectorhad some more limited involvement in the process. NGOs strongly opposed anyRegulatory Framework. Instead, these groups were looking for a “moratorium”.Food trade organizations also opposed the drafting on the grounds that a newsystem was not necessary given the existing legal framework and administrativepractices for GMOs.

- Biosafety and biotechnology are two changing fields. There was tension betweentwo approaches to the NBF: drafting highly detailed and precise laws (makingthem difficult to change in the future due to the Parliamentary approval process),or drafting only the general aspects, leaving the details for the regulations (to bedrafted by the Executive Branch). Some of the regulators and scientists involved inthe process were in favour of the first approach while other participants looked fora balance between these two options. A compromise solution was reached butmost of the substantive technical regulation is still left for drafting by each of thecompetent authorities. A lot of work to implement the NBF remains to be done,after its approval, for the drafting of the detailed technical regulations. The Healthand Environment Agencies have indicated their needs for capacity building in thisarea as Competent Authorities under Article 19.1 of the Protocol.

The most substantive controversial issues were related to:

- The involvement of the different national agencies, the Ministries ofEnvironment and Health in the approval process. Especially in the case of theMinistry of Environment, an agency with a minor role under the current legalframework, there were demands to strengthen and clarify its role (as an agencywith the mandate to protect and conserve biodiversity). Finally, both of thoseMinistries as well as the Ministry of Agriculture were designated competentauthorities under Article 19.1 of the Protocol.

- The institutional framework and administrative system was changed severaltimes. The role of the National Biosafety Council (to advise on policy andregulatory issues or technical aspects, or to actually make the final decision on aGMO), composition and affiliation (to which Ministry or as an independent body)of a National Council on Biosafety, were discussed and different views wereexpressed. The creation of a new Technical Office (with the mandate of handlingthe solicitants requests and conveying them to the competent authority) was alsoconsidered and subsequently rejected.

- The scope of the NBF also generated a huge controversy, including overissues such as: how to deal with commodities (GMOs for food, feed andprocessing), processed food containing genetically modified ingredients, microorganism and potential transgenic fish; and the definition of GMO (or modernbiotechnology). The last version of the Draft followed the Cartagena Protocol.

- The objectives of the new NBF were also hotly debated. Some suggestedthe support and encouragement of biotechnology should be one of the keyobjectives of the new law. Others strongly opposed this view. According to them,the purpose of the NBF is to minimize and avoid the negative impacts of the

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introduction of a GMO on biodiversity and human health, not to favour thedevelopment of GMOs. Instead, the support and encouragement of thistechnology should be part of a science and technology law or policy.

- The issues of labelling and traceability issues were also raised. Two lessonscan be learnt from this debate. First, there is a lack of easily understandablyinformation and expertise on labelling and traceability, especially concerning thetechnical implications (including trade issues) of such measures in reality. Second,most of the participants were reluctant to include any provisions in the NBF onthese issues, leaving them for a specific technical regulation to be drafted at a laterstage. However, very general guidelines about the principles and objectives of anylabelling requirements were incorporated in the Draft.

- There was a general agreement about the need to balance theconfidentiality and the rights of private firms for the non-disclosure of information,and the needs and rights of the public to be informed and to submit anycomments they have. A public notice will be published (following the currentsystem) inviting comments and oppositions. Also, the competent authorities areentitled to initiate public consultations. Confidential information must berespected.

- Finally, issues regarding coexistence, liability and redress were notconsidered.

Table 1 Number of transgenic events allowed in Costa Rica peryear and by crop110

110 Source: Walter Quirós, Oficina Nacional de Semillas.

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3.3

Case Studies III:Innovations in the

Biosafety Regulatory Regime of New Zealand

By Kathryn Garforth, Legal Research Fellow, CISDL

I Policy

New Zealand approaches biosafety, or what it terms biosecurity, from theperspective of a relatively isolated island state. New Zealand is a highly biodiversecountry including a large number of endemic species111. It also has a longexperience with introduced species, some of which have run roughshod over thenative flora and fauna, others of which now form the basis of New Zealand’sagricultural sector. In general, the country has adopted an approach of keeping itsoptions open when it comes to biotechnology. This means not turning its back onthe potential benefits of biotechnology but at the same time proceeding carefully,minimising and managing risks and encouraging the coexistence of different formsof agriculture.

111 The information in this section is drawn from Biosecurity Council, Tiakina Aotearos Protect New Zealand: TheBiosecurity Strategy for New Zealand (2003); Royal Commission on Genetic Modification, Report of the RoyalCommission on Genetic Modification (2001), online: Royal Commission on Genetic Modification<http://www.gmcommission.govt.nz/RCGM/rcgm_report.html>.

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II Regulatory System

Animals like cattle and sheep are not native to New Zealand but were introducedin the nineteenth century and quickly became important contributors to thecountry’s economy112. Their status as introduced animals means that the country isfree of many of the pests like scrapie and foot and mouth disease that can plaguethem in other parts of the world. New Zealand has worked hard to stop thesepests from affecting its herds and has a long history of measures designed toprotect species from the arrival of pests and disease. In 1993, New Zealand passedthe Biosecurity Act, which it describes as the world’s first, legislation designed toprotect both native and non-native species from the harmful effects of exotic pestsand diseases.

Subsequently, in 1996, the country passed the Hazardous Substances and NewOrganisms Act (HSNO Act), which is meant to bring together the management ofhazardous substances and new organisms in one comprehensive piece oflegislation. The purpose of the Act “is to protect the environment, and the healthand safety of people and communities, by preventing or managing the adverseeffects of hazardous substances and new organisms” (s. 4). The country signed theBiosafety Protocol in May 2000 and ratified the agreement in February 2005.TheHSNO Act is the primary instrument through which requirements of the Protocolare met.

The most recent development in the New Zealand regulatory system arose fromthe Royal Commission on Genetic Modification. This was a government-commissioned group which studied the issue of genetic engineering from May2000 to July 2001. After the Commission released its report, the governmentinstituted a two-year moratorium on applications to release genetically modifiedorganisms in order to be able to implement the Commission’s findings. Thisincluded releasing a Biosecurity Strategy in August 2003 and amending the HSNOAct in October 2003. The two-year moratorium expired on October 29th, 2003.

III Permitting Mechanism

The Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act is the primary piece oflegislation regulating the introduction of new organisms into New Zealand113.Under the Act, new organisms are defined to include species that were not presentin New Zealand prior to 29 July 1998 and genetically modified species, amongstothers (s. 2). In order to release a new organism into New Zealand, a proponentmust receive the approval of the New Zealand Environmental Risk ManagementAuthority (ERMA). In some cases, parallel approvals under other pieces oflegislation, like the Biosecurity Act 1993 or the Medicines Act 1981, will also berequired.

112 The information in this section is drawn from the Biosecurity Strategy, ibid.; and New Zealand, Your Guide to theHazardous Substances and New Organisms Act (2001).

113 The information in this section is drawn from the Guide to the HSNO Act.

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The approval process begins with the proponent filing an application with theAuthority. An application should include a comprehensive identification of theforeseeable risks, costs and benefits of the organism in question. This means:• an assessment of risks that is appropriate to their significance, i.e. the higher

the risk, the more detailed the assessment that is required;• an assessment of how significant risks can be managed;• the potential adverse effects of a new organism on the environment and public

health, including social and cultural effects. Applications must show that it ispossible to effectively manage the environmental and health risks of a neworganism in containment before it will be allowed into New Zealand.

ERMA bases its decision on the introduction of a new organism largely on theevaluation of the risks costs and benefits contained in the application.

Applicants must also consult relevant stakeholders including Maori as Treatypartners when preparing an application. ERMA takes the adequacy of theconsultation between the applicant and affected stakeholders when assessing anddeciding on applications.

Different types of applications pass through different processing pathways withinERMA. There are four types of applications: standard notified applications,standard non-notified applications, rapid assessments, and Ministerial call-ins.Standard notified applications are applications that must always be publiclynotified and include applications to import a new organism for release (withcertain exceptions), release a new organism from containment, and field test agenetically modified organism.

Standard non-notified applications do not require public notification and includeapplications to import or develop in containment any new organism, including aGMO, or to field test a new organism which is not a GMO. The Authority retainsthe discretion, however, to publicly notify these applications if it considers therewill likely be significant public interest.

Rapid assessments are for applications that are considered to be of low riskincluding the importation of a new organism that is not a GMO. The applicationmust meet specific low risk criteria to fall into this category. Finally, Ministerialcall-ins involve the Minister for the Environment calling in an application that heor she thinks is of particular national or international importance. ERMA processesthe application, conducts an inquiry and prepares a report of recommendations tothe Minister who then makes the decision and notifies the public.

In consultation with a wide range of stakeholders, the Authority has developedand adopted a methodology for decision-making under the HSNO Act – theHazardous Substances and New Organisms Methodology Order 1998. The criteriaupon which the methodology is based are specified in Part V of the HSNO Act.More specifically, the Authority must evaluate risks, costs, and, where applicable,benefits, based on:• the nature and characteristics of the substance or organism• the applicant’s assessment and, where applicable, proposals for managing the

risks concerned

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• any submissions received• the reviews prepared by ERMA New Zealand or an appointed external expert• matters arising at a hearing (if publicly notified).When deciding on an application, the Authority will also decide if any controlsshould be placed on the new organism. All decisions by the Authority are publiclynotified.

The Authority may decline an application where:• minimum standards are not met• adverse effects outweigh positive effects• there is not enough information to assess adverse effects• the organism cannot be adequately contained, where it is an application for

containment.The HSNO Act does provide for appeals of the Authority’s decisions but only onquestions of law and not on technical or other assessment matters.

Applicants can re-apply for approval of a new organism if the initial applicationwas declined. This is most likely to occur where significant new information onthe environmental risks of the organism has come to light or where improvedmeans of managing the risks have been developed. The Act also allows for thereassessment of new organisms approved for containment if certain criteria aremet. These criteria include:• the availability of significant new information about the risks of a new

organism• the availability of another substance with similar or improved beneficial effects

and reduced adverse effects• a significant change in the quantity of the substance being used or how it is

being used.A reassessment involves reexamining the risks and benefits of a new organismand it can result in the Authority changing the conditions placed on an approvalor even completely withdrawing approval. For a reassessment to proceed, theAuthority must first decide whether there are grounds for a reassessment. Theparty seeking the reassessment must then prepare an application, which is toinclude much of the same information as that required in the initial application forapproval.

IV Monitoring and Inspections, Enforcement and Compliance

Part VII of the HSNO Act outlines the provisions on compliance, inspection,enforcement, liabilities and defences114. Compliance includes both voluntarycompliance through things like self-responsibility, codes of practice, industrystandards and guidelines, and mandatory compliance through inspections,enforcement, and compliance with the controls on an approval.

ERMA is responsible for monitoring and inspections. These duties include:• monitoring compliance with and enforcement of the Act• enquiring into any incident or emergency involving a new organism

114 The information in this section is drawn from the Guide to the HSNO Act.

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• advising and assisting the Minister for the Environment on international issuesand the Act’s effectiveness• reporting to Parliament annually on incidents caused by inadequatemanagement of new organisms, and the extent to which the Act has contributed tothe health and safety of people and the environment.

ERMA also coordinates enforcement which is carried out by seven central agenciesand all territorial authorities (city and district councils). Each agency enforces thearea for which its existing legislation gives it responsibility. Powers of enforcementofficers include powers of entry for inspection and the power to obtain searchwarrants. Enforcement officers can seize property, take samples and collectevidence where these are linked to a breach of the Act. No enforcementmechanisms apply to new organisms once they have been approved for release,as approvals for release do not have any conditions attached.

Section 109 of the HSNO Act spells out the offences under the Act. Any person isallowed to report information on any of the offences listed in the Act. Penalties forthe offences include fines, imprisonment and other penalties like ordering anoffender to remedy or mitigate the adverse effects of their non-compliance at theirown cost or requiring a new organism be destroyed. Liability under the Act is strictfor most offences meaning the prosecution need not prove that the offenderintended to commit an offence, merely that one occurred. All people responsiblefor an offence can be held liable for it.

The Act also provides for defences to liability. Possible defences include that eventhough an offence was committed, it was reasonable and necessary to protect lifeor health, prevent serious damage to property, or avoid an actual or likely adverseeffect on the environment, and the conduct was reasonable in the circumstancesand all reasonable steps were taken to remedy or mitigate the effects. Also, proofof the exercise of due diligence is a defence under the Act.

V Information System

The application and approval process for a new organism allows for significantpublic input115. As mentioned above, the public must always be notified aboutstandard notified applications and may also be notified about some standard non-notified applications. ERMA’s public notification procedure includes publishingnotices in newspapers, on its website, and in The Bulletin, its official record.

After public notification, individuals have 30 days to make submissions to ERMAon the application. Submissions can relate to various parts of the Authority’sdecision-making criteria including the technical information in the application,cultural or ethical values, or other consultations with stakeholders.

Public participation in the New Zealand system includes public hearings onindividual applications. ERMA will arrange a public hearing for a notifiedapplication if it considers such a hearing necessary or if either the applicant or a

115 The information in this section is drawn from the Guide to the HSNO Act.

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submitter requests a hearing. The purpose of a hearing is to allow all parties to beheard and for the Authority to understand the full range of issues at stake beforemaking its decision. Most hearings are conducted by a committee of Authoritymembers but committees may also include non-members who have expertise in aparticular area.

All submitters have the right to be heard at a hearing. They can request a hearingin their application but may be required to assume the costs of the hearing if theAuthority considers their grounds to be unfounded or frivolous. Submitters mayattend the hearing or call a witness but are not obliged to do either. If they attend,they may be questioned by the chair and potentially by the other parties as well.

Finally, when publicly notifying an application ERMA keeps commercially sensitiveinformation confidential in accordance with New Zealand’s Official InformationAct. The Authority’s prime objective, however, is to protect the environment andthe health and safety of people and communities. Information will only be keptconfidential where it does not affect the validity and integrity of any informationabout possible risks and adverse effects of new organisms.

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4.1

Socio-economic Considerations in BiosafetyDecision-Making: An International Sustainable

Development Law Perspective

By Kathryn GarforthLegal Research Fellow, CISDL*

Introduction

The focus of biosafety decision-making typically rests on the possibleenvironmental and human health impacts of a new organism or its products. Manyof these effects can be measured by traditional scientific techniques. The impactsof modern biotechnology, its products, and processes extend beyond the physicalsciences, however, and also have implications for the social sciences. New crops,new foods, and new drugs can affect agricultural practices, shopping habits, andindustrial competition, to name but a few examples. These effects may be positive,negative, or neutral. Socio-economic impacts are not unique to biotechnology butthey are of particular relevance given some of the debates over and justificationsfor this controversial technology. Examining socio-economics and biosafety from

* This working paper is part of on-going research in CISDL’s Biodiversity Programme towards the creation of a manualon biosafety decision-making and international sustainable development law. An earlier draft of the paper was madeavailable for the IUCN-IDRC Meeting on Biosafety to be held in Colombo, Sri Lanka from October 12-14, 2004, andthe research has been supported by funding from IDRC. The earlier draft of the paper complemented Antonio La Vinaand Lindsey Fransen, Integrating Socio-Economic Considerations into Biosafety Decision: The Challenge for Asia (6October 2004), which was also presented during the Colombo workshop.

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the perspective of international sustainable development law illustrates howbiosafety decision-making can be structured in a way that supports sustainabledevelopment.

The inclusion of socio-economic considerations in biosafety regulatory regimes isexplicitly permitted in the United Nations’ Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 116:

The Parties, in reaching a decision on import under this Protocol orunder its domestic measures implementing the Protocol, may takeinto account, consistent with their international obligations, socio-economic considerations arising from the impact of living modifiedorganisms on the conservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity, especially with regard to the value of biological diversity toindigenous and local communities.117

Now that the Cartagena Protocol has entered into force, many countries areworking to implement the agreement by creating or revising domestic regulatoryregimes for biosafety. This working paper aims to explore the possibility of socio-economic considerations in biosafety decision-making – both in the context of theProtocol and beyond – in order to assist policy-makers and decision-makers asthey grapple with this complex subject.118 The discussion is undertaken from theperspective of international sustainable development law (ISDL) which seeks tomeld economic, environmental, and social law towards the goal of sustainabledevelopment.

The paper is divided into six parts. Following this introduction, the second sectionexamines the relationship between biosafety and ISDL, including a more detaileddiscussion of the relevant principles of ISDL. The third section explores the typesof socio-economic considerations that have been raised in relationship to biosafetyand discusses why socio-economic considerations are important. The next partprovides an overview of the different points of a biosafety regulatory regimewhere socio-economic considerations can be incorporated. It includes examplesthat illustrate how other developed and developing countries have approachedsocio-economic factors in their domestic regimes. Part five examines how socio-economic considerations in biosafety relate to other areas of international law witha particular focus on international trade and human rights law. The paperconcludes with some remarks on how biosafety regulation can continue to buildsynergy among economic, environmental and social law as part of sustainabledevelopment.

Biosafety and International Sustainable Development Law

Biosafety is not defined in either the Biosafety Protocol or the Convention onBiological Diversity119 (CBD). According to the Secretariat to the CBD, “[b]iosafety

116 29 January 2000, 39 I.L.M. 1027 (entered into force 11 September 2003) [Biosafety Protocol].117 Ibid. at Art. 26.118 A note on terminology: the term ‘genetically modified organism’ or ‘GMO’ is used in most of this paper. Wherespecific reference is being made to the Biosafety Protocol, the term ‘living modified organism’ or ‘LMO’ is used.119 5 June 1991, 31 I.L.M. 818 (entered into force 29 December 1993) [CBD].

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is a term used to describe efforts to reduce and eliminate the potential risksresulting from biotechnology and its products.”120 The potential risks can begrouped into the three areas of sustainable development. Environmental concernsinclude the potential for living modified organisms, when released into theenvironment, to become pests, to out-compete and replace their wild relatives, toincrease dependence on pesticides, or to spread their introduced genes to weedyrelatives, potentially creating ‘super-weeds.’121 Social concerns include threats tohuman health from new allergens in the food system, threats to traditionalagricultural practices such as seed-saving, and ethical concerns over patenting lifeand the treatment of animals.122 Finally, economic concerns include concentrationof the life sciences industry in Western industrialized countries and potentialinternational trade difficulties caused by the challenge of integration or mutualrecognition of different national biotechnology policies and practices.123

International sustainable development law is law at the intersection of economics,environmentalism and social development. Its foundation rests on Chapter 39 ofAgenda 21124, which was approved by over 140 heads of state at the UnitedNations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.Paragraph 1 of the chapter calls for “[t]he further development of international lawon sustainable development, giving special attention to the delicate balancebetween environmental and developmental concerns”, and it identifies a “need toclarify and strengthen the relationship between existing international instrumentsor agreements in the field of environment and relevant social and economicagreements or instruments, taking into account the special needs of developingcountries.”125 ISDL is also rooted in the concept of sustainable development, whichwas perhaps most famously defined in Our Common Future as “development thatmeets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs.”126 Modern notions of sustainabledevelopment can be traced back at least as far as the 1972 United NationsConference on the Human Environment.127

120 “Frequently Asked Questions on the Biosafety Protocol”, online: Convention on Biological Diversity,<http://www.biodiv.org/biosafety/faqs.asp?area=biotechnology&faq=2>. The lack of definition in the texts themselvesis largely due to the fact that only the English versions of the agreements include a term like ‘biosafety’. In the otherofficial languages, the concept is captured by a longer phrase such as ‘la prévention des risques biotechnologiques’ inFrench and ‘sobre seguridad de la biotechnología’ in Spanish. Thanks to Cyrie Sendashonga of the CBD Secretariat forraising this point.121 R. Salazar & M. Valverde, Biosafety, Consumer Protection and International Trade (2000), online: CanadianInstitute for Environmental Law and Policy <www.cielap.org/biotechsp.pdf>.122 Ibid. For more examples of possible social concerns, see the discussion under ‘Types of socio-economicconsiderations’ in Part III, below.123 Ibid. For more examples of possible economic concerns, see the discussion under ‘Types of socio-economicconsiderations’ in Part III, below.124 Agenda 21, Report of the UNCED, I (1992) UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1, (1992) 31 I.L.M. 874.125 Ibid. at para. 39.1 See also P. Sands, “International Law in the Field of Sustainable Development” (1994) 65 BritishYearbook of International Law 303.126 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future ( Oxford : Oxford University Press,1987) at 43.127 Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger, Ashfaq Khalfan & Salim A. Nakhjavani, Weaving the Rules for Our CommonFuture: Principles, Practices and Prospects for International Sustainable Development Law (Montreal: CISDL, 2002)at 11-12 [Weaving the Rules].

