Experimental - Ramtha School Benelux · Experimental SYMPATHETIC REACTIVITY DURING MEDITATION Joan...

Experimental

SYMPATHETIC REACTIVITYDURING MEDITATIONJoan H. Hageman, Ph.D., Stanley Krippner, Ph.D., Ian Wickramasekera II, Psy.D.

ABSTRACT

Decreased sympathetic reactivity is one of the generally accepted standards in Western medicine toexamine meditation’s benefit to health. This study investigated the research question: why did sevenadvanced meditators from an esoteric school who use an active meditation style with acceleratedbreathing reflect more variable sympathetic activation during meditation and recovery relative tobaseline measures. A single-case study embedded design was used to analyze eleven psycholog-ical/psychophysiological measures. Analyses revealed meditators were characterized by thin boundaries,high absorption, high dissociation, and minimal self-perceived stress. They displayed significantlyincreased: electrodermal reactivity during meditation and recovery, heart rate during meditation, andbilateral hand temperatures during recovery. These outcomes are consistent with researchdemonstrating positive correlation between high hypnotizability and electrodermal reactivity,sympathetic increase with accelerated breathing meditations, and are inconsistent with decreasedsympathetic activation in most passive meditation studies. Findings support other research that activemeditation styles with accelerated breathing prompt sympathetic activation and minimize self-perceivedstress. Discussion explores the implications for health and well-being in terms of autonomic reactivityand whether sympathetic reactivity during meditation and recovery are indicative of mind-bodyincongruence or an outcome of meditation style.

KEYWORDS: dissociation, hypnotizability, sympathetic activation, meditation, stress

Subtle Energies & Energy Medicine • Volume 19 • Number 2 • Page 23

INTRODUCTION

There is generally an underlying miscon-ception in Western science that all

meditation techniques, phenomenologicaleffects, and outcomes are similar, if not thesame, and that the quieting of sympatheticreactivity (e.g., increased heart rate, bloodpulse volume, muscle tension, and skinconduction; decreased hand temperatures) isthe hallmark of positive health outcomes forpractitioners. However, not all meditationtechniques and their initial outcomes are thesame, especially for those adhering to theesoteric values (e.g., belief system,expectancy outcomes) from the meditationpractice. Some meditative practicesincorporating accelerated breathing (e.g.,Kriya Yoga), dancing (e.g., swirlingdervishes), or attention demanding medita-tion (e.g, Zen), for example, initially resultin increased heart rate.

The understanding of complex culturallyembedded meditation practices and theirinteraction with the autonomic nervoussystem (ANS) becomes especially importantwhen there is the potential to apply thesepractices to health and well-being concernsoutside of their traditional meanings, eventhough there may be concern that doing somay dilute the potential for positive healthoutcomes. This concern stems in part fromthe idea that some meditation stylesincorporate more than relaxation techniquesto promote an awareness of the observingself and a change of customary patterns ofperception and thinking.1 From this lens,meditation is not a “one size garment” thatfits all individuals because different types of

meditation practices frequently do not usethe same process or techniques.2

Because there is mixed support for theproposition that meditation is associatedwith lower physiological activation ofimmune, cardiovascular, and neuroen-docrine functions or with reduced anxiety,the examination of sympathetic reactivitywith different meditative techniques is mostrelevant to the issue of the use of medita-tion to mitigate health concerns.3,4 In spiteof the mixed reviews regarding meditation’spotentiality for health benefits, the use ofdifferent meditation techniques to alleviatestress and its impact upon health is worthyof consideration. Moreover, rising healthcare costs and an increased aging populationpresent strong incentives to apply thegenerally accepted benefits (e.g., relaxation,reduced stress, mental and emotionalresiliency) of cultural-bound meditationstyles to health issues for individuals whomay not share the esoteric views that areimplicit or explicit in a particular type ofmeditation.

There are a myriad of meditation stylesdeveloped by religious and spiritualtraditions involving various forms ofwithdrawal of attention with a cognitivefocus (e.g., Traditional Yoga Nidra) and/ormotor activity (e.g., Cathartic DancingMeditation, Tango Zen Walking DanceMeditation, Kundalini Dancing Meditation)that prescribe their own esoteric explana-tions for health benefits.5 In the West,however most research focuses on the so-called “mindfulness” approach (e.g.,Vipassana, Transcendental Meditation).