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In 2002, the International Law Association adopted the New Delhi Declaration ofPrinciples of International Law Relating to Sustainable Development128. TheDeclaration identifies seven principles of international law relating to sustainabledevelopment. These include:1. The principle of integration and interrelationship;2. The duty of states to ensure sustainable use of natural resources;3. The principle of equity and the eradication of poverty;4. The principle of the precautionary approach to human health, natural resources

and ecosystems;5. The principle of public participation and access to information and justice; and6. The principle of good governance.129

The relationship between each of these principles and socio-economicconsiderations in biosafety decision-making will be briefly discussed below.

(1) The principle of integration and interrelationship

International sustainable development law encompasses those “legal instrumentsand provisions where environment, social and economic considerations areintegrated to a varying degree.”130 The recognition of the need for integrationamong environmental, social and economic legal instruments has emergedgradually since the 1972 Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment131 andhas come to the fore in particular in the outcomes of the 1992 Earth Summit andsubsequent international developments, such as the United Nations Convention toCombat Desertification132.

As the description above suggests, integration in ISDL is a question of degree.133

Some international instruments only deal with one of the three pillars ofsustainable development and are thus not integrative at all. Other instrumentscreate parallel but separate agreements in the different areas of sustainabledevelopment. A third level of integration includes international regimes that are inthe process of becoming integrated. Finally, there are a few internationalagreements and customary principles that are highly integrative in that theyinclude consideration of the economic, environmental and social aspects of aproblem.134

The Biosafety Protocol, by referring to both environmental and socio-economicconsiderations in its provisions can be categorized as a highly integrativeinstrument of ISDL. It calls for including two of the pillars of sustainabledevelopment – economic and social development – in a field sometimes

128 International Law Association, Resolution 3/2002, New Delhi Declaration of Principles of International LawRelating to Sustainable Development, online: International Law Association <http://www.ila-hq.org>. See alsoInternational Law Association, Committee on the Legal Aspects of Sustainable Development, Searching for theContours of International Law in the Field of Sustainable Development, Fifth and Final Report (London: ILA, 2002).Also reprinted in UN General Assembly, 57th session, UN Doc. A/57/329 (2002) [New Delhi Principles].129 The seventh principle, which is not so relevant here, is the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.130 Weaving the Rules at 41.131 UN Doc. A./C. 48/14 (1972), 11 I.L.M. 1461 (1972) [Stockholm Declaration].132 Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification,particularly in Africa, 17 June 1994, 33 I.L.M. 1328.133 Weaving the Rules at 43.134 Weaving the Rules at 43-45.

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dominated by the third pillar, the environment in the form of scientific riskassessments to ecosystems. Countries that take the step of including socio-economic considerations as well as environmental risk assessments in theirbiosafety systems will also be creating integrated ISDL instruments andcontributing to sustainable development law. Some different ways to include thesocio-economic dimensions of biosafety in a domestic regulatory system arediscussed in Part IV, below, and also offer differing degrees of integration.

(2) The duty of states to ensure sustainable use of natural resources

The duty of states to ensure sustainable use of natural resources has twocomponents. The first is the sovereign right of states over the natural resourceswithin their borders.135 This sovereign right allows states to exploit their naturalresources towards whatever end they see fit. This right is limited by the secondcomponent of the principle, the requirement in international law that states mustnot cause damage to the global environment and further have a duty to usenatural resources in a sustainable manner.136 These two components have beenincorporated into numerous international treaties, decisions and declarationsincluding Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration and Principle 2 of the RioDeclaration137. The second component of this principle was also included in theoperational text of a treaty for the first time in Article 3 of the CBD.138

This principle of ISDL has obvious application to socio-economic considerations inbiosafety decision-making. Under the first component, states can use their naturalresources to grow genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or create geneticallymodified (GM) products as suits their national objectives. The second componentof the principle requires, however, that one country’s use of biotechnologicalproducts and processes does not cause damage to the larger global environmentand conforms with the sustainable use of natural resources. Socio-economicconsiderations have an important role to play in determining if the use of naturalresources in biotechnology is sustainable. So, for example, if growing geneticallymodified crops increases a farmer’s yields and thus his income, the farmer may beable to afford to let portions of his land lie fallow, reducing the depletion ofnutrients in the soil and improving the sustainability of his agricultural practices. If,on the other hand, growing GM crops reduces yields by requiring monoculturecultivation and increasing the risk of pest infestation then this may require afarmer to bring more land under cultivation in order to maintain his income,reducing the opportunities to replenish the nutrients in a field and making thefarmer’s agricultural practices less sustainable. Countries that include socio-economic considerations in their biosafety decision-making should be better ableto ensure the sustainable use of their natural resources.

135 New Delhi Principles at para. 1.1, Weaving the Rules at 45.136 New Delhi Principles at para. 1.1 and 1.2, Weaving the Rules at 45.137 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development , Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/6/Ref.1 (1992), 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992) [Rio Declaration].138 Weaving the Rules at 50.

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(3) The principle of equity and the eradication of poverty

The principle of equity consists of two components: inter-generational equity andintra-generational equity. The former refers to “the right of future generations toenjoy a fair level of the common patrimony”.139 It also creates an obligation on thepresent generation not to “intervene irreversibly and exhaustively in our relationswith the natural world so as to deprive future generations of environmental, socialand economic opportunities of well-being”.140 Intra-generational equity, on theother hand, concerns “the right of all peoples within the current generation of fairaccess to the current generation’s entitlement to the Earth’s natural resources”.141

Achieving these two elements of equity is crucial for the eradication of povertyand therefore also to the goal of sustainable development.

Numerous instruments of international law recognize the role of equity and theeradication of poverty in achieving sustainable development. In Chapter IX of theCharter of the United Nations, the UN has the role of promoting “higher standardsof living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress anddevelopment”142. Principle 5 of the Rio Declaration acknowledges the link betweenpoverty alleviation and sustainable development. The Millennium Declaration143

and the Millennium Development Goals also commit states to specificdevelopment targets including halving by 2015 the proportion of the worldpopulation living on less than a dollar a day and the proportion of people whosuffer from hunger.144

This principle is tied to socio-economic considerations in biosafety decision-making in a variety of ways. Inter-generational equity requires the presentgeneration not to introduce a technology that will irreparably harm theenvironment or the socio-economic situation that will be left for futuregenerations. It also requires, however, that the present generation not deny futuregenerations the possibility of benefiting from biotechnology and the socio-economic gains it could bring. Intra-generational equity dictates that biotechnologyshould be employed in a way that improves the ability of members of the currentgeneration to access resources and reduces poverty rather than exacerbatingexisting inequalities. Biosafety decision-making will need to incorporate socio-economic aspects in order for these assessments to be made.

(4) The principle of the precautionary approach to human health, naturalresources and ecosystems

The most widely accepted definition of the precautionary principle is enshrined inArticle 15 of the 1992 Rio Declaration: “where there are threats of serious orirreversible damage, lack of scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason forpostponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.” Theprecautionary principle has also been invoked in other international texts

139 New Delhi Principles at para. 2.1140 Weaving the Rules at 59.141 New Delhi Principles at para. 2.1.142 Article 55(a).143 UN General Assembly, 55th session, UN Res. A/RES/55/2 (2000).144 Ibid. at para. 19.

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including the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer145, theBamako Convention146, and the Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty). Inaddition, some scholars argue that the precautionary principle is now a principleof customary international law.147 The Appellate Body in the World TradeOrganization (WTO) EC–Beef Hormones dispute148 acknowledged that the principleis reflected in Article 5.7 of the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary andPhytosanitary Measures149 but refused to decide whether the precautionaryprinciple is now part of customary international law.150 The Supreme Court ofCanada has stated that the principle may now be customary international law151

while the Supreme Court of India recognizes it as so.152

The purpose of the precautionary principle is to allow decision-makers to avoidmaking choices that will seriously harm the environment due to a lack of scientificinformation on the repercussions of their choice.

Because the impetus for economic development tends to be strong,the environment has been protected only to the extent thatscientific information exists. Consequently, precaution has receivedwidespread support by the international community as a valuabletool to integrate development, both economic and social, withenvironmental protection.153

The principle creates a preference for the prevention of harm or damage over theremediation of harm or damage, and requires precautionary measures that areproportional to the potential harm.154

The Biosafety Protocol also makes reference to the “precautionary approachcontained in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration”.155 There is some debate overwhether the ‘precautionary approach’ as contained in the Protocol is the same asthe ‘precautionary principle’ – ‘principle’ suggesting binding law and ‘approach’implying a non-binding guideline.156 The Protocol also establishes precautionarydecision-making processes under the Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) 145 16 September 1987, 26 I.L.M. 154 (entered into force 1 January 1989.146 Bamako Convention on the Ban of Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement andManagement of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, 29 January 1991, 30 I.L.M. 775.147 See, e.g., P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law: Frameworks, Standards and Implementation ,vol. 1 (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1996).148 EC – Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones) (Complaint by USA and Canada) (16 January1998), WTO Doc. WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R at para. 124.149 15 April 1994, being part of Annex IA to the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, 15 April 1994,33 I.L.M. 1144 [SPS Agreement].150 Supra note 33 at para. 123.151 114957 Canada Ltée (Spraytech, Société d'arrosage) v. Hudson (Town), [2001] 2 S.C.R. 241 at para. 30-32.152 A.P. Pollution Control Board v. Nayudu , 1999 S.O.L. Case No. 53, at para. 27. See also Vellore Citizens WelfareForum v. Union of India, [1996] Supp. 5 S.C.R. 241.153 Weaving the Rules at 72-73.154 Weaving the Rules at 77.155 Supra note 1 at Art. 1.156 Weaving the Rules at 72. See also A. Cosbey & S. Burgiel, The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: An Analysis ofResults (2000), online: International Institute for Sustainable Development <http://www.iisd.org/pdf/biosafety.pdf>[Cosbey & Burgiel]; and Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger and Markus W. Gehring, “The WTO and Precaution:Sustainable Development Implications of the WTO Asbestos Dispute” (2003) 15 Journal of Environmental Law 289 at291.

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procedure and the procedure for living modified organisms (LMOs) intended foruse as food, feed, or for processing (LMOs-FFP):

Lack of scientific certainty due to insufficient relevant scientificinformation and knowledge regarding the extent of the potentialadverse effects of a living modified organism on the conservationand sustainable use of biological diversity in the Party of import,taking also into account risks to human health, shall not prevent thatParty from taking a decision, as appropriate, with regard to theimport of that living modified organism … in order to avoid orminimize such potential adverse effects.157

These provisions are some of the most explicit operationalizations of precaution ininternational law.158

Precaution is of obvious relevance to decision-making concerning the humanhealth and environmental safety of LMOs. A great deal of uncertainty remains overthe possible impacts of these organisms, particularly over the long-term. In thecontext of this paper, however, the pertinent question is whether precaution isalso of relevance when considering the possible socio-economic impacts of LMOsand GMOs in biosafety decision-making. In the Protocol, Article 26 allows Partiesto take socio-economic considerations into account when making a decision onthe import of an LMO when these considerations are linked to the impact of theLMO on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. In turn, both the AIAand LMO-FFPs decision-making procedures allow precautionary decision-makingin light of insufficient scientific evidence on the extent of the potential adverseeffects of an LMO on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Giventhe uncertainty over the socio-economic impacts of LMOs and how these couldeffect biodiversity, it seems as though the ambit of the allowable precautionarydecision-making in Articles 10(6) and 11(8) should include socio-economic factors,at least to the extent these can be considered “relevant scientific information andknowledge.”159 States are also free, of course, to include socio-economicconsiderations in determining whether to make a precautionary decision undertheir own decision-making processes outside the Protocol so long as this does notconflict with their other international obligations.

157 Art. 11(8). This paragraph is nearly identical to Art. 10(6 ) which allows for precaution in the AIA procedure. Theellipses in the above quote cover a specific reference to LMOs-FFP while the corresponding paragraph in Article 10refers specifically to the LMOs covered by the AIA.158 Ruth Mackenzie et al., An Explanatory Guide to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety , IUCN Environmental Policyand Law Paper no. 46 (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 2003) at para. 66, p. 14 [IUCN Guide]; Heike Baumüller, DomesticImport Regulations for Genetically Modified Organisms and their Compatibility with WTO Rules : Some Key Issues,Trade Knowledge Network Paper (Winnipeg : IISD, 2003), online : International Centre for Trade and SustainableDevelopment <http://www.ictsd.org> at 27.159 Cosbey and Burgiel are also of the view that precautionary decision-making under the Protocol can be made on thebasis of socio-economic considerations, supra note 41 at 14.

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(5) The principle of public participation and access to information andjustice

Both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights160 and the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights161 recognize rights of participation at the nationallevel.162 More recent documents, particularly those related to the 1992 EarthSummit, have recognized effective public participation as a necessary componentof sustainable development.163 The 1998 Aarhus Convention on Access toInformation, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice inEnvironmental Matters164 has also made a significant recent contribution to thedevelopment of this principle.

There are three dimensions to this principle. First, individuals should have theopportunity to participate in official decision-making processes and activities thatdirectly affect and impact their lives and well-being.165 Second, in order toparticipate effectively, the public must have access to adequate informationconcerning the issues, decision-making, and policy-making in which they are ableto participate.166 Finally, where people’s rights have been infringed or where theyhave suffered harm they should have access to administrative or judicial processesto challenge the measure and claim compensation.167

Numerous aspects of socio-economic considerations in biosafety decision-makingrelate to these three dimensions. The first dimension suggests that publicparticipation should be a common component in all biosafety regulatory regimesas these regimes relate to socio-economic development. In other words, becausebiosafety decision-making can directly affect the lives and well-being ofindividuals, these same individuals should have an opportunity to participate inthe decision-making. Indeed, the Protocol requires public consultation in decision-making as well as public participation “concerning the safe transfer, handling anduse of living modified organisms in relation to the conservation and sustainableuse of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health”.168

These are quite broad requirements that can be fulfilled in a number of ways.

The second dimension on public access to information is also reflected in Article23 of the Protocol. It requires that Parties “[e]ndeavour to ensure that publicawareness and education encompasses access to information on living modifiedorganisms identified in accordance with the Protocol that may be imported”.169

Much of the literature also recognizes that consumers want labelling of genetically

160 19 December 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171, 6 I.L.M. 368 (entered into force 23 March 1976).161 GA Res. 217 (III), UN GAOR, 3d Sess., Supp. No. 13, UN Doc. A/810 (1948).162 At Articles 25 and 21, respectively.163 See, in particular, Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration. Projects like The Access Initiative<http://www.accessinitiative.org> and the Partnership for Principle 10 <http://www.pp10.org> are working toimplement these commitments.164 25 June 1998, 38 I.L.M. 517 (entered into force 30 October 2001) [Aarhus Convention].165 Weaving the Rules at 82.166 Ibid.167 Ibid. Under the Aarhus Convention, individuals also have access to justice to enforce national environmental laws(Art. 9(3)).168 Supra note 1 at Art. 23(1)(a).169 Supra note 1 at Art. 23(1)(b).

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modified foods or at least want to be able to find out what is in the food theyconsume.170 Consumers’ reasons for wanting to know may well be based on socio-economic factors – e.g. not wanting to consume something they feel runs counterto their philosophical values – rather than on environmental or health concerns.Biosafety regulatory regimes that are intended to support sustainable developmentwill need to consider how to fulfill the requirement of public access toinformation.

The final dimension is access to justice for people who feel their rights have beenviolated. In the context of this paper, access to justice will be necessary in cases ofbiosafety wrongdoing that harms socio-economic rights. This could include theability to be compensated for damages in cases where there has been a socio-economic biosafety injury, e.g. lost profits by organic farmers whose crops nolonger command a premium as they contain introduced DNA.

(6) The principle of good governance

‘Governance’ is a notoriously difficult term to define; ‘good governance’ even moreso. In general terms, governance can be understood as:

the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority tomanage a country's affairs at all levels. It comprises the mechanisms,processes and institutions through which citizens and groupsarticulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet theirobligations and mediate their differences.171

To date, the term has been used primarily by international finance anddevelopment institutions.172 Indeed, in 1997, the World Bank declared that theapparatus of the state along with good governance are necessary conditions fordevelopment.173

Discussions on the principle of good governance operate at two levels: thedomestic and the international. The former seeks reforms in countries that areperceived to lack good governance while the latter focuses on an emergingrequirement of democracy in international law.174 The United NationsDevelopment Program (UNDP) has identified a set of characteristics for goodgovernance. It includes: participation, rule of law, transparency, responsiveness,consensus orientation, equity, effectiveness and efficiency, accountability, andstrategic vision.175 These characteristics are interrelated in themselves and alsohighlight the interrelatedness of the different principles of ISDL. Furthermore, theyare crucial in the adoption and promulgation of the principles of ISDL.

170 See, e.g., Nuffield Council on Bioethics, Genetically Modified Crops : The Ethical and Social Issues (London :Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 1999) at 90-94 [Genetically Modified Crops].171 UNDP, Govenance for Sustainable Human Development: A UNDP Policy Document (January 1997), online: UNDP<http://magnet.undp.org/policy/default.htm> at chapter 1 [UNDP}.172 Weaving the Rules at 87.173 Ibid. at 88 citing World Bank, The State in a Changing World (1997).174 Weaving the Rules at 89.175 UNDP, supra note 66.

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The importance of the principle of good governance in the inclusion of socio-economic considerations in biosafety decision-making hinges primarily on itsrelationship with other principles of ISDL. The characteristics of good governancereinforce these other principles. Biosafety regulatory regimes that incorporate theseprinciples will result in systems that respond to the concerns of individuals andhelp to build consensus by acknowledging and not excluding the socio-economicelements of biotechnology and biosafety. This, in turn, will encourageparticipation in the biosafety process rather than creating disillusionment anddisenfranchisement. Ultimately, it can lead to national visions of biosafety thatincorporate and reflect the ideas of all. Perhaps most importantly, buildingbiosafety regulatory regimes around these principles of good governance will helpto create regimes that integrate the other principles of international sustainabledevelopment law.

III What are Socio-Economic Considerations and Why are theyImportant?

Socio-economic considerations can cover a broad spectrum of concerns. In thispaper, it is assumed that the direct impacts of the products and processes ofbiotechnology on human health and the environment (e.g. the allerginicity of GMfoods or weediness of GM crops) are assessed in other parts of a country’sregulatory regime. The focus here will instead be on socio-economicconsiderations that may or may not have indirect impacts on biodiversity andhuman health and how these can be incorporated into a country’s biosafetyregulatory regime. The paper will also largely focus on genetically modifiedorganisms used in food and agriculture but will also draw on other products andprocesses of biotechnology, particularly in the medical field, where appropriate.

Socio-economic considerations in the Biosafety Protocol

The scope of allowable socio-economic considerations in the Biosafety Protocol isintimately linked to the scope of the Protocol itself. The scope of the Protocol can,in turn, be understood by examining some of its articles as well as its context inrelation to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Article 19(3) in the final text of the CBD left open the possibility of furthernegotiations on biosafety. At the second Conference of the Parties to the CBD, theParties agreed that a protocol on biosafety was necessary and they set the terms ofreference for the negotiations in an annex to Decision II/5. There are importantchoices in terminology in Article 19(3), Decision II/5 and the Protocol itself thathelp to define the scope of the Protocol.