Subtle Energies & Energy Medicine • Volume 19 • Number 2 • 4

Mindfulness is commonly defined as thestate of “being attentive to” and “beingaware of ” what is taking place in thepresent.6 Sometimes referred to as passivemeditation, it has its roots in Buddhism andother contemplative traditions. This typeof meditation does not attempt to controlor manipulate the stream of consciousness,and it appears to prompt relaxation (i.e.,parasympathetic activation).

In contrast, active meditation (i.e., “self-generated” meditation) normally requires aconcentration on something more specificand frequently involves a mental and visualinteraction, which may result in prominentheart rate oscillations or other psychophys-iological arousal.7,8 Active meditationtechniques typically employ a detailed,broad and deep comprehension using theintellect (referred to as the “mind’s eye”) tofocus on specific problems or concepts tobe resolved or understood. Passive medita-tion however focuses on clearing the mindof all thoughts, feelings, and bodilysensations and employ withdrawaltechniques from the intellect. Differenttraditions disagree on the utility and theprocess of using the intellect during medita-tion; however, both active and passivetechniques focus primarily on the samegoals: to calm the mind and inner beingand to achieve enlightenment regarding theself however the concepts of enlightenmentor in some cases “salvation” are defined.

From the Western medicine perspective,Benson’s “relaxation response,” modeledafter Transcendental Meditation without theesoteric underpinings, is the widely accepted

model to examine meditative benefits viathe autonomic nervous system.9 Notably,many other methods (e.g., autogenictraining, progressive muscle relaxation,repetitive physical activity, praying, yoga)may be used to elicit the relaxationresponse, which is theorized to result inlong-term physiologic changes, such asreduced cardiovascular symptoms andstress.10,11

Other research has found various resultanteffects (e.g., brain activity, brain neuropla-sicity, physical and mental health) in termsof the type and focus, the attentional strate-gies, and the cognitive processes of medita-tion types, which have been theorized to beassociated with the stages of meditativepractice.12-16 A concise statement regardingthese different techniques from the litera-ture will help to clarify their different focusand intent as noted in this article.Attentional strategies most often refer to“wide-angle lens,” “zoom-lens concentra-tive,” or “integrated” mindfulnesstechniques that focus on the process ofwithdrawal of attention.17 Zoom-lensconcentrative techniques (e.g.,Transcendental Meditation, Yoga) focus ona single object (e.g., breath, mantra) withthe intent to exclude all other thoughtsfrom awareness, whereas the wide-angle lensof “insight” meditation (e.g., Vipassana)focuses on the nature of psychicfunctioning, but not on the achievement ofstates of absorption. In terms of psychicfunctioning, the ideology focuses on thebasic concept that “mind” effects reality and“thought” directs energy. Moreover, apsychic practice is considered only one of



reactivity and regulation) may be signifi-cantly effected by meditation;26-29 and, (j)some cross-cultural studies comparing activeand passive meditation styles do not supporta correlation between years of practice withphysical and mental health.30

One caveat clearly stands out from theliterature: the multicultural perspective ofphysiology (e.g., subtle energies, prana, chi,ki) differs from the Westernunderstanding.31 In particular, specificbreathing exercises are believed to play asignificant role in maintaining better health.In fact, some meditative practices (e.g.,Agnisara, Bhastrika, Kapalabhati, Nauli,Sudarshan Kriya) incorporate acceleratedbreathing exercises that prompt sympatheticreactivity. Hence, not all meditativepractices result in an immediate physiologicstate of relaxation. One example of this isdiscussed in the present study.

THE PRESENT STUDYWe examined the “dissociative” modality ofthe seven advanced meditators from theKrippner and colleagues unpublished datain terms of their peripheral autonomicreactivity, absorption, dissociation, and self-reported stress.N1,34 These meditators werepart of the esoteric school, Ramtha’s Schoolof Enlightenment (RSE), located in Yelm,Washington that teaches an active form ofmeditation and incorporates an acceleratedbreathing technique along with attentiondemanding visualizations. This sample wasselected in part because we had access tosubstantial psychological data on thosepracticing this form of meditation.

the various directions in which one mayapproach the spiritual world. Integratedstrategies (e.g., Zen meditation) mayinclude both zoom and wide-angleattentional strategies. Visualization or othercognitive techniques may be incorporated inboth active and passive meditation styles.Notably, these different approachesincluding to some extent active meditationtechniques are reflected in some of the mostsalient research findings over the last thirtyyears that include mixed support in termsof the resultant health benefits of medita-tion. These findings are: (a) there may bea “ceiling effect” in meditation, and medita-tion effects may be more apparent in self-report than in physiological measures;18 (b)high hypnotizable individuals who practicemeditation regularly may be more likely toshow substantial reduced anxiety;19 (c)individuals who adhere to meditation forintrinsic reasons may experience reducedanxiety and depression, and increased self-actualization;20,21 (d) hypnotic responsive-ness increases with practice frequency;21 (e)the expectancy of positive benefit is relatedto practice frequency and the self-reportedbenefits;22 (f ) the expectancy of benefit issignificantly related to reduced anxiety;21,23

(g) the frequency of practice is not a consis-tent measurement for reduced anxiety orneuroticism;24 (h) negative affect, in generalor during meditation, may influence percep-tion, memory, and mood to chronicallytrigger the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenalaxis and alter immune function;25 (i) brainplasticity (i.e., ability of the brain to reorga-nize neural pathways based on new experi-ences) and affective style (i.e., consistentindividual differences in emotional


muscle tension) of stress in terms of thisstudy to a verbal self-report of not feelingstressed.

As is true in the case of any religious orspiritual practice, various esoteric teachingsare foundational to their meditativetechniques. It is pertinent to brieflydescribe these teachings so that the datamay also be understood within the contextof their esoteric foundations.N2 Krippnerand his colleagues referred to theirtechnique as “the alleged activation ofkundalini.”34, N3 Kundalini mediation maybe described non-esoterically as an activeform of meditation that incorporatesaccelerated breathing, a description which isalso applicable to the RSE breathingtechnique (i.e., C&E Breathe).

Hageman in a separate study with RSEstudents also described RSE’s technique as“a ‘top-down’ cognitive, dissociative style ofmeditation that is a form of active medita-tion specifically [designed] for the RSEpractice; as such, it incorporates a breathingtechnique similar to [voluntary] hyperven-tilation or to holotropic breathwork” thatwe will refer to as accelerated breathing inthis article.30,38,N4

METHOD

Our inquiry utilized a single-case studyembedded design in part because the

original data were not based upon anexperimental design requiring a controlgroup, randomness, large sample size, orrepeated measures over a series of multiplesessions.39 Our research design analytic

Dissociative modality in this case refers tothe meditative technique practiced by themeditators that promotes an altered state ofconsciousness. Moreover, the techniqueattempts to disconnect adepts from thebody experience and emotional history inorder to reframe emotional history, and inaddition permit the subjective experience ofchanging the perceived body vibration to bedifferent from the ordinary state ofconsciousness. A good example is theadept’s subjective experience that they canchange their body’s vibration to the pointthat parts of their body would actuallybecome invisible, which is referred to as“negative hallucination” in hypnosisresearch.

RESEARCH QUESTION AND

ANALYTIC STRATEGYOur analytic strategy focused on the periph-eral autonomic nervous system reactivity ofthese meditators and our research question:why did seven advanced meditators from anesoteric school who use an active medita-tion style with accelerated breathing reflectmore variable sympathetic activation duringmeditation and recovery relative tobaselines? Our discussion will explore theimplications of our findings for health andwell-being in terms of autonomic reactivityand whether sympathetic reactivity duringmeditation and recovery are indicative ofmind-body incongruence or alternatively, anoutcome of meditation style.

Mind-body incongruence refers to theinconsistency between psychophysiologicalmeasures (e.g., hand temperature, skinconduction, heart rate, blood pulse volume,


focused on the group mean differencescomparing between baseline, meditation,and recovery, and whether the eyes open oreyes closed conditions were significantlydifferent in the comparison betweensessions. Because the sample size was small,non-parametric statistics were alsoperformed to substantiate statistical signifi-cance from a more conservative viewpoint.Cohen’s d and effect size (ES) werecomputed using means and standarddeviations.41 Our interpretation of thestrength of effect size (i.e., < 0.1 was trivial,0.2−0.3 was small, 0.4−0.5 was moderate,> 0.5 was large) generally followed Cohen’srecommendations.42 To substantiate thereliability of the data, comparisons weremade to other research findings. Thepsychological data were compared toHageman’s studies (the only large psycho-logical data collections with RSE students)with their participants who had practicedfor five or more years.30,43 The physiolog-ical findings were also compared to otherresearch with active and passive styles interms of their peripheral autonomicreactivity.