The first point to note is the use of the term ‘living modified organism’ in theConvention and subsequently in Decision II/5 and the Protocol. There was muchdiscussion during the negotiations for the CBD over whether to use the term‘genetically modified organisms’ or ‘LMOs resulting from biotechnology’. ‘LMO’ is amuch wider concept “in that it does not require the insertion of genetic material”176

176 IUCN Guide at p. 46

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and can thus be interpreted to include organisms produced via traditionalbreeding. Countries agreed to use the broader term and this is what appears inArticle 19(3). The scope of the negotiations for the Protocol was narrowed inDecision II/5, which refers to ‘LMOs from modern biotechnology’.177 As ultimatelydefined in the Protocol, this term excludes LMOs produced using traditionalbreeding methods (see figure 1).178 In terms of socio-economic considerations, thelimitation of the Protocol to only cover LMOs from modern biotechnology meansthat socio-economic concerns that apply to organisms created by other meanscannot be taken into account within the Protocol.179

The second point is that Article 19(3) of the CBD limits the Protocol to coveringLMOs that may have an adverse effect on the conservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity. This is reiterated in various parts of Decision II/5 including the ninthrecital from the preamble and the requirement that the Protocol not exceed thescope of the Convention (para. 5(a)). This delimitation also appears in the finaltext of the Protocol in the description of its scope in Article 4 as well as in Article26 on socio-economic considerations. Biosafety decision-making can only includesocio-economic considerations where these considerations arise from the impact ofLMOs on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

The third point to note arises in paragraph 2 of the terms of reference in DecisionII/5. Subparagraph (a) prioritized the consideration of certain elements to beincluded in the Protocol including a procedure for advance informed agreementand mechanisms for risk assessment and risk management. It left more discretionin the consideration of other elements including socio-economic considerations.This reflected the disagreement within the Open-Ended Ad Hoc Group of Expertson Biosafety – the group charged with considering the need for a protocol – andforeshadowed some of the disagreements to come during the negotiations.

Over the course of the negotiations for the Protocol, different proposals were putforward on how to include socio-economic considerations in the agreement. Theseranged from no provision on socio-economic considerations (favoured bydeveloped countries) to incorporating socio-economic factors throughout theProtocol. The final compromise was to include Article 26, a separate provisionallowing the consideration of socio-economic factors in decision-making undereither the Protocol or domestic regulatory systems.

A final point is that specific aspects of or procedures under the Protocol may havean even narrower scope than the overall purview of the Protocol. For example,under Article 7(4), the Advance Informed Agreement procedure will exclude LMOs“identified in a decision of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting ofthe Parties to this Protocol as being not likely to have adverse effects on the

177 Decision II/5, 9th recital, para. 3(c), emphasis added.178 Supra note 1 at Art. 3; IUCN Guide at p. 46.179 This means that if countries are using the procedures set out by the Protocol for their own biosafety decision-makingthen the socio-economic considerations relating to the broader class of GMOs cannot be taken into account. Countriescreating their own procedures still have the ability to implement biosafety regulatory regimes that encompass socio-economic concerns beyond those included in the Biosafety Protocol so long as their regulatory system complies withany other international obligations by which they may be bound (see below.)

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conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into accountrisks to human health”. There has yet to be a decision to this effect.

Socio-economic considerations beyond the Biosafety Protocol

Socio-economic considerations beyond the Biosafety Protocol are essentially thosethat concern products or activities that fall outside the mandate of the Protocol(see figure 1). These include:• socio-economic considerations related to organisms that do not fall within the

definition of LMO, living organism, or modern biotechnology as used in theProtocol;

• considerations related to LMOs that are not subject to the activities covered bythe Protocol, i.e. domestic or non-transboundary movement, transit, handling,and use;

• impacts of LMOs beyond the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity;and

• LMOs that are pharmaceuticals for humans and are addressed by otherinternational agreements or organizations.

Countries still have the ability to implement biosafety regulatory regimes thatencompass socio-economic concerns beyond those included in the BiosafetyProtocol so long as their regulatory system complies with any other internationalobligations by which they may be bound.

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Figure 1

Elements not covered by Protocol

Use of TermsModified organisms that do not fit thedefinition of LMO in the Protocol.Includes:• organisms that do not fall under

the definition of ‘living organism’ inthe Protocol, e.g. plasmids, non-living organisms;

• organisms that have not beenproduced within the definition of‘modern biotechnology’, e.g. LMOsproduced using traditional breedingtechniques.

Non-organisms: processes ofbiotechnology that may pose biosafetyrisks.

Scope

The domestic movement (i.e. non-transboundary movement), transit,handling and use of all LMOs that mayhave adverse effects on theconservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity as well as other types ofadverse effects.

The transboundary movement, etc. ofall LMOs that may have other types ofadverse effects.

The transboundary or domesticmovement, etc. of other products andprocesses of biotechnology, i.e. non-LMOs.

PharmaceuticalsTransboundary movement of LMOsthat are pharmaceuticals for humansthat are addressed by other relevantinternational agreements ororganisations.

Elements covered by Protocol

Article 3 Use of TermsLMOs: any living organism thatpossesses a novel combination ofgenetic material obtained through theuse of modern biotechnology.

Living organism: any biological entitycapable of transferring or replicatinggenetic material, including sterileorganisms, viruses and viroids.

Modern biotechnology: the applicationof:a. In vitro nucleic acid techniques,

including recombinant DNA anddirect injection of nucleic acid intocells or organelles, or

b. Fusion of cells beyond thetaxonomic family,

that overcome natural physiologicalreproductive or recombination barriersand that are not techniques used intraditional breeding and selection.

Article 4 Scopea. The transboundary movement,

transit, handling and use of allLMOs,

b. That may have adverse effects onthe conservation and sustainableuse of biological diversity, takingalso into account risks to humanhealth.

Article 5 PharmaceuticalsTransboundary movement of LMOsthat are pharmaceuticals for humansthat are not addressed by otherrelevant international agreements ororganisations.

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Types of socio-economic considerations

Socio-economic considerations in biosafety decision-making can include positive,negative or neutral aspects of the biotechnological products and processes inquestion. They can be expressed by a variety of actors including consumers,farmers, indigenous peoples, industry, and governments themselves. Some of theconcerns of these different groups may overlap while others will be discrete to aparticular group. In addition, actors in both developed and developing countrieshave socio-economic concerns related to biosafety. Again, some of these concernsare common to both groups, others may only be relevant to one or the other.

During the negotiations for the Protocol, numerous countries presented differentpossible socio-economic considerations and impacts of the introduction ofLMOs.180 A survey of the literature reveals a broad range of sometimes conflictingsocio-economic considerations relating to GMOs and LMOs. These include:• Threats to traditional crops and farmers’ varieties that have important social,

cultural and economic functions.e.g. A shift away from the diversity of traditional crops and farmers’varieties to monocultures of genetically modified crops could result ingreater risk of crop failure and a consequent loss of income for farmers.181

• Loss of cultural activities associated with current agricultural systems.e.g. Limitations on seed saving could lead to the demise of culturalpractices where gifts of seed are important.182

• Impacts from import substitution via organisms engineered to be producedoutside their native agro-climatic zones.

e.g. Vanilla engineered to be grown in the colder climates of North Americapotentially meaning that some developing countries lose a significantsource of export income.183

• More efficient agriculture that requires less human intervention or labour (e.g.weeding) leading to employment losses.

e.g. The introduction of herbicide-resistant crops to countries where farmersstill rely on hand-weeding could allow farmers to spray their resistant cropswith herbicide to kill weeds thus reducing the employment opportunitiesfor seasonal labourers.184

180 See in particular Convention on Biological Diversity, “Compilation of the Views of Governments on the Contents ofthe Future Protocol” UN Doc. UNEP/CBD/BSWG/2/2 (18 March 1997) and the submissions of Africa under ‘W.Socio-Economic Considerations’ and ‘GG. Annexes’; and Convention on Biological Diversity, “Compilation ofGovernment Submissions of Draft Text on Selected Items” UN Doc. UNEP/CBD/BSWG/3/3 (15 August 1997) whichincludes submissions on risk assessment from the African group, Belarus, India, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico and SriLanka that incorporate socio-economic elements.181 Miguel A. Altieri, “Socio-Cultural Aspects of Native Maize Diversity ”, paper prepared for the Secretariat of theCommission for Environmental Cooperation of North America as part of the Article 13 initiative on ‘Maize andBiodiversity: the Effects of Transgenic Maize in Mexico (no date) at 1-2.182 Ibid. at 1.183 ETC Group, Communiqué, “Vanilla and Biotechnology; Genetically Engineered Oilseed Plants: Updates” (30 July1991).184 Genetically Modified Crops at para. 4.57; and Nuffield Council on Bioethics, The Use of Genetically ModifiedCrops in Developing Countries (London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 2004), online : Nuffield Council on Bioethics<http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/fileLibrary/pdf/gm_crops_paper_final.pdf> at 95 [GM Crops in DevelopingCountries].

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• More efficient agriculture that requires fewer chemical inputs, saving farmersmoney.185

• Loss of export markets if a country’s harvests contain unacceptable levels ofgenetically modified DNA.186

• Loss of consumer choice between GM and non-GM foods.187

• Economic loss to organic farmers who may no longer be able to charge apremium for their produce if it accidentally comes to contain geneticallymodified DNA.

• Opportunity cost of the ‘GM-free’ option for a country after the first release of aGMO within its borders.188

• Costs of creating and maintaining segregated GM and non-GM crop systems.• Growing dependence on a small group of multinational biotechnology

companies if farmers must buy inputs for growing GMOs from thesecompanies year after year.

e.g. Vulnerability to shifts in available products; payment of technologyrents for products protected by intellectual property rights; and moneyleaving the country to buy necessary inputs not produced locally.

• High costs of modified seeds compared to conventional seed, seed saving, andseed sharing and trading.

• Horizontal and vertical integration of agricultural sector, lack of competitionleading to inefficient monopoly or oligopoly practices and pricing.

• Increased gap between crops developed to meet the needs of farmers and thedevelopment of modified crops that respond to scientific capabilities and/orbusiness interests of biotechnology companies.

• Impacts on vulnerable populations – indigenous communities, women, thosesubsisting on marginal lands.189

e.g. If crops are engineered to grow in more saline or water-stressedenvironments will marginal lands with these characteristics become morevaluable thus displacing poor farmers?

• Increased food production and improved food security.• Diminished food security.

e.g., If monoculture cultivation of GM crops increases susceptibility to pestinfestations, it could decrease yields, reducing farmer incomes and foodsecurity.

• Development of healthier foods and positive socio-economic consequences ofa better nourished population.

e.g. People with healthier diets are better able to work, less likely to requiremedical treatment, etc.190

185 Environment Canada, Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Consultation Document (2002), online: EnvironmentCanada <http://www.bco.ec.gc.ca/Protocol/en/protocol.cfm> [Environment Canada].186 GM Crops in Developing Countries at paras. 5.43-5.50.187 Genetically Modified Crops at paras. 5.41-5.42.188 Independent Biotechnology Advisory Council, Economic Implications of a First Release of Genetically ModifiedOrganisms in New Zealand (December 1999), online: Independent Biotechnology Advisory Council<http://www.ibac.org.nz/pubs/first/first_release.doc>.189 Sandy Thomas, “Critical Issues Pertaining to the Gender Dimensions of Biotechnology Policy” , paper prepared forthe Gender Advisory Board, United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development (July 2003),online : Internat ional Development Research Centre <http: / /web.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/10685811781thomas_final.doc>.190 Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The Right to Food. Report Submittedby the Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Jean Ziegler, in accordance with Commission on Human Rights

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• Development of crops and foods with better preservation and distributioncharacteristics.

• Development of new medical treatments that create a more efficient medicalsystem.

e.g. New drugs that reduce hospital stays.• Societal implications of new medical technologies like cloning, gene therapy

and genetic testing.e.g. Genetic testing can allow early treatment of gene-based diseases butmay re-define notions of ‘health’, particularly in the field of insurance, andmay be inadvisable where there are no treatments for the disease.

• Rehabilitation of contaminated land by GM plants and microorganisms allowingthe land to be put back into productive use and eliminating negative healtheffects from the contamination.191

• Use of microorganisms in industrial production could lead to reduction in theuse of chemicals, improving efficiency.

• Effects contrary to the social, cultural, ethical or religious values ofcommunities arising from the use or release of a GMO or a product thereof.192

e.g. Genetic modification as unnatural; perpetuates a utilitarian view ofnature and industrial agriculture contrary to some philosophical views.

• Impacts on animal rights. Animals being genetically modified for human benefitat the cost of pain and suffering to the animals.

e.g. European opposition to the patenting of the Harvard onco-mouse – amouse genetically modified to be more likely to develop canceroustumours for use in cancer research – on the grounds that it was contrary tomorality under Article 53(a) of the European Patent Convention.193

• Loss of confidence in food production and regulatory system by those whoquestion the safety of GMOs.

• Need for reliable and predictable regulatory environment to encouragebusiness investment in biotechnology and promote economic growth.

• Heavy-handed regulation will chill research and development on potentiallybeneficial products and processes.

• Uncertainty over liability for possible negative environmental, health andeconomic consequences of GMOs.

• Technology looking for a problem; technological fixes to social problems thatdo not address the root causes of these problems.194

e.g. Recombinant bovine growth hormone used to increase milk productionwhen there is already over-production of milk. Can lead to dumping ofexcess production on other countries’ markets.

resolution 2003/25, UN ESC, Commission on Human Rights, 60th sess., UN Doc. E/CN.4/2004/10 (2004) at para. 4[Special Rapporteur].191 Environment Canada, supra note 71.192 See submission of the African Group under ‘GG. Annexes’ in BSWG/2/2, supra note 65 at p. 80-81.193 On the basis of this opposition, the scope of the patent was limited from all onco-mammals to only onco-rodents onthe grounds that the suffering of the other onco-mammals outweighed the possible medical benefits. The scope of thepatent has subsequently been limited further to cover only onco-mice.194 Tomme Young, Genetically Modified Organisms and Biosafety : A Background Paper for Decision-Makers andOthers to Assis in Consideration of GMO Issues (IUCN: 2003) at 24-25.

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What is the importance of socio-economic considerations?

Socio-economic considerations in biosafety go to values that states have alreadyacknowledged as relevant and important. Numerous human rights treatiesproclaim the rights of individuals to adequate food, to work, and to health. Theseare just a few of the rights that could be affected by the socio-economic impacts ofthe products and processes of biotechnology. States that are party to the differenttreaties in which these rights are enunciated are bound to uphold these rights. Inthe economic sphere, members of the WTO are bound by the terms of the SPSAgreement. This agreement lists relevant economic factors that members shallconsider in their risk assessments and determination of the appropriate level forsanitary or phytosanitary measures: “the potential damage in terms of loss ofproduction or sales in the event of entry, establishment or spread of a pest ordisease; the costs of control or eradication in the territory of the importingMember; and the relative cost-effectiveness of alternative approaches to limitingrisks.”195 The Biosafety Protocol is thus not the only instrument where states haverecognized the importance of socio-economic impacts to the well-being ofcountry, community and citizen.

To varying degrees, many countries already incorporate some types of socio-economic considerations in their biosafety regimes. Be it the principle of “[t]hemaintenance and enhancement of the capacity of people and communities toprovide for their own economic, social, and cultural well-being and for thereasonably foreseeable needs of future generations” in New Zealand’s HazardousSubstances and New Organisms Act196, or the assessment by Argentina’s NationalDirectorate of Agrifood Markets as to whether the release of a GMO will have anadverse effect on Argentina’s export markets, many countries have recognized thatsocio-economic considerations can be an important part of biosafety decision-making.

From an ISDL perspective, socio-economic considerations are also very important.Incorporating them into biosafety decision-making brings the field of biosafetycloser to the goal of sustainable development by considering all three pillars of theconcept: economic development, social development, and environmentalprotection. As already described, including socio-economic considerations inbiosafety decision-making also responds to many of the principles of internationalsustainable development law and should lead to the creation of biosafetyregulatory regimes that also contribute to sustainable development.

195 SPS Agreement at Art. 5.3.196 Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996 (N.Z.), 1996/30, as amended.

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4.2

The Biosafety Protocol and theRegulation of Genetically Modified Food Aid

by Martin EndicottResearch Fellow, CISDL

The donation of food aid containing genetically modified organisms (GMOs) hascaused considerable international controversy in recent years. Some of the world’spoorest countries, even when struck by famine or natural disasters, have refusedto accept it. Others have imposed special requirements before allowing it acrosstheir borders. This paper considers the background to the issues in this area,analyses the standards set by the Biosafety Protocol197 for the regulation of foodaid, including their interaction with the WTO Agreements, and highlights keyconsiderations for the regulation of food aid in domestic biosafety law.

Background

What is Food Aid?

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has defined food aid as

The provision of food for human consumption for developmentpurposes, including grants and loans for the purchase of food.Associated costs such as transport, storage, distribution, etc., areincluded in this category as are donor-supplied food related items,

197 The Cartagena Protocol (2000) on Biosafety to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (‘the BiosafetyProtocol’).

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such as animal food and agricultural inputs, related to food growingwhen these are part of food aid programmes.198

It can therefore consist of ‘cash’ or ‘in kind’ donations. It is the latter that we aremost concerned with here because whereas financial assistance enables countriesto choose between sources of genetically modified (GM) and non-GM supply, inkind donations do not. For this reason, and because financial donations tend tosupport local and regional producers and so enhance long-term food security,donations in cash are often considered to have the most positive developmentimpact.199 Accordingly, under the 1999 Food Aid Convention, one of the standardsof best practice that donor countries agree to observe is to consider the possibilityof making cash contributions for the local purchase of food.200

Around 10 million tonnes of food aid are delivered annually to countries facingfood shortages.201 Approximately 40-50% of these deliveries are made through theUnited Nations World Food Programme (WFP) and 80-90% of them consist ofcereals.202 The WFP is open about the fact that since 1996 its aid supplies haveincluded GM food.203 The United States is the largest contributor of food aid boththrough the WFP and independently. In 2003, it was responsible for 63% ofdonations amounting to over $1.2 billion, 40% was in the form of loans or grantsand the rest was in kind.204 In the same year, the European Union donated foodaid worth $161 million dollars, Japan $119 million and the United Kingdom $100million.205

The controversy that surrounds the donation of genetically modified food aid canbe understood in the context of two principal factors. First, as the value of thedonations discussed above makes clear, food aid is regularly shipped around theworld in very substantial quantities. Secondly, food aid, in common with manyother forms of aid, is often used not only in an attempt to alleviate food crises butalso to promote the interests of donor countries. The US Food for Peace (PublicLaw 480) programme206 was established to deal with the problems posed byincreasing US agricultural surpluses and decreasing commodity prices in the mid-1950s while at the same time providing a tool with which to reward States that

198 United Nations Development Programme Development Cooperation Report [re Nepal] (UNDP 2000),available online at < www.undp.org.np > (date accessed: 28 May 2005).199 M Mayet ‘GM Food Aid: Africa Denied Choice Once Again?’�(Africa Center for Biosafety and others 2004) 7,available at < http://www.biosafetyafrica.net > (date accessed�: 29 May 2005).200 Article XII (a) (ii) and (ii). The Food Aid Committee (FAC) extended the Food Aid Convention by two yearsin June 2003; FAO Economic & Social Department Food Outlook No.1 (2004) (Food & AgricultureOrganisation 2004), available online at < http://www.fao.org/documents >.201 World Food Programme Annual Report 2003, 50 (‘Global Food Aid Profile’) - available at< http://www.wfp.org/policies/Annual_Reports/ > (date accessed: 29 May 2005).202 Ibid.203 F Pearce ‘UN is slipping modified food into aid’ (19 September 2002) 175 New Scientist 2361: ‘TheWFP says it sees no need to warn about GM material in food aid. It says, "We are just the middle man. If the foodmeets the national standards of the donors, we accept it."’204 M Mayet ‘GM Food Aid: Africa Denied Choice Once Again?’�(Africa Center for Biosafety and others 2004), 7– available at < http://www.biosafetyafrica.net > (date accessed�: 29 May 2005).205 Ibid.206 Established by the Agricultural Trade and Development Assistance Act, Public Law 480 of 1954.

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cooperated with the US and create export markets for US products.207 Somecommentators have suggested that US has used food aid shipments to reward USallies, to assist friendly governments to raise funds to buy arms and to encouragepolitical and economic concessions such as the opening of markets to, forexample, US fertilizer exporters.208 Earl Butz, US Secretary of Agriculture between1971 and 1974, stated openly that ‘Food is a tool. It is a weapon in the USnegotiating kit’.209 Today, it is often suggested that the principal reason thatgenetically modified food aid is being supplied to countries suffering foodshortages is to promote the interests of the biotechnology industry and to expandthe acceptance of genetically modified food.210 In a statement issued in response tothe US complaint about EU regulation of GMOs before the World TradeOrganisation, the EU asserted

Food aid to starving populations should be about meeting the urgenthumanitarian needs of those who are in need. It should not be abouttrying to advance the case for GM food abroad, or planting GM cropsfor export, or indeed finding outlets for domestic surplus, which is aregrettable aspect of the US food aid policy.211

It is interesting to note that if this allegation was to be made out, it wouldrepresent a breach of the Food Aid Convention, Article IX(i) of which obligesConvention Members to ensure that ‘the provision of food aid is not tied directlyor indirectly, formally or informally, explicitly or implicitly, to commercial exportsof agricultural products or other goods and services to recipient countries’.

What are the risks associated with the distribution of GM Food Aid?

The extent of concerns over the distribution of GM Food Aid is well-illustrated byevents in Southern Africa in 2002. That Spring, over 14 million people in SouthernAfrica were faced with critical food shortages. In response to appeals by the WFPand several NGOs, Western governments offered a range of cash and in kind aid.The US offered half of the total food aid requirements for the region but thegovernments of Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Zambia initially refused toaccept deliveries of in kind aid because of concerns over the inclusion ofgenetically modified maize. Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe eventuallyaccepted the aid on condition that it was milled before distribution to preventfarmers replanting the seed in future years. Zambia maintained its refusal toaccept genetically modified maize, even if milled, for three principal reasons.First, it considered that the distribution of GM maize carried a high risk of erodingthe genetic diversity of local maize varieties. Second, it took the view that therewas insufficient knowledge related to the toxicity, allergenicity and antibioticresistance of the maize. In line with this concern, the UK's Chief Scientific AdviserProfessor David King has criticised the donation of GM foods to African countries

207 N Zerbe ‘Feeding the Famine? American Food Aid and the GMO Debate in Southern Africa.’ Food Policy. Vol. 29No. 6 (December, 2004): 593, page 6 of the version available online athttp://www.humboldt.edu/~nrz3/research/index.html (date accessed: 29 May 2005).208 Ibid., 9-16.209 Ibid., 12.210 Ibid., 4.211 Ibid., 33.

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as ‘a massive human experiment’.212 Third, it was concerned that there was a riskthat the cultivation of GM maize in Zambia would endanger future agriculturalexports to the European Union.213

It is far beyond the scope of this paper to analyse the merits of the concernsvoiced about GM food aid but for the sake of providing some context to thediscussion at hand, it is helpful to divide the rightly or wrongly perceived risks ofGM food aid into three broad categories which, as Garforth suggests, can bealigned with the ‘three pillars of sustainable development’, in other words, risks toeconomic, environmental and social interests:214

• Economic Concerns - Loss of Export Opportunities: One of the keyconcerns of the Southern African states offered GM Food Aid in 2002 was therisk of GM contamination of domestic crops leading to the loss of exportopportunities in the EU, Japan and Korea. A particular concern is that if GMgrain is planted in Southern Africa, it will contaminate other grain varieties fedto livestock. The high value African livestock enjoys on European markets asan organic product would then be jeopardised.215

• Environmental Concerns – Unintended Contamination: This category ofrisk centres on the potential for the uncontrolled spread of transgenes fromGMOs by cross-pollination with wild plant varieties. This may occur whenGMO grain is introduced into the environment by planting or by accidentalrelease (such as where seeds escape from vehicles while in transit). Thespread of dominant genes might reduce biodiversity or, for example, passincreased pesticide resistance to target pests making them more difficult tomanage. In relation to the threats posed by the uncontrolled spread of GMvarieties, there are frequent references to the discovery of Starlink, a variety ofGM maize authorised in the US only for use as animal feed because ofpotentially severe allergic reactions in humans, in food products and food aidin the US, Central America, Japan and Korea since 2000.216

• Social Concerns – Human Health and Farming Practices: While expertopinion is generally that the risks of consuming GM food are relatively small,217

most experts also agree that additional research needs to be carried out and asillustrated by the cases of contamination by Starlink maize, varieties which arenot considered safe for human consumption may become mixed with thosethat are. There are also health concerns related to the use of antibioticresistance marker genes, increases in the allergenicity and toxicity of food,changes in nutritional value and unintended side-effects resulting from the

212 Friends of the Earth ‘Playing with Hunger’ (Friends of the Earth International 2003), available online<http://www.foei.org/publications/gmo/index.html> (date accessed�: 29 May 2005).213 Ibid., 24.214 K Garforth ‘Background on Biosafety and the Biosafety Protocol’ (CISDL Working Paper June 2005) 10.215 F Pearce ‘UN is slipping modified food into aid’ (19 September 2002) 175 New Scientist 2361.216 Environmental Rights Action/Friends of the Earth Nigeria ‘Genetically Modified Crops�: A Challenge forAfrica’ (Nigeria 2005) 7, available online at < http://www.biosafetyafrica.net > (date accessed�: 29 May 2005)217H Baumueller ‘Domestic Import Regulations for Genetically Modified Organisms and their Compatibilitywith WTO Rules’ (IISD/ICTSD Trade Knowledge Network 2003) 19, citing findings by the US Food and DrugAdministration (1995), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (1996), the American Medical Association (2000)and the US Department of State (2000).

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process of genetically modification. It has been suggested that these risks mayincrease in magnitude in the context of food aid because that aid is likely toform part of the recipients’ staple diet. There are also concerns over the waythat the business practices of the major biotechnology corporations affectfarming practices. Monsanto, for example, whose seeds are planted on over90% of the total area cultivated with GM crops, requires farmers who buy itsseed to sign a User Technology Agreement that forbids certain traditionalpractices such as seed-saving and has taken an aggressive approach toenforcing its rights under that agreement through litigation.

One of the principal purposes of biosafety law is to manage these perceived risks.Indeed, the term ‘biosafety’ refers to ‘the need to protect human health and theenvironment from the possible adverse effects of the products of modernbiotechnology’.218

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the 1992 Convention onBiological Diversity

The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity is the principal internationalagreement on biodiversity issues. The Cartagena Protocol to the Convention (alsoknown as the ‘Biosafety Protocol’) regulates the movement of geneticallyengineered plants, animals and microbes across international borders andestablishes certain standards for national biosafety regulation.219 Article 1 of theProtocol states that it is intended

to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the fieldof the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organismsresulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effectson the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, takingalso into account risks to human health, and specifically focusing ontransboundary movements.

In other words, it seeks to establish minimum standards of protection for the useand the international transfer of GMOs. It has an important function because,although many aspects of biosafety regulation can be comprehensively addressedby national legislation, it is difficult to regulate cross-border (‘transboundary’)export, import and transit shipments by domestic regulation alone.

The Cartagena Framework and its Relationship with Domestic BiosafetyLaws

The Biosafety Protocol is the product of highly contentious negotiations andrepresents a compromise position in the form of a framework that goes no furtherthan to set minimum international law standards as well as standards for nationalbiosafety laws. It is therefore important to be clear that States are free to

218 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention onBiological Diversity (Montreal 2000), 1 (Introduction).219 The Cartagena Protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003. A Protocol is a section which adds to oramends a treaty after that treaty has been signed.

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implement more extensive biosafety regulations than are provided for in theProtocol. Article 2(4) states the general principle that

Nothing in this Protocol shall be interpreted as restricting the rightof any Party to take action that is more protective of theconservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and calledfor in this Protocol provided that such action is consistent with theobjective and the provisions of this Protocol and is in accordancewith that Party's other obligations under international law.

Thus the Protocol is best conceived as the foundations for, rather than the upperlimits of, biosafety regulation.

Relationship with Obligations under the WTO Agreements

There is an ongoing debate over the effect of the Protocol on the disciplinesimposed by the WTO Agreements on WTO Members’ rights to restrict imports ofGMOs. The Protocol’s Preamble states that the Protocol ‘shall not be interpretedas implying a change in the rights and obligations of a Party under any existinginternational agreements’ but that this recognition is ‘not intended to subordinate[the] Protocol to other international agreements’ and that ‘trade and environmentagreements should be mutually supportive with a view to achieving sustainabledevelopment’.

International agreements relevant to the regulation of the import of GMOs thatexisted at the time the Biosafety Protocol was opened for signature include theGATT, the WTO Agreements on the Application of Sanitary and Phyto-SanitaryMeasures (SPS) and on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT).220 The implications ofthese Agreements for the application of the Biosafety Protocol will be discussed ina separate section below.

Application of the Protocol to Consignments of Food Aid

The scope of the Protocol is limited to ‘living modified organisms’ (Article 4,‘LMOs’) defined as ‘any biological entity capable of transferring or replicatinggenetic material, including sterile organisms, viruses and viroids’ (Article 2(h)).This definition covers genetically modified organisms that could survive ifintroduced into the environment (eg seeds) but is unlikely to extend to GMOs thathave been processed.

As a compromise between major GMO exporting States and food importing States,the Protocol sets up two parallel regimes. The Article 7 Advanced InformedAgreement regime applies to LMOs ‘for intentional introduction into theenvironment’ such as seeds for experimental or commercial planting or fish forrelease (referred to here as LMO-FIEs). The less restrictive Article 11 BiosafetyClearing House regime applies to LMO’s ‘for direct use as food or feed or for

220 These Agreements entered into force with the establishment of the World Trade Organization on 1 January1995.

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processing’ (whole corn or soybeans, for example, known as LMO-FFPs). The vastmajority of traded LMOs are LMO-FFPs which is the reason that exporters werekeen to limit regulatory requirements.

There is no express mention of food aid in the Protocol but it is likely that aidshipments intended for direct use as food or for processing (eg grain shipments)fall within the Article 11 regime. Given the Protocol’s definition of LMOs,however, processed GM foods such as soy flour, corn-soy blends, maize meal andvegetable oils are unlikely to come within its scope. Whether to a adopt nationallegislation that regulates processed GM foods is therefore left entirely to thediscretion of individual States.

The approach of the World Food Programme (WFP) is to treat all LMOs that itdistributes as LMO-FFPs. Its Operational Guidelines on the Donation of FoodsDerived from Modern Biotechnology (2004) state

any commodity distributed by WFP to or transiting through a Party tothe Protocol that meets the definition of an LMO (which at presentwould apply only to unprocessed maize and soybeans) should beconsidered as “intended for direct use as food or feed, or forprocessing” under terms of the Protocol. 221

However, the WFP also undertakes to observe any definition of a regulated GMfood in national laws and requires that WFP country offices comply with anynational regulations and policies on the transit and importation of food.

Publication of National LMO-FFP Regulations & Risk Assessments

By Article 11(1), a Party that makes a final decision regarding domestic use of anLMO-FFP (eg approving its use and commercial availability) agrees to publish thatdecision through the Biosafety Clearing House (BCH) within 15 days. Any suchdecision must be accompanied by, among other things, information as to theidentity of the LMO and a risk assessment report (Annex II). Article 15 requiresthat risk assessments be carried out in a scientifically sound and transparentmanner using recognised techniques in order to evaluate the potential adverseeffects of LMOs on biodiversity in the likely receiving environment and taking intoaccount risks to human health (Annex III, 1-3).

The BCH is an information sharing system, consisting primarily of a websitemaintained by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.222 TheSecretariat uses the website to publish national biosafety laws, regulations andguidelines, copies of which the Parties agree to supply for this purpose (Article11(5)).223 The idea of this transparency mechanism is that potential importing States

221 World Food Programme ‘Operational Guidelines on the Donation of Foods Derived from ModernBiotechnology’ 11 February 2004 WFP/EB.1/2004/10-C.222 < http://bch.biodiv.org/ > (date accessed�: 29 May 2005).223 The requirements in relation to importing LMO-FFPs are significantly less demanding than in relation toLMO-FIEs. Under the Article 7 Advance Informed Agreement Procedure, prospective exporters of LMO-FIEsare required to notify the importing State of the intention to import LMOs prior to their first cross-bordermovement (Article 7(1)) and to await the importing State’s authorisation for the import (Article 10).

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will be notified by publication through the BCH that another State has decided toallow a particular GMO onto the market and can then decide whether to introducedomestic regulatory controls on the LMO that has become available forinternational trade. Obviously, the efficacy of this system depends on carefulmonitoring of BCH publications and there are fears that some States do not havethe necessary resources to ensure that this occurs.

Article 11(8) confirms that Parties are entitled to take decisions regarding theimport of LMO-FFPs in accordance with the ‘precautionary principle’. That is,parties are entitled to impose regulations that they consider appropriate to avoidor minimise the potential adverse effects of importing LMO-FFPs even where thereis a ‘lack of scientific certainty due to insufficient relevant scientific informationand knowledge regarding the extent of the potential adverse effects’ of an LMO onbiodiversity and in relation to human health. This might include total bans orspecial requirements such as that GMO grain must be milled before or on deliveryto prevent planting. However, WTO Members must ensure that thereprecautionary approach is consistent with their obligations under the SPSAgreement. The key consideration in this regard, as will be further discussedbelow, is that precautionary restrictions should be regarded as provisional in thatthe SPS Agreement imposes an obligation to seek further scientific information tojustify the measure within a reasonable period of time.

Identifying Documentation

By Article 18(1), Parties agree to require that LMOs that are subject to intentionaltransboundary movement are ‘handled, packaged and transported underconditions of safety’. LMO-FFPs must have accompanying documentation (forexample, commercial invoices) that clearly identifies that they ‘may contain’ LMOsand are not intended for intentional introduction into the environment, as well as acontact point for further information (Article 18(2)(a)). At the first Meeting of theParties, Parties and other governments were encouraged to require the identifyingdocumentation to state the common, scientific and commercial names, as well asthe transformation event code or unique identifier of the LMO-FFP in question andin cases of intentional shipment, to state ‘contains LMOs’ rather than ‘may containLMOs’. An expert group was set up to discuss documentation requirements and isset to report to the 2005 Meeting of the Parties.

The Implications of the WTO Agreements for the Regulation of Food Aid

As mentioned above, the Protocol’s Preamble is clear that obligations under theWTO Agreements have to be considered alongside the Protocol scheme. In otherwords, import and other trade-related restrictions implemented pursuant to theProtocol or national biosafety laws must comply with those Agreements. Theimplications of this are currently being tested before a WTO Panel in the disputesettlement proceedings brought by the US, Canada, Argentina and others againstthe EU in respect of an alleged moratorium on the approval of new GMOs andseveral import and marketing bans in some EU member States.

Article XX GATT sets out General Exceptions allowing Members to take measureswhich would otherwise violate GATT principles to, among other things, protect

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human, animal or plant life or health. Even where such an exception applies,however, Members are under an obligation to ensure that they adopt the leasttrade-restrictive measure possible and to ensure that they do not discriminatebetween like products. The issue of likeness is a particularly controversial one inthis field. There are diverging views on whether GMOs and their products are‘substantially equivalent’ to their non-modified counterparts and there have yet tobe any decisions on the issue. A good example of the problematic issues that canarise whether tuna packed in GM soya oil should be considered to be ‘like’ thesame tuna packed in non GM oil. GATT practice indicates that four criteria shouldbe taken into account in making this determination: (1) the product’s physicalproperties, (2) its end uses, (3) its tariff classification and (4) consumers’ tastes andhabits. It is the fourth of these which leaves the most room for argument.

The SPS Agreement is intended to ensure that human and animal health (sanitary)and plant health (phyto-sanitary) measures do not amount to unnecessary,arbitrary, scientifically unjustifiable or disguised restrictions on international trade(Preamble, Article 5(5) SPS). It does this by requiring that such measures areeither based on existing international standards (Article 3(1) SPS) or on a riskassessment (Articles 3(3), 5 SPS). Otherwise, where relevant scientific evidence isinsufficient, Members may adopt provisional measures but must seek to obtainadditional information necessary for an objective risk assessment ‘within areasonable period of time’ (Article 5(7) SPS). This suggests an important limitationon the right to restrict imports in accordance with the precautionary principle thatis contained in the Biosafety Protocol: that precautionary measures can be onlyprovisional.224 Of course, much turns on the interpretation of terms such as‘provisional’ and a ‘reasonable length of time’. A Panel might be persuaded totake a liberal approach as to their interpretation taking into account the strongerprecautionary rights adopted in the Biosafety Protocol in addition to the notionthat trade and environment agreements should be ‘mutually supportive’.

The TBT Agreement provides that mandatory technical regulations, voluntarystandards and related assessment procedures (other than measures governed bythe SPS Agreement) should not be more trade restrictive than necessary to achievea legitimate objective. Article 2(2) TBT specifies that legitimate objectives include,among other things: ‘national security requirements; the prevention of deceptivepractices; protection of human health or safety, animal or plant life or health, allthe environment’. It is not yet clear whether measures such as the labelling ofGMO products to provide consumer information constitute a legitimate objective.Another issue arises from the fact, that like the GATT, the TBT Agreement doesnot permit discrimination between ‘like products’ (Article 2.1 TBT). The meaningof like products is not defined and there is considerable potential for disagreementover whether a GMO-FFP is ‘like’ a non-GMO (ie traditionally bred) relative.225

224 In EC - Measures Concerning Meat and Meet Products (Hormones) AB-1997-3, WT/DS26/AB/R, 1998 theAppellate Body agreed with the Panels finding that although the precautionary principle is reflected in Article5.7 of the SPS Agreement, it ‘would not override the explicit wording of Articles 5.1 and 5.2.225 According to the concept of ‘substantial equivalence’ adopted by the Organisation for Economic andCooperative Development as a guiding principle for assessing the safety of GM foods, genetic modification‘does not inherently lead to foods that are less safe than those develop by conventional techniques’ and theirsafety evaluation does not require a different standard of safety.

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Key Considerations for the Regulation of Food Aid in DomesticLaw

National governments engaged in the process of drafting biosafety laws may wellbe inclined to consider the effect of those laws on the control of food aid. Thissection provides a brief discussion of the factors most relevant to this issue. Thereis also a consideration of the approach adopted in the African Model Law onSafety in Biotechnology, approved by the Organisation for African Unity (now theAfrican Union) in 2001.226

The intention behind the Model Law is to build upon the structure of the BiosafetyProtocol and to promote harmonised biosafety legislation in African countries.While it is used here as an example of the potential form of biosafety regulations,it is also recognised that key considerations will vary across individual countriesand that it is important that national law-makers will want to take account of theirparticular domestic legal background.

Scope

As explained above, the Protocol makes a significant distinction in the way thatthe movement of LMO-FIEs and LMO-FFPs is regulated. A key consideration iswhether to maintain this distinction in national biosafety laws. Relevant factors inthis context include

• The fact that the Protocol’s distinction between the two categories is generallyseen as a negotiating concession made to parties who did not want to restrictthe trade in GMOs.

• The acknowledged risk that LMO-FFPs may be introduced into theenvironment, perhaps by planting or by accidental escape from, for example,open-topped trucks.227

• That there is no obligation to notify national authorities of LMO-FFP imports ininternational law. Indeed, the WFP has made clear, that in the absence ofnational law requirements, it sees no need to provide notifications of GMmaterial in food aid.228 Accordingly, States may wish to make it a legalrequirement that national authorities are notified about and have a reasonableperiod to decide whether to authorise the delivery of GM food aidconsignments before they are brought across their borders (by, for example,introducing requirements similar to the Advanced Informed AgreementProcedure that would apply to food shipments). National governments mustalso consider the resources that they can make available for the processing ofnotifications.

226 OAU African Model Law on Safety in Biotechnology (2001), available at < www.africabio.com > (dateaccessed�: 29 May 2005).227 ‘Recent research in Mexico found that GM maize imported from the US to make tortillas has been plantedand is now contaminating fields far and wide.’; F Pearce ‘UN is slipping modified food into aid’ (19 September2002) 175 New Scientist 2361.228 F Pearce ‘UN is slipping modified food into aid’ (19 September 2002) 175 New Scientist 2361.

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A further consideration is whether a national law should be drafted so as to applyto processed foods and other categories which are excluded from the scope of theBiosafety Protocol such as foods in transit (a category excluded from the scope ofthe Protocol by Article 6). Article 2 of the African Model Biosafety Law providesthat it shall also apply ‘to the import, export, transit, contained use, release orplacing on the market of any genetically modified organism whether intended forrelease into the environment, for use as a pharmaceutical, for food, feed orprocessing or a product of a genetically modified organism.’ Thus it applies toseveral categories excluded from the scope of the Protocol (eg GMOs in transit ordestined for contained use) as well as to GM products (widely defined in Article1). Article 4 goes on to require procedures very similar to those of the Protocol’sAdvanced Informed Agreement Procedure in respect of all GMOs (rather than onlyGMO-FIEs as in the case of the Protocol). One potential concern is the resourcesavailable to national authorities to review such an expansive range of notificationswithin a period of time that does not unnecessarily restrict international trade.

Approval Criteria and Risk Management

Two interesting additional features of the Model Law regime are the requirementsimposed under Articles 6(9) and 6(10). Article 26 of the Protocol confirms thatParties may take into account socio-economic considerations when makingdecisions on import approvals. Article 6(9) of the Model Law seeks to ensure thatsuch considerations are taken into account by requiring that no approval for GMOimports or use is granted unless it is determined that granting it will:

• Benefit the country without causing any significant risk to theenvironment, biological diversity or human health;

• Contribute to sustainable development;• Not have adverse socio-economic impacts; and• Accord with the ethical values and concerns of communities and

does not undermine community knowledge and technologies.