PARTICIPANTSIn Krippner and his colleagues study, therewere seven advanced meditators (includingRSE’s founder, JZ Knight) who volunteeredas participants.34,N5 They had practiced theRSE meditative technique for at least 5 yearsat the time of testing. Their status as“advanced meditators” was solely determinedby the RSE training standards developed bythe school. They all lived in Yelm,Washington at the time of data collectionand were active in the school’s training

strategy is appropriate because theembedded single-case study design is anempirical form of methodology that allowsfor: (a) a small sample size and/or sampleselection based upon specific criteria (e.g.,advanced meditators using a specifictechnique); (b) a one-time testing sessionthat collects data under multiple conditions(e.g., meditators eyes open and eyes closedconditions for serial testing of psychophys-iological measures in addition to psycho-logical measures); (c) lack of randomness(e.g., volunteer meditators’ personality traitsor skills in meditation were not known tothe researchers prior to testing); and, (e)multiple sources of data that may be usedin triangulation to describe features,context, and the process of a phenomenon(e.g., meditators’ psychological data; otherdata sets; other related research). Alltogether, these facets contribute to thevalidity of the research analyses. The casestudy is also relevant when the boundariesbetween the phenomenon of interest andcontext may not be clearly evident as in thisstudy’s focus on meditation styles and theincongruence between the meditators’psychophysiological markers of stress incomparison to their self-report of perceivedstress.

Krippner and his colleagues used intensitysampling in their study from which we drawour analyses of their unpublished data.34,40

Intensity sampling refers to sample selectionbased upon the participants’ knowledge orexperience of the phenomenon of interest.Our analyses used paired samples t-tests tocompare the measures between sessions withthe meditators as a group. The analyses are


Following the group testing, each meditatorwas tested separately on the physiologicalmeasures with only the researchers (i.e., S.Krippner, I. E. Wickramasekera, I.Wickramasekera II, J. Wickramasekera)selectively present in a room on RSE’spremises that was conducive for accuratephysiological measurement in terms ofprivacy, temperature control, standard roomlighting, and comfortable seating. When thephysiological testing was given to Knight, shewas tested first while not channeling. Latershe was tested while she was channeling. Alltests were administered on the same day.The physiological testing was administeredafter the psychological testing; however, eachmeditator sat quietly for fifteen minutes priorto their physiological testing. In all physio-logical testing, the measurements wereadministered simultaneously via 3-minutesequential sessions (i.e., BEO: baseline eyesopen; BEC: baseline eyes closed; MED:meditation eyes closed; REO: recovery eyesopen; REC: recovery eyes closed). TheKrippner et al. study selected 3-minutesessions because their biofeedback equipmentwas pre-set for 3-minute sessions.34

Although there is no consensus or establishedrules for time duration of research sessionsfor physiological measurement and someresearchers may elect to test for longer than3-minute sessions, physiological reactivitymay be measured accurately in 3-minutesessions because the sympathetic or parasym-pathetic nervous system response can occurrapidly (e.g., one second).

Self-reported stress was taken after eachsession with the Subjective Units ofDisturbance Scale (SUDS). The

program as teachers, instructors, or in organi-zational responsibilities.

The researchers contacted JZ Knight whogave permission to do the testing at theschool, and she with six of her moreadvanced students volunteered to be partici-pants. This intensity sampling was limitedto a small size so that researchers could testall participants individually for each sessionon the same day. Because Knight claimedto “channel” the alleged entity Ramtha, sheagreed to be tested with the physiologicalmeasures: while channeling and while notchanneling. At the time, the researchers wereinterested in comparing Knight’s physiolog-ical responses under both conditions alongwith the other six advanced meditatorsphysiological responses to other cross-culturalresearch focusing on the psychophysiologycomparisons between mediums andchannelers with non mediums or nonchannelers. However, Knight’s movementswhile channeling during the physiologicaltesting precluded the inclusion of her resultswhile channeling in the analyses.N6

Informed consent was obtained from eachmeditator prior to administering the psycho-logical and physiological tests. For simplicitysake, participants are referred to as Knightand M2−M7 of whom two were female (i.e.,Knight, M7).

PROCEDUREThree psychological measures (i.e., absorp-tion, dissociation, boundaries) were firstadministered in a group setting with all sevenmeditators in which Knight participatedwhile not channeling. Each psychologicalmeasure took 5−10 minutes to administer.


zability as a modest correlate (r = .32 to .44).Tellegen reported high internal reliability (r= .88) and test-retest reliability (r =.90).46,47,48 Kihlstrom and colleaguesreported similar test-retest reliability (r =.88).49 A percentile of 25 or less was catego-rized as low in absorption, 26 to 74 asmoderate, 75 or higher as high, and 87 orhigher as very high.

The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES),originally developed by Bernstein andPutnam, is used as a nonclinical screeningtool for both clinical and nonclinical popula-tions to assess the frequency and intensity ofdissociation in one’s daily life.50 The DESII is an updated version, which consists of28 items that ask what percentage of the time(i.e., 0% to 100% in intervals of 10) theindividual experiences certain dissociativeevents or perceptions.51 Only 17% scoringabove 30 are diagnosed with DID.51 SomeDID individuals may score low on the DES,but typically diagnosed DIDs will score 40and above. Bernstein and Putnam reporteda test-retest interval validity of four to eightweeks (N = 26) with r = .84, p < .001.50

Frischoltz and his colleagues [52] reported atest-retest interval validity of four weeks (N= 30) with r = .66, p < .001 and Cronbach’scoefficient alpha (N = 321) of .95. A totalraw score of 30 or above was rated highlydissociative.

The Boundary Questionnaire (BQ)developed by Hartmann measures person-ality dimensions referred to as “thin " and"thick” boundaries.53 Hartmann indicatedthat each dimension has advantages anddisadvantages and that neither per se is

recommended procedures for the placementof the electrodermal measurements wereadministered.44 Electromyographic (EMG)activity was measured with Ag-AgC1 cupelectrodes placed one inch above each eyewith the ground placed in the center of theforehead and also on the right uppertrapezius muscle. Peripheral hand tempera-ture was measured in degree Fahrenheit witha thermistor placed on the back of themiddle phalanx of the middle finger of thenon-dominant hand. Heart rate and bloodvolume pulse was measured with aphotoplethysmographic transducer placed onthe pad of the middle finger of the non-dominant hand. Skin conductance wasmeasured with Ag-AgC1 disc electrodes thatwere 12mm in diameter and attached to thedistal phalanges of the second and thirdfingers of each meditator’s cleaned left hand.The EMG, hand temperatures, pulse rate,and skin conductance signals were processedusing the corresponding CoulbournInstruments modules. The signals werefurther processed using a Cyborg 91-IIntegrated System for Automated Acquisitionand Control interfaced with a laptopcomputer. Each of the physiologicalmeasures was computed for the averagedscore for each 3-minute session for each ofthe advanced meditators.

MEASURESThe Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS),developed by Tellegen and Atkinson, consistsof 34 true/false items that reflect the mentaldisposition of absorption:45 (a) openness toself-altering experiences across a variety ofsituations and (b) imaginative involvement.The TAS has significantly predicted hypnoti-

pathological. He classified “thin boundaried"adults as frequently being open, sensitive,and vulnerable. Moreover, they tend toexperience "twilight" states of consciousnesseasily, typically involve themselves inrelationships quickly, generally do not repressuncomfortable material, do not isolatethought from feeling, and do not have readyaccess to the various defense mechanisms bywhich "thick boundaried" adults defendthemselves. Although they are open andcreative in certain ways, they may get lost infantasy and become emotionally vulnerable.In contrast, "thick boundaried" adults areadaptive, well organized, punctual, reliable,responsible, and efficient; however, they maybecome rigid and unable to change. Manyindividuals score as a “mixed” boundary.54

MacDonald and his colleagues found thatthe BQ had good internal consistency andvalidity.55 A total raw score above 300 iscategorized as “thin boundaried,” 250−300 as“mixed,” and 249 or below as “thick.”