Article 6(10) requires as a condition for approval of import or use that theapplicant ‘furnish evidence of insurance cover or some other arrangementssufficient to meet its obligations under this law.’ Insurance is an important factorto consider given that Article 27 of the Protocol foresees the establishment of rulesand procedures for liability and redress for damage resulting from transboundarymovement of GMOs. GM contamination has the potential to lead to verysubstantial losses because, for example, products may have to be recalled andexport opportunities may be lost.

Labelling & Traceability

Given the substantial influx of unfamiliar GM products that might arrive in thecountry in the form of aid, national governments may consider the establishmentof labelling and traceability requirements an important issue. The Protocol doesnot make any provision for them but they are considered important elements ofsome existing regulatory (the EU’s regime is a prominent example). Labellingrequirements ensure that GM products are fully identified and carry importantinformation on their use. Traceability refers to the establishment of a system

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enabling the tracking of GM produce as it moves between distributors before itreaches the end user. Labelling and traceability requirements must not be moretrade restrictive than necessary if they are to comply with the WTO TBTAgreement. They potentially have a trade restrictive effect because of theadditional expense that may be incurred if imports have to undergo identificationtests or if GM produce has to be segregated from non GM produce. However, asto what is necessary, it is important to note that the Codex AlimentariusCommission, which sets international food safety standards, adopted standards forgenetically modified foods in 2003 which refer to the tracing of products andlabelling as legitimate risk management tools.229

Public Awareness and Participation

Given that food aid imports often relate to emergency situations that call for abalancing between effective relief and the management of GMO-related risks, theinvolvement of the public in the decision-making process regarding GMOs may beconsidered especially important. Article 23 of the Protocol requires parties toconsult the public in the decision-making process and to make the results of suchdecisions are available to the public. Article 5 of the African Model Law providesfor the public to participate in the decision-making process through a notice andcomment procedure and by public consultations, at the discretion of thecompetent authority. Article 5 also requires that the information provided by theapplicant when making an application for import approval be made publiclyavailable.

Conclusions

Given the concerns that have been widely expressed over imports of GM food, thefact that there is no requirement in international nor in many national laws thatsuch imports be notified to national authorities is an important factor to beconsidered in the design of national biosafety laws. In the absence of such arequirement, countries which receive food aid should work on the assumption thatthat aid will contain GMOs and that they will not receive advance notification ofthis. This may be of concern because past experience is that GMOs provided asfood have been introduced into the environment by planting or by accidentalrelease.

The Biosafety Protocol simply provides a framework that leaves much regulatorywork to be done at the national level. National policy-makers must considerwhether they are satisfied with the protection offered by the Biosafety ClearingHouse procedure in relation to imports of food. While keeping in mind WTOobligations, key issues for national governments in the regulation of food aidtherefore include, first and foremost, whether to extend the scope of advancedinformed agreement procedures to GMOs intended for food as well as whether to

229 Available at < http://www.codexalimentarius.net > (date accessed�: 30 May 2005), cited in Baumueller‘Domestic Import Regulations for Genetically Modified Organisms and their Compatibility with WTO Rules�:Some Key Issues’ (Trade Knowledge Network 2003) 5.

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incorporate labelling and traceability requirements and a transparent decision-making process that enables public participation.

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5

Scoping Future Trends in Biosafety

By Kathryn Garforth, Legal Research Fellow, CISDLChristine Frison, Legal Research Fellow, CISDL

Sylvestre Manga, Research Fellow, CISDLJorge Cabrera Medaglia, Lead Counsel on Biodiversity, CISDL

Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger, Director, CISDL230

In CISDL’s experience, consideration of the legal aspects of biosafety leadsinevitably to the scientific material when creating, developing and applyinginternational legal norms in national legislation. This section will briefly survey theway international legal norms on biosafety are dealt with and applied by states atthe national level.

CISDL’s analysis is based on the organization’s recent experience in many LatinAmerican and Francophone African countries and in particular through theinvolvement of our multidisciplinary team with the UNEP-GEF DevelopmentProject. The objective of the project is to assist countries to develop the tools theyneed in order to apply the obligations in the Biosafety Protocol in their nationallaws.

One of the first concerns to arise during reviews of developing countries’ nationalbiosafety frameworks involves the “scientific” parts of the Protocol. References toscientific terms, techniques or mechanisms that are included in the legislation or

230 This section is drawn from a Biosafety Scoping Study conducted for the International Development ResearchCentre, Ottawa, Canada. and compiled. The complete study will shortly be available online at www.cisdl.org.

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National Biosafety Framework are often not very clear. Definitions can bemeaningless or taken out of context, techniques can be mixed up, risk assessmentor decision-making processes can be incomplete. This creates uncertainty in thenational policy and/or law where precision and clarity are needed. Uncertaintythreatens to hinder the implementation of a country’s biosafety law and policy,which could lead to negative impacts on the safety, development and well-beingof the national population and environment as well as a significant waste of veryscarce resources and political will.

The reason for these difficulties cannot be exclusively attributed to a lack of meansor scientific capacity within a country. In fact, many countries have establishedhighly competent scientific structures in very different fields (medical, agricultural,botanical, etc.) Even though these structures and institutions are limited in thetechniques available for their use, and rely on the knowledge that is widelyavailable, several countries have the basic structures and competent people to dealwith biosafety issues, or could become part of sub-regional or regionalcooperation frameworks that could complement one another.

Difficulties in fulfilling the obligations in the Biosafety Protocol, cannot, therefore,be solely attributed to a lack of capacity. Instead, a major obstacle has been a lackof cooperation or teamwork between national bodies and competent peopleworking in the different areas addressed by the Protocol (i.e. both the legal andscientific domains.231) Assistance with institutional and organizational collaboration(governance and regulatory reform) are important priorities, and are assignificantly and simultaneously essential as assistance on the understanding,development and application of international norms. Bringing people togetherundoubtedly increases the efficacy of the work. Consulting scientific experts ontheir areas of competency during the drafting of a law in order to check themeaning and certainty of the facts or mechanisms described in the law would helpto avoid confusion, contradictions and gaps.

Further specific weaknesses and concerns have been identified by developingcountry leaders, scientists and civil society representatives, in interviews andscientific consultations held during recent meetings, especially in FrancophoneAfrica. Specific concerns relate mainly to the policy objectives set by aparticipatory process in the country in question.

In some countries, policies with regards to biosafety issues are very precautionary.This is especially true for small island developing countries such as Cape Verde,the Seychelles or Madagascar, for Muslim countries such as Algeria, and forcountries with high dependence on tourism or agricultural trade with Europe, andfragile ecologies such as Ecuador. In some countries of Asia and Central Asia,there is also concern that the socio-economic changes wrought by biotechnology

231 This problem is not unique to biosafety and the need for collaboration among people from different disciplines isalso evident in access and benefit-sharing, see Kathryn Garforth & Jorge Cabrera, Sustainable Biodiversity Law:Global Access, Local Benefits: A Scoping Study on Future Research Priorities for Access to Genetic Resources andBenefit-Sharing (Montreal: CISDL, August 2004), online: CISDLhttp://www.cisdl.org/pdf/CISDL_ABS_Scoping_Study.pdf at 14.

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could, if not understood and properly managed, have similar costs and benefits asdid the Green Revolution.

In other countries, policies with regards to biosafety issues are intermediatelyprotective – simultaneously biosafety and development oriented. This is especiallytrue for countries with ‘porous’ boundaries such as Togo, Niger and Mali, wherepublic or governmental concerns are high, and there is a strong dependence onsubsistence agriculture or food trade, but there is also a need to learn to addressproducts which enter the country regardless of controls.

And in still other countries, policies have sought primarily to encouragedevelopment of biotechnology, while ensuring an adequate level of biosafety. Thisis particularly true of those countries with a close relationship to the U.S. such asBurkina Faso, Mozambique, Chile or Argentina. Such countries might also serve as‘gateways’ for crops or aquaculture LMOs to the rest of their continents.

However, for all countries (including those who are WTO members and thoseseeking to eventually join, and those who receive significant levels of food aid),overlaps and potential conflicts between different international accords are ofserious concern. Other important questions for future biosafety research related tolegal and policy regimes include issues such as the need to balance legal andscientific aspects of obligations and requirements under national and internationallaw, the need to ensure solid and informed participation of civil society indecision-making, and the need to develop or learn the best possible riskassessment laws and techniques for effectiveness in different local contexts. It is tosuch questions that we turn next.

Research Questions

In the process of conducting this scoping study, CISDL consulted with a range ofdifferent actors in the biosafety field. There is widespread agreement that manyunanswered questions remain and much more work is needed on biosafetyresearch that focuses on the concerns of developing countries. Here are some ofthese questions and concerns that would need to be developed in order to reach abetter level of understanding and application of biosafety norms and issues. Thequestions are grouped into categories for ease of reference.

National and International Biosafety Governance

What obstacles do countries face in ratifying the Biosafety Protocol? Why are somecountries not ratifying the Protocol? (A comparative analysis of why differentcountries have not ratified the Protocol would be useful in helping othersunderstand specific reasons why countries have not ratified.)

What obstacles do countries face in creating and implementing a regulatoryframework on biosafety either to comply with the Biosafety Protocol or to gobeyond its provisions? How best to pass beyond these obstacles, and overcomebarriers – what are the best practices among regulatory options that othercountries with similar policy objectives have used?

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Can analysis, based on comprehensive case studies, be developed to demonstratehow, in reality, a country’s obligations under different international instrumentsrelated to biosafety (e.g. the Biosafety Protocol, the IPPC, Codex, etc.) can affectthe national biosafety process?

How useful is the information on the Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH)? Would theinclusion or availability of other information be more useful? Would more types ofinformation or other types of information increase use of the BCH (e.g. throughreciprocity – “we find it useful so we will contribute”)?

Would the inclusion of more information on decision-making in the BCH beuseful? For example, rather than having only a summary of the risk assessment fora particular organism, would it be possible to also include information on why thedecision to block or allow import was made?

How could countries take more advantage of/better use the BCH mechanism?What strategy could be used to induce countries to better take account of the BCHin their national biosafety frameworks and legislation? Would regional cooperationassist?

How can developing countries design and use regional biosafety mechanisms forthe purposes of scientific and regulatory risk assessment, particularly when facedwith porous borders or similar requests from exporters? What is the potential forcooperation between laboratories or scientific institutions, and between regulatorybodies, and how could this be encouraged? Can joint systems be set in place tosupport monitoring, certification, etc.?

The notion of ‘Risk Management’ (Biosafety Protocol Art. 16) does not existexplicitly in the WTO Agreements, at best one may consider that Article 5.3 of theSPS Agreement represents an opening in that direction. Risk management, and theProtocol’s Art. 16, might be de facto contested through the Doha Declaration’sintroduction of the term of “Specific Trade Obligation” (para. 31(i)) by beingconsidered neither specific nor obligatory enough. What does this say about issueslike compatibility, coherence, WTO-UN relations, or the environmental mandate,potential or aspirations of the Doha Development Agenda?

Does the Biosafety Protocol’s Meeting of the Parties represent an ‘internationalstandardizing body’ in the sense of TBT Art. 1.1 (Assuming that it is about tocreate rules such as the ones on liability, redress etc.)? Is the Protocol itself aStandard in the sense of TBT Annex 1, paragraph 2 and SPS Annex A, paragraph3(d)? What are the legal stakes?

How can developing countries best participate in and follow-up the Meeting of theParties to the Biosafety Protocol in an informed manner? Which representation ismost effective, and how can information be shared between one meeting and thenext?

How can developing countries achieve coherent and coordinated participation inother fora besides the CBD that also deal with related issues on trade, tracking and

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labelling, liability and redress, basic information for risk management andassessment, and food safety?

What are alternative governance options for addressing GMO regulatory issues andmechanisms for harmonizing or resolving differences in existing approaches andmethods?

What are the different views, interests, and roles played by different non-governmental institutions (including business firms) regarding GMO risks andregulations, and their implications for governance? How to ensure full‘participation’ in a biosafety decision-making process, while staying within themeager resources of most countries (and civil society actors), and not allowing onesector to ‘dominate’ a process?

How to ensure transparency and participation when there does not appear to bean adequate level of basic knowledge about biosafety issues, and biotechnology,among a country’s population, and how best to inform the population without‘propagandizing’?

Social and Economic Biosafety Issues for Developing Countries

What are the social, cultural, and economic dimensions of GMO risks andregulation as well as the scientific dimensions of environmental health and safetyeffects? What procedures or methodologies can be used for the assessment ofsocio-economic considerations in biosafety decision-making?

Does the decision of a state to ratify one international biosafety-related instrument,but not another, affect farmers’ and consumers’ choice? How is it possible to avoidpredetermination in their understanding of biosafety and in their behaviours? Howis it possible to avoid exclusion of a part of a country’s people in socio-economicdecision-making relating to biotechnology?

What is the impact of a widespread switch to raising genetically modifiedorganisms for export on domestic food consumption and nutrition? How cancountries with high levels of public apprehension due, for example, to religious orcultural factors, address the dichotomy between international and domestic culturalstandards?

What is ‘sound science’? How does the requirement for scientific risk assessmentsunder the Protocol (see, in particular, Article 15) correspond to similarrequirements in the WTO’s SPS Agreement (see, in particular, Art 2.2, Art. 3.3, Art.5.1 & 5.2)? Can decision-making include social science considerations as providedin Article 26 of the Protocol?

Imported GM crops which have been grown efficiently with huge machinery onvery large farms in industrialized countries, perhaps subsidized directly orindirectly by the country of export, could be relatively cheap in the country ofimport and interesting to urban markets. At the same time these low-price(dumped?) imports may be devastating for the domestic farmers (often the majorityof the population) who tend to be suffering most from poverty already, find

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themselves now unable to sell their production, and cannot afford to buy thepatented seed/fertilizer/pesticide package. This may even drive rural populationsinto urban slums and cycles of social exclusion. How can a developing countryprotect itself against such occurrences or trends, under the Protocol’s Article 26 onsocio-economic considerations?

What impact could the adventitious presence of GMOs in exports from developingcountries have on these countries’ access to markets?

Article 2.2 of the WTO’s TBT Agreement on the preparation, adoption andapplication of technical regulations allows certain objectives and elements to betaken into account when evaluating the legitimacy of a trade measure. How can animporting country invoke, in this legal context, legitimate and relevant objectivesand elements of consideration which are based on approaches other thanbiological risk assessment, e.g. socio-economic risk assessment or other societalconcerns and issues?

Within a process of democratic participation, decision-making should necessarilyinvolve and take into account the points of view, needs, and concerns of experts,people involved in each process, people potentially affected by the short andlong-term consequences of policies, policy-makers. How could this be built intothe requirements for scientific decision-making under the Protocol? What role doconsumers play in decisions about access to public information and the use andlabeling of genetically modified products?

Emerging Questions in Biotechnology for Developing Countries

What strategies are being used by the biotechnology industry to break intomarkets where people are poor? Does the arrival of biotechnology in thesemarkets help people or make them poorer?

What obstacles do developing countries face as they try to commercialize theproducts of local and domestic biotechnology research and development? Whatcan be done to overcome these obstacles?

What is the ‘right to choose’ in relation to biotechnology? What are its bases inindividual autonomy and the competitiveness of the marketplace? In what areas ofthe economy might choice be limited as a consequence of the prevailing businessmodel of the biotechnology industry? How might farmers’ choices be affected bybiotechnology? How might consumers’ choices be affected by biotechnology?

What are other options besides biotechnology for solving the challenges faced bypoor farmers? For example, what role could small-scale irrigation play inincreasing agricultural productivity in comparison to the development of higher-yielding varieties through biotechnology?

How much information does the biotechnology industry provide on the effects ofbiotechnology on land, water, food, the health and well-being of workers handlingit, potential market effects on regional products and by-products, potentialbiodiversity loss, cost-benefit analyses that do not include negative externalities,

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industry liability for long-term effects of their products, and the burden of proof onindustry? What should governments do to make sure people are aware of theimplications of biotechnology in the above-listed areas? What measures should betaken to provide people with full information on these aspects where industry isnot willing to provide it willingly? Should this be done at the international level?Who should do the monitoring?

Developing Country Technical Compliance with the Cartagena Protocol

What are the major scientific and regulatory capacity needs and limitations that arehindering developing countries from effectively implementing the BiosafetyProtocol? What efforts have been made to address these needs and limitations,have these succeeded, and what are the major remaining gaps?

What are the legal and institutional difficulties faced by developing countries inimplementing a biosafety regulatory regime (e.g., understanding of theimplications of a labeling/tracking system, the details of such a system such as theallowable limit for the incidental presence of GMOs, liability, coexistence,regulations of commodities, technical feasibility of tracking the presence of GMOsin imports/internal market, institutional design to handle GMOs, exportrequirements, intellectual property rights, etc.)?

How can developing countries conduct regulatory assessments or use other newtools to identify the areas of their biosafety systems that need to be strengthened(e.g. scientific capacity, regulatory capacity, innovation)? How can they prioritizethese different areas once they are identified?

What other fields of regulation, apart from the specifics of biosafety, are also keyfor the effective functioning of a biosafety system? (e.g. intellectual property,liability rules, consumer protection, other safety systems, access to information,access to justice, competition, etc.)

What are the scientific and technical challenges faced by developing countries inimplementing a biosafety regulatory regime (e.g., understanding of and capacity toimplement risk assessment and risk management, assess socio-economicconsiderations, conduct decision-making based on sound science, etc.)?

How would it be possible to deal with scientific compliance issues in nationalbiosafety frameworks and laws in a more comprehensive manner? How to address,for example, technical scientific definitions of terms; determination, limitation ofrights and obligations regarding certain scientific techniques and mechanisms;including/excluding certain scientific techniques from a legal mechanism and otherissues in a way that is relevant to each country’s specific circumstances, but alsoconsistent?

What types of tools have been used to build biosafety capacity to date (e.g.training workshops, manuals, etc.)? How effective have these tools been and whatare some areas for improvement? How can developing countries optimize the useof their existing capacities and adapt them to cover the field of biosafety? How can

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existing legal and administrative frameworks in related areas (e.g. phytosanitarymeasures) be affected by and contribute to the national biosafety framework?

Article 18 of the Biosafety Protocol on “handling, transport, packaging andidentification” is one of the most controversial areas of the Protocol. What are thereal underlying issues and concerns of the different stakeholders in regards to thisprovision?

The Biosafety Protocol does not yet contain any Liability and Redress provisions(Article 27) at this point in time. Can a country justify an import ban on GMproducts on this ground? How can developing countries begin to prepare fornegotiations on this issue in the Meeting of the Parties to the Protocol, what wouldbe their interests and agendas, and how can they cooperate to achieve maximumsuccess?

Can standard risk assessment procedures be developed that will be accepted bythe international community both in the context of the Biosafety Protocol andbeyond?

How can the confidentiality of information be better understood and protected? Ifconfidentiality is well defined in a country’s national biosafety framework, how isit possible to improve its application and implementation in law?

How can countries create public participation structures that do not overwhelmtheir other obligations under the Protocol? How can countries strike the rightbalance between the confidentiality of information and public participation? Howcan countries include public participation in their biosafety mechanisms?

Sustainable Development and the Biosafety Protocol

What is or can be the role of the Biosafety Protocol in fostering sustainabledevelopment? Why is ensuring the safe use of biotechnology products critical forsustainable development?

How do States, and in particular developing countries, see the link between theBiosafety Protocol and sustainable development? Do they consider sustainabledevelopment issues when complying with their obligations deriving from theBiosafety Protocol in national frameworks or legislation?

What are the key analytic and normative principles, such as the precautionaryprinciple and environmental impact assessment, and what is their relevance forgovernance?

Recommendations

Based on the discussions and research that CISDL has conducted for this scopingstudy, we have three recommendations for IDRC for its work on biosafety.

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1. There is a need for developing countries to implement solid biosafety regulatoryregimes now, in accordance with their specific concerns and priorities, and withregional and international support.2. There is a need for significant support for focused, multidisciplinary biosafetyresearch, capacity building and development in developing countries, payingequal attention to the regulatory and scientific aspects.3. It is time for all the actors in developing country governments, scientificcommunities, legal communities and civil society to start “acting” rather than“expecting”.