The SUDS scale is a self-report scale that isdesigned to give a measurable assessment ofthe intensity of any negative affect underspecified conditions or situations.56

Although the scale may be used with the0−10 scale, it is typically used with the 0−100continuum scale in which 0 indicates no self-perceived distress to 100 that indicatesextreme self-perceived distress. Research hasshown that the SUDS measure correlateshighly with certain physiological indicators ofdistress. It provides a means to compare thecongruency between self-reported stress andthe measured psychophysiological markers ofstress.

The physiological measures were: (a)electromyography (EMG), which measuredelectrical activity within the frontalis andtrapezius muscles. Optimal muscle tensionwas designated as 3.1 microvolts; (b) bilateralhand temperature, which measuredrelaxation or tension. Notably, hand temper-ature change may depend upon the stressoror problem and how an individual reacts tostress.57 Optimal temperature wasdesignated within a range of 92°−96°Fahrenheit (F); (c) heart rate, whichmeasured cardiac activity. Optimal rate wasdesignated within a range of 59−91 BPM;(d) blood pulse volume, which measuredblood flow during the cardiac cycle withinthe arteries of the arms and/or legs. Optimalvolume was designated as 76 BMP; and, (e)electrodermal activity (EDA), whichmeasured changes in the bilateral skin'selectrical conductivity.58 Optimal conduc-tance was designated as 44 micro-siemens.

RESULTS

Descriptive statistics revealed that themeditators had a mean age of 40

(range 26−57). In addition, each meditatorscored mostly as “high” in absorption anddissociation, and each scored as “thinboundaried.” However, group mean scoreswere slightly different in that the groupmean for absorption was moderate (seeTable 1). There was a significant 2-tailedcorrelation (p < .01) between the DES andthe TAS (r = .88) and between the DESand the total BQ (r = .78); however, thecorrelation between the TAS and the totalBQ was insignificant.


RESEARCH QUESTIONThe research question focused on why themeditators’ physiological responses werereflective of a more variable sympatheticactivation during meditation and recoveryrelative to baseline measures.

RESEARCH ANALYSESA mean score was produced for eachmeditator for each physiological measure forbaselines, meditation, and recovery sessions.The seven meditators’ mean scores wereaveraged for a group mean score for eachphysiological measure to compare forbaselines, meditation, and recovery sessions.Parametric statistics are quoted. Almost allsignificant mean differences were p < .03,which is an important consideration takinginto account the possibility of Type 1 errorswhen multiple paired samples t-tests areperformed on the physiologic data.However, all physiologic data variables werenormally distributed with a skewness of lessthan 3.0. Nonparametric statistics are alsopresented due to the small sample size in

order to substantiate a more conservativeconfirmation of significance. Because wewere interested in what differences, if any,under the eyes open and eyes closedconditions relative to sympathetic activityfrom baselines to meditation and to recovery,we used the parametric related samples t-teststo confirm significant group means betweenthese sessions. We further substantiatedgroup mean significances with the nonpara-metric Wilcoxon paired samples statistic.The following presents our findings of thephysiological responses in terms of non-significant and key findings.

NON-SIGNIFICANTFINDINGS

There were no significant group meandifferences for the frontalis and

trapezius EMG or blood pulse volume,although there was considerable variationfor each meditator in these sessions. Groupsignificance was not found for self-reportedstress as measured by SUDS. All medita-


Table 1. Psychological Measures by Meditator

tors reported minimal to no stress (i.e., 20or lower) during each session.

KEY SIGNIFICANTFINDINGS

Group mean significance was found forhand temperatures, heart rate, and skin

conductance. These significant compar-isons were each highly correlated above .90and predominately revealed moderate effectsizes (ES) with the parametric pairedsamples t-test.

HAND TEMPERATURESThe left hand temperatures reflected moresympathetic reactivity for the eyes closedcondition than the right that reflectedslightly more sympathetic reactivity for theeyes open.

There were significant group mean differ-ences for the left hand (see Table 2). Apaired samples t-test (p = .04) revealed theeyes closed recovery mean was significantlyhigher than the meditation mean (moderateES), and confirmed by the Wilcoxon statistic(p = .03). A paired samples t-test (p = .03)also revealed the eyes closed recovery meanwas significantly higher than the eyes openrecovery mean (small ES); however signifi-cance was not confirmed by the Wilcoxonstatistic (p = .09).