Each of these is discussed in more detail below.

1. There is a need for developing countries to implement solid biosafety regulatoryregimes now, in accordance with their specific concerns and priorities, and withregional and international support.

Extensive work is being undertaken towards the implementation of the BiosafetyProtocol, particularly in developing countries. If appropriate measures are not putin place now, it will be very difficult to amend the systems in the near future. Thiswill be due to both a lack of political motivation at the national level and lack ofsupport at the international level as current capacity-building projects draw to aclose.

This is not to say that countries should expect that they can create a biosafetyregulatory regime and be done with the issue within their country. Biosafetysystems require revision as experience with biotechnology grows, and as both thescience and the industry change. The biosafety regulatory regimes that countriescreate today will need reviewing and updating in the future. But given the currentmomentum behind biosafety, it is imperative that the regulatory systems thatdeveloping countries are drafting at present are the best they can be based oncurrent realities.

A second component to this recommendation is that the biosafety regulatoryregimes being created by developing countries should include all areas thatcountries wish to regulate and otherwise address, in a way that is appropriate tothe special circumstances of that country. For example, they do not simply need tobe regimes on living modified organisms within the scope of the Protocol, butmust have appropriate scope. They should address the specific policy objectives(whether firmly precautionary, intermediate, or development oriented) of thecountry and its people. They can also address the specific pressing questions ofhighest importance to the developing country within its own context, includingfood aid issues, religious or cultural questions, adequate risk assessment anddecision-making procedures, and levels of public participation and information; aswell as challenges related to porous borders, uneven rule of law, and insufficientlevels of scientific or technical knowledge and regulatory cooperation.

As discussed above, there is more to biosafety than the Biosafety Protocol.Countries need to decide which areas of biosafety and biotechnology they wish toregulate and proceed from there in creating their systems rather than relying on

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the terms of international agreements like the Biosafety Protocol to determine thescope of their regulatory systems for them.

2. There is a need for significant support to focused, multidisciplinary biosafetyresearch, capacity building and development in developing countries, paying equalattention to the regulatory and scientific aspects.

Biosafety is a multidisciplinary field and should not be approached in an isolatedfashion. Integration and cooperation is needed at a number of levels: the researchlevel, the legal level, and the drafting and implementation level.

As is well illustrated by the research questions in this study, biosafety researchdraws on a number of different fields including science, law, philosophy, andeconomics. In funding research on biosafety, IDRC should keep these differentdisciplines in mind and consider projects that approach the issue from a variety ofdifferent fields of inquiry.

The multidisciplinary aspect of biosafety also comes to the fore as countries draftand implement biosafety laws and policies. This occurs in two manners. First, thepeople responsible for developing the biosafety system can, and often do, work inmultidisciplinary teams to ensure that they have input from relevant specialists inthe field, particularly concerning the scientific aspects of biosafety. Secondly, thoseresponsible for developing the biosafety system can be given greater support tobecome aware of the different international obligations that their country mayhave already incurred and how these could impact the system to be implemented.These various obligations may be in fields as diverse as plant, animal and humanhealth rules, trade law, and human rights. The exact extent or meaning of some ofthese commitments and how they interact may not be entirely clear but if amultidisciplinary team includes individuals who are familiar with these differentareas, they should be able to bring these international commitments to theattention of the rest of the team and work through how best to ensure that thebiosafety system respects these obligations.

It is also important for neighbouring countries to cooperate and share informationrelating to the development of their biosafety systems. Countries can learn a lotfrom how their neighbours have approached biosafety regulation and cooperationin this area can help to create regulatory systems that complement one anotherand operate more efficiently. In addition, many developing countries, particularlyin Francophone Africa, share porous borders, weak scientific or technical capacityfor risk assessment and other procedures, and similar requests from exporters.Increased attention to the formation of cooperative networks of scientists andlaboratories, regulators and law enforcement agencies, decision-makers, civilsociety groups and other actors could offer one of the best alternatives foreffective implementation of the objectives of all countries.

A country must also determine, however, the degree to which it and itsneighbours have similar goals for their biosafety regulatory systems. To this end,countries should avoid copying the biosafety regulatory regimes of theirneighbours and should instead design regimes that are adapted to their particular

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situation. Countries in a region can work together on the foundations, sharinggeneral information and understanding, but work alone on national applicationwith a multidisciplinary team.

3. It is time for all actors in developing country governments, scientificcommunities, legal communities and civil society to start “acting” rather than“expecting”.

As described above, discussions of potential biosafety rules has been going on forquite some time. Most recently, these discussions have resulted in agreement onthe Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. While the Protocol still leaves some areas forfurther negotiation and discussion by the Parties, countries need to beimplementing the existing rules now. For better or for worse, biotechnology hasarrived and genetically modified organisms are now a component of muchagricultural trade. Countries need to move from expecting or anticipating thearrival of biotechnology and biosafety rules, to acting to implement the rules theywant regulating biotechnology in their country.

In order to ease the transition from expectation to action, it will be crucial to stressthe progress and achievements that are made. These achievements can beanything from agreement on biosafety rules, to the hiring and/or training ofpersonnel, to the successful resolution of the first biosafety application. At thesame time, moving to action on biosafety will also support the need for moreexperience with biosafety and biosafety rules. This will not only build experiencewith biosafety within a country but will also begin to generate the information thata country’s citizens want on the health and safety of the products and processes ofbiotechnology.

Biosafety Capacity-Building Projects

Decision BS-I/5 from the first Meeting of the Parties (MOP) to the BiosafetyProtocol addresses the issue of capacity-building. It includes an “Action Plan forBuilding Capacities for Effective Implementation of the Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety”, an implementation toolkit, the creation of a Coordination Mechanismfor the implementation of the Action Plan, and a set of indicators for monitoringthe implementation of the Action Plan. In preparation for MOP-2, the Secretariathas prepared a document on the “Status of Capacity-Building Activities” thatprovides an update on the activities undertaken as part of this decision.232

The Biosafety Clearing-House lists over 100 biosafety capacity-building projectsthat are either ongoing or have been completed.233 CISDL has selected 6 to reviewbelow.

1. UNEP-GEF Biosafety Projects(Information drawn from the projects’ website, www.unep.ch/biosafety)

232 UN CBD, “Status of Capacity-Building Activities” UN Doc. UNEP/CBD/BS/COP-MOP/2/4 (28 February 2005).233 See http://bch.biodiv.org/capacitybuilding/projects.aspx.

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Following the adoption of the Biosafety Protocol in January 2000, the Council ofthe Global Environment Facility (GEF) adopted a strategy on biosafety, which isaimed at assisting countries to be prepared for the entry into force of the Protocol.The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) designed three related projectsthat work towards fulfilling the GEF strategy. These are the Global Project onDevelopment of National Biosafety Frameworks, the Project on Implementation ofNational Biosafety Frameworks, and the Biosafety Clearing-House Project.

(a) UNEP-GEF Development Project

This project ran from June 2001 to December 2004 although work continues insome countries. It is designed to assist countries in developing their NationalBiosafety Frameworks so that they can comply with the Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety. The project will also promote regional and sub-regional cooperation onbiosafety. There are currently 123 participating countries.

The project has three components:- development of frameworks , including information gathering, analysis,consultation, training, and preparation of a draft national biosafety framework(draft legal instruments, administrative systems, risk assessment procedures,systems for public participation and information).- regional workshops to increase understanding of the Biosafety Protocol andassess implications for risk assessment and decision-making at national levels.- sub-regional workshops for capacity-building, to identify opportunities forcollaboration and mechanisms for sharing of risk assessment and managementexperiences, and for networking to share lessons and experiences.

The project includes a series of toolkits to assist countries in the development oftheir national biosafety frameworks. These cover four phases:• Phase 0: starting the project;• Phase 1: taking stock;• Phase 2: consultation and analysis; and• Phase 3: developing the regulatory regime.Countries are also required to submit documentation on their progress towards aNational Biosafety Framework including an initial status report at the start of theproject, a national progress report submitted during the third series of sub-regionalworkshops (discussed below); and a final draft National Biosafety Framework atthe end of the project.

There have been three series of workshops. The first was regional workshops on‘Understanding the development of National Biosafety Frameworks’. These wereheld in the first half of 2002. The second was sub-regional workshops on ‘RiskAssessment and Management & Public Awareness and Participation’. These wereheld from November 2002 to May 2003. The final round was another series of sub-regional workshops on ‘Development of Regulatory Regime and AdministrativeSystems for National Biosafety Frameworks’. These were held from October 2003to May 2004. Documentation related to the toolkits and workshops can be foundat http://www.unep.ch/biosafety/devdocuments.htm .

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(b) UNEP-GEF Implementation Project

The Implementation Project also began in June 2001. It involves 12 demonstrationprojects to support countries with the implementation of their national biosafetyframeworks and each of the 12 projects is expected to last about three years. Theparticipating countries are: Bulgaria, Cameroon, China, Cuba, Kenya, Namibia,Poland and Uganda, India and Colombia (projects managed by the World Bank),and Malaysia and Mexico (projects managed by UNDP).

The Implementation Project included a study tour and meeting of nationalcoordinators in January 2004. National coordinators of their respectiveImplementation Projects met together and toured several European countries tolearn from their experiences with national regulation of biosafety. The Project hasalso compiled the results of a survey of examples of national policies on biosafety,as requested by national coordinators. Canada is included amongst the countrieshaving responded to the survey.

Finally, the Implementation Project is in the process of preparing a guide for theimplemention of national biosafety frameworks. The guide identifies five commoncomponents of national biosafety frameworks. These are:• A government policy on biosafety;• A regulatory regime for biosafety;• A system to handle notifications or requests for authorisations;• Systems for monitoring and enforcement; and• Approaches for public information and public participation.

The regulatory regime is divided, in turn, into three types of provisions:• General provisions such as objective, scope and definitions;• Operational provisions such as contained use, release, placing on the market;

and• Other provisions on topics like confidentiality, public participation, and

compliance.

(c) Biosafety Clearing-House Project

The Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH) Project began at the end of 2003. Its objectiveis to develop human resources and establish an appropriate national BCHinfrastructure to enable countries to fully participate in and benefit from the BCHestablished under the Biosafety Protocol.

This objective is divided into three components:• Strengthening capacity in countries through training of key stakeholders. The

training will cover (i) data entry and management; (ii) identification and accessto information required for decision-making under the Protocol; and (iii) accessto and registration of information in the BCH.

• Creating an enabling environment for Parties to meet their obligations underthe Protocol by providing the necessary computer hardware and software.

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• Developing and disseminating a training package which will be developedclose collaboration with the CBD Secretariat to ensure consistency betweennational inputs and the BCH central portal.

The BCH Project will compile a roster of experts and conduct training workshopson the BCH both with the experts at the regional/sub-regional level and in eachparticipating country.

The participating countries will be required to:• Establish a BCH Task Force to assist in the implementation of the project at the

national level;• Provide an analysis of the country’s staffing and equipment requirements;• Provide detailed cost information on the purchase of equipment and other

project expenses;• Nominate three people who will attend the regional/sub-regional workshops

and then be able to deliver training at home at a national-level workshop; and• Provide a long-term strategy for sustaining the national BCH and fulfilling the

country’s obligations under the Biosafety Protocol.

2. ISNAR Biotechnology Service(Project website: http://www.isnar.cgiar.org/ibs.htm )

The project of the International Service for National Agricultural Research isdivided into three phases. The first phase ran from 1993-1997, the second phasefrom 1998-2002, and the follow-up phase from 2003-2007. Under the project,ISNAR serves as an independent advisor “to national agricultural researchprogrammes in developing countries on matters of biotechnology policy andresearch programme management, including biosafety.” The program of workcovers two broad areas: research and outreach. The specific topics addressed inthe two categories are broader than biosafety and include setting priorities foragricultural biotechnology, intellectual property rights, and managing humanresources for biotechnology.

The project has resulted in a wide array of publications including briefing papers,country reports on the biosafety regulatory systems of Argentina and Egypt, andresearch papers. The project has also undertaken a biotechnology managementtraining program, primarily in Asia and Africa, and resulted in the creation of aweb-based decision support toolbox for biosafety. The project is funded by theNetherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Swiss Agency for Development andCooperation, the UK Department for International Development, and JapanOfficial Development Assistance.

3. East African Regional Programme and Research Network forBiotechnology, Biosafety and Biotechnology Policy Development (BIO-EARN)(Project website: http://www.bio-earn.org/ )

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BIO-EARN began in 1999 and operates in four East African countries – Ethiopia,Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. The goal of the project is to build national capacityand competence in biotechnology, biosafety and biotechnology policy in thesefour countries.

The project has undertaken the development of national biosafety frameworks,human resources development, public awareness, education and participation, andrisk assessment. Specific activities include short training courses on biotechnologypolicy, regional workshops, training in biosafety assessment and field evaluation oftransgenic crops, and research on risk assessment.

The project is supported by funds from the Department for Research Co-operationof the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and is scheduledto continue until 2008.

4. Rockefeller Foundation Support for Capacity-Building in AgriculturalBiotechnology and Biosafety(Website: http://www.rockfound.org )

The Rockefeller Foundation has been supporting capacity-building in this areasince 1991 and their work is ongoing. Their goal is to provide “funding support topromote plant biotechnologies needed by resource-poor farmers and developcapacities for the safe use of biotechnology, including capacity to develop andimplement biosafety regulations.” They work primarily in Africa, Asia and thePacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean.

The Foundation has supported the development of national biosafety frameworksand their coordination and harmonization at the regional level, human resourcesdevelopment, institutional strengthening, and public awareness, education andparticipation. Specific activities include:

• The assessment of international initiatives for capacity-building in the fieldof biosafety and biotechnology in Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, bythe United Nations University;

• Enhancing the capacity of Tanzania’s Tropical Pesticides Research Instituteto implement biosafety regulations and assess and manage potential risksassociated with genetically modified staple crops, through the training ofone of its scientists at Agriculture and Biotechnology Strategies (Canada);

• Project by the Center for Science in the Public Interest to inform theinternational debate around scientific and regulatory issues related tobiotechnology and to put forward middle ground on the biotechnologydebate.

• The establishment of the Asia-Pacific Consortium on AgriculturalBiotechnology to harness the benefits of agricultural biotechnology forhuman and animal welfare while safeguarding the environment andsustainable agricultural development in the Asia-Pacific region by the Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions.

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5. Third World Network Biosafety Capacity Building Programme forDeveloping Countries(Project website: http://www.twnside.org.sg/bio.htm )

The Third World Network operates in three main capacity-building areas:information exchange and data management, human resources development andtraining, and public awareness, education and participation. Their goal is to“monitor scientific and policy developments in biosafety and genetic engineering”.They engage in the publication of documents, reports, articles, and briefing papersanalyzing the science of biosafety as well as national and internationaldevelopments in the field. They hold briefing sessions and panel discussionsduring biosafety meetings, and also undertake public education and awarenessbuilding to strengthen public participation in biosafety decision-making.

6. U.S. Initiatives for Capacity-Building: Department of State

The U.S. Department of State is engaged in on-going capacity-building efforts inthe areas of human resources, public awareness, education and participation,information exchange and data management, and technology transfer. Its goal is to“build capacity, through collaborative projects, to develop and use biotechnologyto address economic development and food security in developing countries.” TheDepartment of State focuses specifically on supporting science-based biosafetyregulation. It has also provided funds to the CBD Secretariat to assist with theestablishment of the Biosafety Clearing-House and regional educational andinformation-gathering workshops.

(Please note that the activities of the Department of State is not the only capacity-building work undertaken by the U.S. government. Other departments involved inthis area include the U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Science Foundation,National Institutes of Health, and USAID.)

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Appendix 1MOP Implementation Chart

En vue des commentaires spécifiques, nous tenterons de présenter les différentessections du dossier de mise en œuvre avec l’attention particulière de vérification etd’appréciation de la prise en compte minimale des dispositions du PC par le Projetde cadre national de biosécurité du Bénin. Des points d’interrogation seront utiliséspour repérer les tâches manquantes et celles qui seront peu ou pas suffisammentdéveloppées.

A - Les tâches administratives

Tâches Article √1. Désigner un correspondant national chargé d'assurer la liaison avec le

secrétariat et en communiquer les nom et adresse au secrétariat.19(1),(2)

2. Désigner une ou plusieurs autorités nationales compétentes chargéesde s'acquitter des fonctions administratives qu'appelle le Protocole eten communiquer les noms et adresses au secrétariat. Indiquer lestypes d'OVM pour lesquels chacune des autorités compétentes estresponsable.

19(1),(2)

3. Communiquer au Centre d’Echanges pour la prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques :

toutes les lois, réglementations et directives en vigueurnotamment celles qui régissent l'approbation des OVM et des produitsdestinés à l'alimentation humaine et animale;

tout accord ou arrangement bilatéral, régional ou multilatéral.

20(3)(a)-(b), 11(5),14(2)

4. Indiquer au Centre d’Echanges pour la prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques les cas où une importation peut avoir lieu aumoment même où le mouvement lui est notifié.

13(1)(a)

5. Indiquer au Centre d’Echanges pour la prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques les importations d'OVM exemptées de la procédured'accord préalable en connaissance de cause.

13(1)(b)

6. Faire savoir au Centre d’Echanges pour la prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques si la réglementation nationale s'applique à certainesimportations déterminées.

14(4)

7. Communiquer au Centre d’Échanges pour la prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques les coordonnés de la personne habilitée à recevoirles informations communiquées par d'autres États sur les mouvementstransfrontières non intentionnels, conformément à l'article 17.

17(2)

8. Informer le Secrétariat en cas de non accès au Centre d’Échanges pourla prévention de risques biotechnologiques et fournir des copies desnotifications adressées au Centre d’Échanges.

(11)(1) parexemple)

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Tâches Article √Mesures de suivi

9. Communiquer au Centre d’Échanges�: Un résumé des évaluations des risques ou des études

environnementales relatives aux OVM menées en application de laréglementation en vigueur et effectuées conformément à l’article 15�;

Les décisions finales concernant l’importation ou la libérationd’OVM�;

Les rapports soumis en vertu de l’article 33.

20(3)(c)-(e)

10. Mettre à la disposition du Centre d’Échanges les renseignements relatifsau cas de mouvements transfrontières illicites.

25(3)

11. Veiller au respect des obligations contractées au titre du Protocole etfaire régulièrement rapport au Secrétariat à intervalles déterminés.

33

12. Informer le Centre d’Échanges de toute modification pertinente desrenseignements communiqués au titre de la partie I ci-dessus.

B – Les obligations et/ou engagements juridiques

Tâches Article √

1. Veiller à ce que la mise au point, la manipulation, le transport,l’utilisation, le transfert et la libération de tout organisme vivantmodifié se fassent de manière à prévenir ou à réduire les risques pourla diversité biologique, en tenant compte également des risques pourla santé humaine.

2(2)

2. Veiller à ce qu’il y ait responsabilité juridique quant à l’exactitude desinformations communiquées par l’exportateur aux fins de notificationd’exportations destinées à un autre pays, et des renseignementscommuniqués par les demandeurs nationaux aux fins d’approbationd’OVM qui pourraient être exportés comme produits destinés àl’alimentation humaine ou animale.

8(2)

11(2)

3. Veiller à ce que tout cadre réglementaire national remplaçant laprocédure d’accord préalable en connaissance de cause soit conformeau Protocole.

9(3)

4. Veiller à ce que les décisions en matière d’accord préalable enconnaissance de cause soient prises conformément à l’article 15.

10(1)

5. Veiller à ce que les évaluations des risques soient effectuées aux finsdes décisions prises au titre de l’article 10 et qu’elles le soient selondes méthodes scientifiques éprouvées.

15(1),(2)

6. Mettre en place et appliquer des mécanismes, des mesures et desstratégies appropriés pour réglementer, gérer et maîtriser les risquesdéfinis par les dispositions du Protocole relatives à l'évaluation desrisques associés à l'utilisation, à la manipulation et au mouvementtransfrontière d'OVM.

16(1)

7. Prendre des mesures appropriées pour empêcher les mouvementstransfrontières non intentionnels d'OVM, y compris des mesuresprescrivant une évaluation des risques avant la première libérationd'un organisme vivant modifié.

16(3)

8. Veiller à ce que tout OVM, importé ou mis au point localement, ait étésoumis à une période d'observation appropriée correspondant à soncycle de vie ou à son temps de formation avant d'être utilisé commeprévu.

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Tâches Article √

soumis à une période d'observation appropriée correspondant à soncycle de vie ou à son temps de formation avant d'être utilisé commeprévu.

16(4)

9. Prendre des mesures appropriées pour notifier aux États effectivementtouchés ou pouvant l'être, au Centre d’Échanges pour la préventiondes risques biotechnologiques et, au besoin, aux organisationsinternationales compétentes, tout incident dont la Partie aconnaissance et qui relève de sa compétence et qui a pour résultat unelibération entraînant ou pouvant entraîner un mouvementtransfrontière non intentionnel d'un OVM susceptible d'avoir des effetsdéfavorables importants sur la conservation et l'utilisation durable de ladiversité biologique, en tenant compte également des risques pour lasanté humaine dans ces États.

17(1)

10. Prendre les mesures nécessaires pour exiger que les OVM qui fontl'objet d'un mouvement transfrontière intentionnel relevant duProtocole soient manipulées, emballées et transportées dans desconditions de sécurité tenant compte des règles et normesinternationales pertinentes.

18(1)

11. Prendre des mesures pour exiger que la documentation accompagnantles produits devant être utilisés pour l'alimentation humaine et animale

indique clairement qu'ils "peuvent contenir” des OVM et qu'ilsne sont pas destinés à être introduits intentionnellement dansl'environnement;

indique les coordonnées des personnes ou services à contacterpour tout complément d'information.

18(2)(a)

12. Prendre des mesures pour exiger que la documentation accompagnantles OVM devant être utilisés en milieu confiné :

indique clairement qu'il s'agit d'OVM; spécifie des règles de sécurité à observer pour la manipulation,

l'entreposage, le transport et l'utilisation de ces organismes; indique les coordonnées de la personne ou du service à

contacter pour tout complément d'information; indique les noms et adresses des personnes ou des institutions

auxquelles ces organismes sont expédiés.

18(2)(b)

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Tâches Article √

13. Prendre des mesures pour exiger que la documentation accompagnantles OVM destinés à être introduits intentionnellement dansl’environnement ainsi que tout OVM visé par le Protocole�:

indique clairement qu’il s’agit d’OVM�; spécifie leur identité et leurs traits et caractéristiques pertinents�; mentionne toute règle de sécurité à observer pour la manipulation,

l’entreposage, le transport et l’utilisation sans danger de cesorganismes�;

indique les coordonnées de la personne à contacter pour toutcomplément d’information�;

mentionne, le cas échéant, le nom et l’adresse de l’importateur etde l’exportateur�;

contient une déclaration certifiant que le mouvement est conformeaux prescriptions du Protocole.

18(2)(c)

14. Faire en sorte que les auteurs des notifications indiquent lesinformations qu’il faut considérer comme confidentielles, étant entenduque les informations visées au paragraphe 6 de l’article 21 ne peuventêtre considérées comme telles.

21(1),(6)

15. Veiller à consulter les auteurs des notifications et à réviser les décisionsen cas de désaccord quant à la confidentialité des informations.

21(2)

16. Veiller à la protection des informations tenues pour confidentielles etdes informations considérées comme confidentielles en cas de retraitd’une notification.

21(3),(5)

17. Veiller à ce que les informations confidentielles ne soient pas utiliséesà des fins commerciales, sauf lorsque l’auteur de la notification adonné son accord par écrit.

21(4)

18. Encourager et faciliter la sensibilisation, l’éducation et la participationdu public concernant le transfert, la manipulation et l’utilisation sansdanger des OVM, compte tenu également des risques pour la santéhumaine.

23(1)(a)

19. S’efforcer de veiller à ce que la sensibilisation et l’éducation du publiccomprennent l’accès à l’information sur les OVM, au sens duProtocole, qui peuvent être importés.

23(1)(b)

20. Conformément aux lois et réglementations nationales, consulter lepublic pour toute décision à prendre en vertu du Protocole, tout enrespectant le caractère confidentiel des informations.

23(2)

21. S’efforcer d’informer le public sur les moyens d’accès au Centred’Échanges pour la prévention des risques biotechnologiques.

23(3)

22. Adopter des mesures propres à prévenir et à réprimer, s’il convient lesmouvements transfrontières contrevenant aux mesures nationalesprises pour appliquer le Protocole.

25(1)

23. Éliminer, à ses propres frais, les OVM ayant fait l’objet d’unmouvement transfrontière illicite en les rapatriant ou en les détruisant,selon qu’il convient, à la demande de toute Partie touchée.

25(2)

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C – Les procédures requises�: accord préalable en connaissance de cause

Tâches Article √1. Adresser par écrit à l’auteur de la notification, dans les 90 jours, un

accusé de réception de la notification indiquant�:- la date de réception de la notification�; 9(2)(a)- si la notification est conforme aux obligations énoncées à l’annexe I�; 9(2)(b)- que l’importation ne peut avoir lieu que si le consentement a étédonné par écrit et si elle se déroule conformément au cadreréglementaire national de la Partie importatrice ou en suivant laprocédure énoncée à l’article 10�; ou

- que l’importation peut avoir lieu à l’issue d’un délai de 90 jours sansautre consentement par écrit.

10(2)(a),9(2)(c)

10(2)(b)

2. Communiquer par écrit à l’auteur de la notification, dans les 270 jourssuivant la date de réception de la notification�:

l’autorisation de l’importation, avec ou sans condition�; l’interdiction de l’importation�; une demande de renseignements pertinents supplémentaires

conformément à la réglementation nationale ou à l’annexe I�; ou l’extension de la période de 270 jours d’une durée définie�; ET

10(3)(a)-(d)

Sauf dans le cas d’un consentement inconditionnel, les raisons ayantmotivé la décision, y compris les raisons pour lesquelles desrenseignements supplémentaires ou une extension du délai sontdemandés.

10(4)

3. Transmettre par écrit au Centre d’Échanges pour la prévention desrisques biotechnologiques la décision communiquée à l’auteur de lanotification.

10(3)

4. Répondre par écrit dans les 90 jours à une Partie exportatrice qui ademandé que soit reconsidérée une décision prise en vertu de l’article10 lorsqu’il y a un changement de circonstances ou que desrenseignements scientifiques ou techniques supplémentaires sontdisponibles, en indiquant les raisons de la décision faisant l’objet duréexamen.

12(2),(3)

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D – Procédures requises pour les OVM destinés à être utilisés directement pourl’alimentation humaine ou animale, ou à la transformation.

L’annexe I fournit également un tableau des procédures requises�quant aux organismesvivants modifiés destinés à être utilisés directement pour l’alimentation humaine ouanimale, ou à la transformation. Le tableau est le suivant�:

Tâches Article √1. Lorsqu’une décision définitive est prise concernant l’utilisation, sur le

territoire national, y compris la mise sur le marché, d’un OVM, quipeut faire l’objet d’un mouvement transfrontière en vue d’être utilisédirectement pour l’alimentation ou animale ou d’être transformé,informer le Centre d’Échanges pour la prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques dans les 15 jours qui suivent cette décision enfaisant état des informations énumérées à l’annexe II.

11(1)

2. Fournir des copies de la décision finale aux correspondants nationauxdes Parties qui ont informé à l’avance le Secrétariat du fait qu’ellesn’avaient pas accès au Centre d’Échanges pour la prévention desrisques biotechnologiques, sauf lorsque cette décision concerne lesessais sur le terrain.

11(1)

3. Fournir à toutes les Parties qui en font la demande les informationssupplémentaires visées au paragraphe b) de l’annexe II relative à ladécision.

11(3)

4. En réponse à une décision d’une autre Partie, décider si un OVMdestiné à être utilisé pour l’alimentation humaine ou animale peut êtreimporté�:

soit après avoir fait l’objet d’une approbation en application de laréglementation nationale qui est conforme au Protocole�; OU

en l’absence d’un cadre réglementaire, en se fondant sur uneévaluation des risques réalisée conformément à l’annexe III dans undélai n’excédant pas 270 jours. Dans ce cas, une déclaration doit êtrefaite au Centre d’Échanges pour la prévention des risquesbiotechnologiques.

11(4),(6)

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Appendix 2Individuals & Sources Consulted on Biosafety

Research Questions

Dr. Christopher Briggs, Global Programme Manager, UNEP-GEF Biosafety Unit,International Environment House, 15, Chemin des Anémones 1219, Châtelaine,Geneva, Switzerland

Ms. Jyoti Mathur-Filipp, UNEP-GEF Biosafety Clearing-House Project TaskManager, UNEP-GEF Biosafety Unit, International Environment House, 15, Chemindes Anémones 1219, Châtelaine, Geneva, Switzerland

Mr. Giovanni Ferraiolo, UNEP-GEF Development Project Regional Coordinator,Latin America and Caribbean, UNEP-GEF Biosafety Unit, International EnvironmentHouse, 15, Chemin des Anémones 1219, Châtelaine, Geneva, Switzerland

Mr. Charles�Gbedemah, UNEP-GEF Development Project Regional CoordinatorAfrica, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya

Mr. Koffi Dansey, UNEP-GEF Development Project Assistant Regional Coordinatorfor Francophone Africa, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya

Dr. Urs Thomas, Faculty of Law, Université de Genève

Prof. Maria Teresa La Valle, Professor, Faculty of Agronomy, University of BuenosAires

Mr. Erie Tamale, Environmental Affairs Officer, Capacity-building and Outreach,Biosafety, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity

Dr. Sally-Anne Way, Senior Researcher, Research Unit on the Right to Food insupport of the UN Special Rapporteur on Right to Food

Ms. Haruko Okuso, Ph.D. candidate, Sheffield Institute of Biotechnological Lawand Ethics, Sheffield University, United Kingdom.

Ms. Muffy Koch, Biotechnology and Biosafety consultant (South Africa)

Ms. Mary Fosi Mbantenkhu, Principal Technical Advisor, Ministry of theEnvironment and Forestry, Immeuble Ministeriel no. 2, 6th floor, door 636,Yaounde, Cameroon

Ms. Rachel Shibalira, Parliamentary Counsel, Attorney General’s Chambers, P. O.Box 40112 Nairobi, Kenya

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Mr. Piet van der Meer, former Programme Manager, UNEP-GEF Projects onImplementation of National Biosafety Frameworks, 11 – 13 Chemin des Anemones,1219 Chatelaine, Geneva, Switzerland

Ms. Nadia Chenouf and Dr. Meriem Louanchi, NEA - National Executing Agency,CBD Focal Point, Sous-directrice de la Diversite Biologique, Direction Generale del'Environnement Ministere de l'Amenagement du Territoire et de l'Environnement,Palais Mustapha Bacha, 6, Avenue de l'Independence Alger 16036, Algeria

Mr. Soumayila Bancé and Mr. Samuel Yeye, NEA - National Executing Agency,CBD Focal Point, Ministère de l'Environnement et du Cadre de Vie, 03 B.P.7044,Ouagadougou 03 , Burkina Faso

Mr. Manuel Leao Carvalho Silva. NEA - National Executing Agency, CBD FocalPoint, O-GEF Operational Focal Point, Ministry of Environment, Agriculture andFisheries CP115 Praia Cape Verde

Mr. Jaime Rovira and Ms. Tea García- Huidobro, NEA - National Executing Agency,P-GEF Political Focal Point, Natural Resources, Comision Nacional del Medioambiente (CONAMA), Obispo Donoso 6, Providencia, Santiago, Chile

Mr. Mohamed Youssouf Oumouri. NEA - National Executing Agency, O-GEFOperational Focal Point, Point focal du FEM et responsible de l'Unité de gestion,Ministère des Relations Extérieures, de la Coopération, de la Francophonie et del'Environnement, BP. 234 Moroni, Comores

Mr. Paulino Munisse, NPC - National Project Coordinator, NEA - National ExecutingAgency, National Institute of Agriculture Research, Ministry of Agriculture andRural Development, AV/FPLM 2698, CP 3658, Maputo , Mozambique

Mme Chantal Andrianarivo, NPC - National Project Coordinator, NEA - NationalExecuting Agency, Association national pour la Gestion des Aires Protegees(ANGAP) BP 1424 Antananarivo, Madagascar

M. Rabenarivo Naina - Direction des Etudes Juridiques, Presidence de laRepublique ( vice-président du CNC) , Antananarivo, Madagascar

Mr. Ali Harouna, NPC - National Project Coordinator, NEA - National ExecutingAgency, ICCP Focal Point, CP Focal Point, BCH Focal Point, CBD Focal Point,Direction Faune-Pêche-Pisciculture SE/CNEDD Ministère de l'Hydraulique, del'Environnement et de la Lutte Contre la Désertification B.P 10193 Niamey Niger

Mr. Demba Mamadou Ba, NEA - National Executing Agency, CBD Focal Point,Directeur des Parcs Nationaux Direction des Parcs Nationaux HANN- at Zoologicand Forestry Parks Dakar Senegal

Prof.� Ibrahima Ly -Institut des Sciences de l’Environnement (UCAD), Faculté desSciences Juridiques, Juriste, Dakar Senegal

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Mr. Selby Remy, NEA - National Executing Agency, Conservation Section, Ministryof Environment and Natural Resources, Botanical Gardens, Mont Fleuri, P.O. Box445, Victoria , Seychelles

M. Abdou-Kérim Moumouni et Mr Kudadze Kodzo, NPC, NEA - National ExecutingAgency, CP Focal Point, CBD Focal Point, Ministère de l'Environnement et desRessources Forestières, B.P. 4825, Lomé , Togo

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Biosafety Bibliography

There is a near-infinite number of references on biosafety as illustrated by a searchof the bibliographic information on the Biosafety Clearing-House,http://bch.biodiv.org/resources/references.aspx . These references relate to allfacets of biosafety including the science, law, politics and ethics of the issue.CISDL has included resources it has found useful as part of its biosafety researchin this bibliography.

International Agreements & Trade Disputes

Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, 15 April 1994, being part ofAnnex IA to the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, 15 April1994, 33 I.L.M. 1144.

Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 15 April 1994,33 I.L.M. 1197, being Annex 1C to the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the WorldTrade Organization, 15 April 1994, 33 I.L.M. 1144.

Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control ofTransboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa,OAU, Bamako, Mali, 30 January 1991, entered into force 22 April 1998, 30 ILM 773(1991).

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of HazardousWastes and their Disposal, 22 March 1989 (entered into force 5 May 1992) 28 ILM57.

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity, 29January 2000 (entered into force 11 September 2003).

Convention on Biological Diversity, 5 June 1992, 31 I.L.M. 818 (entered into force29 December 1993).

Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, 17 March 1992,2105 U.N.T.S. 460 (entered into force: 19 April 2000).

European Communities – Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing ofBiotech Products: Request for the Establishment of a Panel by the United States,WTO Doc. WT/DS291/23 (8 August 2003).

UNEP International Technical Guidelines for Safety in Biotechnology, UNEP,Nairobi, Kenya, 1998.

WTO, EC Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), adopted on13 February 1998, WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R.

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National & Regional Measures & Case Law

Canada, Regulatory Directive Dir94-08: Assessment Criteria for DeterminingEnvironmental Safety of Plants with Novel Traits (29 October 2004), online:Canadian Food Inspection Agencyhttp://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/plaveg/bio/dir/dir9408e.shtml

Canada, Voluntary Labelling and advertising of Foods that are and are notProducts of Genetic Engineering,, CAN-CGSB.315-2004, Canadian GeneralStandards Board, Gatineau, 2004, online : Canadian General Standards Boardhttp://www.pwgsc.gc.ca/cgsb/032_025/standard-e.html

Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999, S.C., c. 33.

Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Beingwith regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on HumanRights and Biomedicine, 4 April 1997, CETS No. 164 (entered into force: 1December 1999), online: Council of Europe Treaty Officehttp://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/164.htm

Convention on Civil Liability for Damage resulting from Activities Dangerous to theEnvrionment, 21 June 1992, CETS No. 150 (not in force), online: Council ofEurope Treaty Officehttp://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/150.htm

EC, Regulation (EC) No. 1829/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Councilof 22 September 2003 on genetically modified food and feed, [2003] O.J. L. 236/1.

EC, Regulation (EC) No. 1830/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Councilof 22 September 2003 concerning the traceability and labelling of geneticallymodified organisms and the traceability of food and feed products produced fromgenetically modified organisms and amending Directive 2001/18/EC, [2003] O.J. L.268/24.

EC, Regulation (EC) No 1946/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Councilof 15 July 2003 on transboundary movements of genetically modified organisms,[2003] O.J. L.287/1.

EC, Directive 2001/18/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12March 2001 on the deliberate release into the environment of genetically modifiedorganisms and repealing Council Directive 90/220/EEC, [2001] O.J. L.106/1.Genetically Modified Organisms Act, 1997, No. 15 of 1997.

Harvard College v. Canada (Commissioner of Patents), [2002] S.C.J. No. 77, rev’g[2000] 4 F.C. 528, [2000] F.C.J. No. 1213.

Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996 (N.Z.), 1996/30, as amended.

Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser, [2004] SCC 34.

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The Philippines, Department of Agriculture, Adminsitrative Order No. 8,Importation and Release into the Environment of Plants and Plant Products derivedfrom the Use of Modern Biotechnology, 1 July 2003.

The Philippines, Executive Order No. 430, Constituting the National Committee onBiosafety of the Philippines (NCBP) and For Other Purposes, 15 October 1990.

National Biosafety Frameworks

These documents are available on the UNEP/GEF website �:http://www.unep.ch/biosafety/parcountrieslist.htm

Cadre national de Biosécurité et plan d’actions du Bénin, BJNBFrep

Cadre national pour la prévention des risques biotechnologiques au Burkina Faso,BFNBFrep

Cadre national de biosécurité en Union des Comores, CADOMH5F

Avant projet de cadre national de biosécurité - Congo, CGNBFrep

Cadre de biosécurité - Côte d’Ivoire, CINBFrep

Cadre national de biosécurité - Guinée, GNNBFrep

Politique et structures nationales de biosécurité à Madagascar, MGNBFrepFR

Cadre nationale de biosécurité du Mali, MLNBFrep

Cadre national de biosécurité - Niger, NENBFrep

Cadre national de biosécurité, - Sénégal, SNNBFrep

Cadre national de biosécurité - Togo, TGNBFrep

Cartagena Protocol

Boisson de Chazournes, Laurence, & Urs P. Thomas, “The Biosafety Protocol:Regulatory Innovation and Emerging Trends” (2000) 4 Swiss Review ofInternational and European Law 513.

Cosbey, A. & S. Burgiel, The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: An Analysis ofResults (2000), online: International Institute for Sustainable Developmenthttp://www.iisd.org/pdf/biosafety.pdf

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Environment Canada, Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Consultation Document(2002), online: Environment Canadahttp://www.bco.ec.gc.ca/Protocol/en/protocol.cfm .

Garforth, Kathryn, “When Biosafety Becomes Binding: Implementing the CartagenaProtocol” in M.C. Cordonier Segger & Weeramantry, eds., Sustainable Justice(Martinus Nijhoff Press, 2004) at 259.

La Vina, Antonio G. M., Genetically Modified Organisms and the CartagenaProtocol on Biosafety: What is at Stake for Communities?, Working Paper No. 4:Globalization, Environment and Communities (World Resources Institute: 2003),online: World Resources Institutehttp://pubs.wri.org/pubs_description.cfm?PubID=3841 .

Mackenzie, Ruth, “The Cartagena Protocol after the First Meeting of the Parties”(2004) 13 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law270.

Mackenzie, Ruth et al., An Explanatory Guide to the Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety, IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper no. 46 (Gland, Switzerland:IUCN, 2003).

Morin, Jean-Frédérick “Les accords de bioprotection répondent-ils aux objectifs dela Convention sur la diversité biologique” (2003-2004) 34 Revue de droit del’Université de Sherbrooke 307.

Pythoud, François & Urs P. Thomas, “The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety” inPhilippe G. Le Prestre, ed. Governing Global Biodiversity: The Evolution andImplementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Burlington, VT: Ashgate,2002), 39.

Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, The Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety: A Record of the Negotiations (Montreal: Secretariat of the Convention onBiological Diversity, 2004).

Socio-economic Considerations

Bravo, Elizabeth, “Socio-Economic Considerations in Biosafety” Briefings for MOP1, no. 7, Third World Network, 2004.

Brush, Stephen & Michelle Chauvet, “Chapter 6: Assessment of Social and CulturalEffects Associated with Transgenic Maize Production”, background chapter forpublic symposium, Oazaca, Mexico, 11 March 2004 by the Secretariat of theCommission for Environmental Cooperation of North America as part of the Article13 initiative on ‘Maize and Biodiversity: the Effects of Transgenic Maize in Mexico’,online: http://www.cec.org/files/PDF//Maize-Biodiversity-Chapter6_en.pdf .

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Substantive Issues Arising inthe Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and

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Cultural Rights: General Comment 12, The right to adequate food, UN ESCOR, 20th

sess., UN Doc. E/C.12/1999/5.

Independent Biotechnology Advisory Council, Economic Implications of a FirstRelease of Genetically Modified Organisms in New Zealand (December 1999),online: Independent Biotechnology Advisory Councilhttp://www.ibac.org.nz/pubs/first/first_release.doc .

La Vina, Antonio & Lindsey Fransen, “Integrating Socio-Economic Considerationsinto Biosafety Decisions: The Challenge for Asia” (paper prepared for IDRCworkshop, Colombo, Sri Lanka, October 12-14, 2004).

Mamaril, Cezar Brian C., Transgenic Pest Resistant Rice: An Ex-ante EconomicEvaluation of an Adoption Impact Pathway in the Philippines and Vietnam for BtRice (M.Sc. thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) January 2002.

Manga, S.J.T., “L’utilisation des organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM) dansl’agriculture et l’alimentation: Enjeux sociaux et perspectives de l’encadrement dudroit et de l’éthique”, (2000) 30 Revue générale de droit de l’Université d’Ottawa,Ottawa 369.

Matua, Bevan Tipene, “The Maori Aspects of Genetic Modification” backgroundpaper for the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification, August 2000.

Miguel A. Altieri, “Socio-Cultural Aspects of Native Maize Diversity ”, paperprepared for the Secretariat of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ofNorth America as part of the Article 13 initiative on ‘Maize and Biodiversity: theEffects of Transgenic Maize in Mexico’ (no date).

Norwegian Biotechnology Advisory Board, Sustainability, Benefit to theCommunity and Ethics in the Assessment of Genetically Modified Organisms:Implementation of the Concepts set out in Sections 1 and 10 of the Norwegian GeneTechnology Act (Oslo: Norwegian Biotechnology Advisory Board, 2003), online:Norwegian Biotechnology Advisory Boardhttp://www.bion.no/publikasjoner/sustainability.pdf

Nuffield Council on Bioethics, Genetically Modified Crops: The Ethical and SocialIssues (London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 1999).

Silverman, Ozzie, International Approaches to Non-Science Issues in Regulating theProducts of Biotechnology (Canadian Biotechnology Advisory Committee,November 2000).

Sahai, Suman, Social and Ethical Concerns About Biotechnology (New Delhi: GeneCampaign, 2003).

Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: TheRight to Food. Report Submitted by the Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Jean

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Ziegler, in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 2003/25, UNESC, Commission on Human Rights, 60th sess., UN Doc. E/CN.4/2004/10 (2004).

Stabinsky, Doreen, “Bringing Social Analysis into a Multilateral EnvironmentalAgreement: Social Impact Assessment and the Biosafety Protocol” (2000) 9 Journalof Environment & Development 260.

Thomas, Sandy, “Critical Issues Pertaining to the Gender Dimension ofBiotechnology Policy”, paper prepared for the Gender Advisory Board, UnitedNations Commission on Science and Technology for Development (July 2003),online: International Development Research Centrehttp://web.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/10685811751thomas_final.doc .

Traxler, G., The Economic Impacts of Biotechnology-Based TechnologicalInnovations , ESA Working Paper No. 04-08 (Agricultural and EconomicDevelopment Analysis Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, July 2003).

Wright, Janice C., “ The Economics of Genetic Modification” background paper forthe Royal Commission on Genetic Modification, August 2000.

Trade & Biosafety

Baumüller, Heike, Domestic Import Regulations for Genetically Modified Organismsand their Compatibility with WTO Rules: Some Key Issues, Trade KnowledgeNetwork Paper (Winnipeg : IISD, 2003), online : International Centre for Trade andSustainable Development http://www.ictsd.org .

Blin, O., “La politique sanitaire de la Communauté européenne à l’épreuve desrègles de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce: le contentieux des hormones”(1999) Revue trimestrielle de droit européen.

Busch, Marc L. & Robert Howse, “A (Genetically Modified) Food Fight: Canada’sWTO Challenge to Europe’s Ban on GM Products” C.D. Howe InstituteCommentary No. 186, September 2003, online: C.D. Howe Institutehttp://www.cdhowe.org .

Cayla, J.-S., “Limitations du commerce des produits alimentaires pour protéger lasanté des consommateurs” (2000) 2 Revue de droit sanitaire et social.

Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Secretariat Report, Maize &Biodiversity: The Effects of Transgenic Maize in Mexico (Commission onEnvironmental Cooperation: Montreal, 2004) online: CEChttp://www.cec.org/files/PDF//Maize-and-Biodiversity_en.pdf .

Congress of the United States, A Letter To The Honorable Madeleine K. Albright:USA, WTO and the Protocol on Biosafety, House of the Representatives,Washington, DC, January 20, 2000.

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Cummings, Claire Hope, “Tresspass: Genetic Engineering as the Final Conquest”18(1) Worldwatch Jan/Feb 2005 at 24.

De Janvry, A., and Sadoulet, E., “World Poverty and the Role of AgriculturalTechnology: Direct and Indirect Effects” (2001) 38 Journal of Development Studies1.

Glowka, Lyle, “The Role of Law in Realising the Potential and Avoiding the Risksof Modern Biotechnology: Selected Issues of Relevance to Food and Agriculture”,Background Study Paper No. 19, Commission on Genetic Resources for Food andAgriculture, October 2002, online: Food and Agriculture Organization ftp://extftp.fao.org/ag/cgrfa/BSP/bsp19e.pdf .

GM Science Review Report, An Open Review of the Science Relevant to GM Cropsand Food Based on the Interests and Concerns of the Public (July 2003), online: GMScience Review http://www.gmsciencedebate.org.uk/report/pdf/gmsci-report1-pt1.pdf .

Institute of Development Studies, Public Participation and the Cartagena Protocolon Biosafety, online:http://www.unep.ch/biosafety/development/devdocuments/PublicParticipationIDS.pdf .

ISNAR, “A Conceptual Framework for Implementing Biosafety - Policy, Capacityand Regulation”, online: International Service for National Agricultural Researchhttp://www.ISNAR.org .

Kinderlerer, Julian, “Regulation of Biotechnology: Needs and Burdens forDeveloping Countries” (no date), online: United Nations Environment Programme,UNEP-GEF Biosafety Projectshttp://www.unep.ch/biosafety/development/devdocuments/BtregulationJK.pdf .

Manga, S.J.T., “Le droit du commerce international des produits agricoles à based’organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM): Les obstacles de la preuvescientifique et l’avènement du principe de precaution” (2000) 41 Les Cahiers dedroit de l’Université Laval.

McKenna, B., “Health Rules Replace Tariffs in Food Trade” The [Toronto] Globeand Mail (2 March, 1998).

New Zealand, Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification, online:Ministry for the Environmenthttp://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/organisms/royal-commission-gm/index.html .

Nuffield Council on Bioethics, The Use of Genetically Modified Crops in DevelopingCountries (London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 2004), online: Nuffield Councilon Bioethicshttp://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/fileLibrary/pdf/gm_crops_paper_final.pdf .

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OECD, Biotechnology: Economic and Wider Impacts (Paris: Organization forEconomic Cooperation and Development, 1989).

Oliva, Maria Julia, “Science and Precaution in the GMO Dispute: A Brief Analysisof the First US Submission” Bridges No. 5, May 2004 at 8.

Pardey, Philip G., The Future of Food: Biotechnology Markets and Policies in anInternational Setting (Washington, D.C.: John Hopkins University Press, 2001).Persley, G. J. (2000). Agricultural Biotechnology and the Poor: Promethean Science.Retrieved September 27, 2004, fromhttp://www.cgiar.org/biotech/rep0100/persley.pdf .

Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, U.S. vs. EU: An Examination of theTrade Issues Surrounding Genetically Modified Food (August 2003), online: PewInitiative on Food and Biotechnologyhttp://pewagbiotech.org/resources/issuebriefs/europe.pdf (date accessed: 23 July2004).

Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, Harvest on the Horizon: Future Uses ofBiotechnology (Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology: Washington, D.C.,2001).

Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, Feeding the World: A Look atBiotechnology and World Hunger. (Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology:Washington, D.C., 2004).

Romi, R., “Le Protocole sur la bio-sécurité: une étape vers l’écologisation deséchanges économiques internationaux”, Les Petites affiches, Paris, No. 115, 2000.

Royal Society of Canada, Elements of Precaution: Recommendations for theRegulation of Food Biotechnology in Canada (Ottawa: The Royal Society ofCanada, 2001), online: http://www.rsc.ca/foodbiotechnology/indexEN.html .

Safrin, S., “Notes and Comments: Treaties in Collision? The Biosafety Protocol andthe World Trade Organization Agreements” (2002) 96 American Journal ofInternational Law 606.

Sahai, Suman, Genetically Modified Crops: A Resource Guide for the Asia Pacific(New Delhi: Gene Campaign, 2004).

Sahai, Suman, ed., Relevance of GM Technology to Indian Agriculture and FoodSecurity (New Delhi: Gene Campaign).

Sahai, Suman, Genetically Modified Crops in India: Some Issues (New Delhi: GeneCampaign).

Salazar, R. & M. Valverde, Biosafety, Consumer Protection and International Trade(2000), online: Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy<www.cielap.org/biotechsp.pdf>.

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Thomas, Urs P., “The CBD, the WTO, and the FAO: The Emergence ofPhytogenetic Governance” in Philippe G. Le Prestre, ed. Governing GlobalBiodiversity: The Evolution and Implementation of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002), 177.

UNEP-GEF Project on Development of National Biosafety Frameworks, Phase 3Toolkit Module Part (i): Developing the Regulatory Regime (September 2004),online:UNEPhttp://www.unep.ch/biosafety/development/devdocuments/ToolkitBSF3%28i%29EN.pdf

UNEP Training Manual, Implementing National Biosafety Frameworks, online:Biosafety in Central and Eastern Europe http://www.biosafetycee .org/attachments/CEE%20-%20Training%20-%20%20manual.doc .

Union européenne, “L’UE se conforme à la décision de l’OMC relative au boeufaux hormones et invite les Etats-Unis et le Canada à lever leurs sanctionscommerciales”, Communiqué de presse IP-03-1393 du 15-10-2003, Bruxelles, 2003.

Wakhunga, Judi W., & David K. Wafula, Introducing BT. Cotton: Policy Lessons forSmallholder Farmers in Kenya (Nairobi: African Centre for Technology Studies, nodate), online: African Centre for Technology Studieshttp://www.acts.or.ke/Pub%20-%20Cotton%20Book.htm .

Young, Tomme, Genetically Modified Organisms and Biosafety: A BackgroundPaper for Decision-Makers and Others to Assist in Consideration of GMO Issues(IUCN: 2003).

Precaution

Bourg, D., “Du progrès à la precaution” in Zaccar, E. & Missa, J.-N., Le principe deprécaution: significations et conséquences (Brussels: Éditions de l’Université deBruxelles, 2000) at 223.

Cordonier Segger, Marie-Claire & Markus W. Gehring, “Precaution, Health and theWorld Trade Organization: Moving Toward Sustainable Development” (2003) 29Queen’s Law Journal 133.

Deguergue, Maryse, “Précaution et sécurité alimentaire à la lumière de quelquesarrêts récents de la Cour de justice des Communautés européennes”, (2004) Revuede droit sanitaire et social 80.

De Sadeleer, N., Les principes du pollueur-payeur, de prevention et de precaution:Essai sur la genèse et la portée juridique de quelques principes du droit del’environnement (Brussels: BRUYANT-AUF, 1999.

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Foucher, K., Principe de précaution et risque sanitaire; Recherche surl’encadrement juridique de l’incertitude scientifique (Paris: Logiques Juridiques-L’Harmattan, 2002).

Godard, O., et al., Traité des nouveaux risques: précaution, crise, assurance (Paris:Gallimard, 2002).

Godard, O., Le principe de precaution dans la conduite des affaires humaines(Paris: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, Institut National deRecherche Agronomique, 1997).

Hermitte, M.A., “Les OGM et la précaution: comme un parfum de nostalgie” inJean-Marie Pelt, ed., Génie génétique; Des chercheurs s'expriment, appel desscientifiques et des médecins (Paris: Écoropa/Sang de la terre, 1997).

Labouz, M.-F., “Le principe de précaution dans le différend sur la viande auxhormones à l’OMC”, in Labouz, M.-F. (ed.), Le Partenariat de l’Union européenneavec les pays tiers : Conflits et convergences (Bruxelles: Bruylant, 2000).

Manga, S.-J.-T., “L’organisme génétiquement modifié (OGM), le citoyen et l’État; Leprincipe de précaution: un outil de commerce durable pour les pays du Sud É”(2000) 12 The African Journal of International and Comparative Law.

Manga, S.-J.-T., “Chronique et perspectives de l’émergence du principe deprécaution dans le commerce international des produits agricoles à based’organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM)” (2000) 1 Revue Hellénique de droitinternational.

Manga, S.J.T., “L’émergence du principe de précaution en droit international del’environnement et de la sécurité alimentaire: Apport des ONG dans le cas ducommerce international des organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM)” (2000) 30Revue de droit de l’Université de Sherbrooke.

Manga, S.J.T., “Les organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM) et la société: Leprincipe de précaution, une norme de régulation du débat social?” (2000) 15Revue canadienne de droit et société.

Noiville, Ch., “Principe de précaution et Organisation mondiale du commerce: Lecas du commerce alimentaire” (2000) Journal du droit international.

Rémond-Guilloud, M., “La précaution, art de la décision en univers incertain” inM.-F. Labouz, ed., Le Partenariat de l’Union européenne avec les pays tiers: Conflitset convergences (Brussels: Bruylant, 2000).

Thieffry, P., “Le contentieux naissant des organismes génétiquement modifiés:précaution et mesures de sauvegarde” (1999) Revue trimestrielle de droiteuropéen.

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Tinland, F., “Progrès technologique, emprise sur la nature et devenir humain” in E.Zaccai & J.-N. Missa, eds., Le principe de précaution: significations et conséquences(Brussels: Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 2000).

Biotechnology & GMOs

Brac de la Perrière, R.-A. & A. Trollé, eds., Aliments transgéniques; des craintesrévélatrices: des scientifiques aux consommateurs, un débat citoyen autour del’initiative suisse pour la protection génétique (Paris: Charles Léopold Mayer, 1998).

Canadian Veterinary Medical Association, Report of the Canadian VeterniaryMedical Association Expert Panel on rbST (Ottawa, 1998), online: Health Canadahttp://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/protection/rbst/animals/index.htm

Cayla, J.-S., “Utilisation thérapeutique et alimentaire des organismes génétiquementmodifiés (OGM)” (2000) Revue de droit sanitaire et social.

Chancellerie fédérale Suisse, Votation no 440, Tableau récapitulatif : Initiativepopulair ‘pour la protection de la vie et de l’environnment contre lesmanipulations génétiques (Initiatives pour la protection génétique)’ Résultats de lavotation populaire fédérale du 7 juin 1998, online Confoederatio Helveticahttp://www.admin.ch/ch/f/pore/va/19980607/det440.html .

Codex Alimentarius, Biotechnologies: Évaluations FAO/OMS de la sécurité sanitairedes aliments dérivés des biotechnologies (Rome: Normes Alimentaires FAO/OMS)online: Codex Alimentarius http://www.codexalimentarius.net/biotech_fr.stm .

Food and Agriculture Organization, The State of Food and Agriculture 2003-2004:Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor? (Rome: Food andAgriculture Organization, 2004).

Ghosh, P.-K. “Transgenic Plants and Biosafety Concerns in India” (1997) 72Current Science.

Hermon, C., “Biotechnologies, Organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM)” (1999)4 Revue juridique de l’environnement.

Le Buanec, B., Transgenic Plants and Food Security (Nyon, Swiss: FIS/ASSINSEL,1999).

James, C. & Krattiger, A., “The Role of the Private Sector”, 2020 Focus 2Biotechnology for Developing Country Agriculture: Problems and Opportunities(October 1999) International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington D.C.,online: International Food Policy Research Institutehttp://www.ifpri.org/2020/focus/focus02/focus02.pdf .

Jégouzo, Y. & Jamay, F., “Environnement – organismes génétiquement modifiés:Maïs génétiquement modifié, Renvoi pour interprétation à la CJCE” (1999) 21Revue de droit immobilier 200.

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Kempf, H., “OGM: Europe et pays du Sud imposent une réglementationinternationale” Le Monde (31 January 2000).

Manga, S.J.T., “L’éthique de l’information scientifique: le cas des organismesgénétiquement modifiés (OGM)”, in Brunet, Patrick- J., ed., L’éthique dans lasociété de l’information (Paris: L’Harmattan- Les Presses de l’Université Laval,2001).

Manga, S.J.T., “La dissémination des organismes génétiquement modifiés (OGM) etles droits humains: Le principe de précaution, un cadre promoteur des droits etlibertés?” (1999-2000) 12 Revue québécoise de droit international.

Matthews-Glenn, J., “Genetically Modified Crops in Canada: Rights and Wrongs”(2003) 12 Journal of Environmental Law and Practice.

Munoz, E., “Biotechnology and the Environment: Meeting and Collision” 62 (1996)Annales de la Real Academia de Farmacia.

Murphy, S.-D., “Biotechnology and International Law” (2001) 48 HarvardInternational Law Journal.

Nelkin, Dorothy, Philippe Sands, & Richard B. Stewart, “The InternationalChallenge of Genetically Modified Organism Regulation” (2000) 8 N.Y.U.Environmental Law Journal 523.

Nestle, M., “Allergies to Transgenic Foods: Questions of Policy” (1996) 334 NewEngland Journal of Medicine 726.

Remond-Gouilloud, M., “Les OGM au Conseil d’État: commentaire de l’arrêt rendupar le Conseil d’État” La Gazette du Palais (25 September 1998) Nos. 22, 23.

Rodgers, Christopher P., “Liability for the Release of GMOS into the Environment:Exploring the Boundaries of Nuisance” (2003) 62 The Cambridge Law Journal 371.

Ross, Hilary, “Genetically Modified Food: The EU Regulatory ‘Maize’” (2003) 18Natural Resources & Environment 9.

Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons, Report of the Royal College of Physiciansand Surgeons of Canada Expert Panel on Human Safety of rbST (Ottawa, 1999),online: Health Canadahttp://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/protection/rbst/humans/index.htm

World Health Organization & World Trade Organization, WTO Agreements &Public Health (Geneva: WTO/WHO, 2002), online: World Health Organizationhttp://www.who.int/media/homepage/en/who_wto_e.pdf

Miscellaneous

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Boustani, K., N. Halde, & M. Antaki, “La perception du risque technologique: Ledroit entre Janus et Prométhée” (1998) 13 Revue canadienne Droit et Société.

Bowman, M. & C. Redgwell, International Law And The Conservation of BiologicalDiversity (London: Kluwer Law International, 1996).

Breton-Legoff, G., L’influence des organisations non gouvernementales sur lanégociation de quelques instruments internationaux (Montreal: Bruylant/ÉditionsYvon Blais, 2001).

Darmency, H., “Possibilités de croisements entre cultures transgéniques et plantessauvages” (Paris: Édition Sang de la terre et Écoropa, 1997).

Dickson, D. “UK Debates Public's Role in Science Advice” (1999) 399 Nature.

Ewen, S.-W.-B. & A. Pusztai, “Effect of Diets Containing Genetically ModifiedPotatoes Expressing Galanthus nivalis lectin on Rat Small Intestine” (1999) 354 TheLancet.

Funtowicz, S. O. & J.R. Ravetz, Epistemología Política - Ciencia con la Gente(Buenos Aires: Centro Editor de América Latina, 1993).

Galloux, J.-C., “Appréciation de la légalité de la procédure d’autorisation de misesur le marché d’un organisme génétiquement modifié” (1999) 38 Le Dalloz.

“La guerre des semences stériles” Le Monde (12 March 1999).

LePage C., “Le maïs et le citoyen” Le Monde (20 June 1998).

Louison, P., “Les peurs en alimentation: l’approche internationale de la sécurité desconsommateurs” (1999) 172 Option qualité.

Naim-Gesbert, Les dimensions scientifiques du droit de l’environnement (Brussels:VUBPRESS-Les Éditions Bruyant, 1999).