Figure 1 illustrates the individual variationsin the left hand temperatures in whichKnight and M7 stayed within the optimalrange for all sessions, but M3 and M5 werebelow optimal for all sessions.

There were also significant group meandifferences for the right hand (see Table 3).A paired samples t-test (p = .03) revealed


Table 2. Significant Group Left Mean Hand Temperature Sessions

the eyes closed recovery mean was signifi-cantly higher than the meditation mean(moderate ES); however, the Wilcoxonstatistic (p = .06) did not confirm signifi-cance.

Figure 2 illustrates the individual variationsin right hand temperatures, which displaysmore varied fluctuation than the left hand.Three meditators (i.e., M3−M5) were belowthe optimal temperature for each session.Only M7 remained within the optimal


Figure 1. Left Hand Temperature byMeditators

Figure 2. Right Hand Temperature byMeditators

Table 3. Sympathetic Reactivity During Meditation

temperature for all sessions. The eyes opencondition reflected slightly moresympathetic reactivity than the eyes closed.

HEART RATEPaired samples t-tests revealed there weresignificant group mean differences in thesessions for heart rate (see Table 4), althoughheart rate was within optimal functioning foralmost all meditators each session:

(a) meditation mean (p = .02) was signifi-cantly higher than the eyes open baselinemean (trivial ES); however, the Wilcoxonstatistic (p = .06) did not confirm signif-icance.

(b) meditation mean (p = .01) was signifi-cantly higher than the eyes closedbaseline mean (trivial ES), and theWilcoxon statistic (p = .03) did substan-

tiate significance.(c) meditation mean (p = .01) was signifi-

cantly higher than the eyes open recoverymean (moderate ES), and was confirmedby the Wilcoxon statistic (p = .02).

(d) meditation mean (p = .03) was signifi-cantly higher than the eyes closedrecovery mean (moderate ES); however,significance was not confirmed by theWilcoxon statistic (p = .06).

Figure 3 illustrates that most meditators(Knight, M3−M4, M6−M7) displayedincreased heart rates over baselines duringmeditation. Only M2’s heart rate was aboveoptimal for all sessions. In terms of thecomparisons between the eyes open andeyes closed conditions, all but one mediatorunder each condition reflected increasedsympathetic reactivity during meditation.


Table 4. Significant Group Mean Heart Rate Sessions


Figure 3. Heart Rate by Meditators

Table 5. Significant Group Left Hand Mean Skin Conductance Sessions

Figure 4. Left Skin Conductance byMeditators

Most meditators did not return to baselinesduring each recovery condition.

SKIN CONDUCTANCEPaired samples t-tests revealed there weremultiple significant group mean differencesin skin conductance for the left hand (seeTable 5):

(a) meditation mean (p < .001) was signifi-cantly higher than the eyes open baselinemean (trivial ES) and the eyes closedbaseline mean (trivial ES); Wilcoxonstatistic (p = .02) confirmed significancefor both.

(b) both the eyes open recovery mean (p =.002) and the eyes closed recovery mean(p = .03) were significantly higher theeyes open baseline mean with moderateand small ES respectively; Wilcoxonstatistic confirmed significance (p = .02and p = .03 respectively).

(c) eyes open recovery mean (p = .001)significantly higher than both eyes closedbaseline mean and eyes closed recoverymean with moderate and trivial ESrespectively; Wilcoxon statisticconfirmed significance (p = .02) forboth.

(d) eyes closed baseline mean (p = .004) wassignificantly higher than the eyes closedrecovery mean (moderate ES), and theWilcoxon statistic (p = .02) confirmedsignificance.

It is important to note that even thoughthere were significant group mean differ-ences in the sessions, Figure 4 illustrates thateach meditators’ left skin conductance werewithin optimal for each session and that

skin conductance tended to peak duringmeditation to a greater extent than duringthe other sessions. In terms of the compar-ison between the eyes open and eyes closedconditions, sympathetic activation remainedelevated above baselines for all but onemeditator during both conditions.

There were also multiple significant groupmean differences for the right skin conduc-tance (see Table 6):

(a) meditation mean (p < .001) was signif-icantly higher than the eyes openbaseline mean (trivial ES) and the eyesclosed baseline mean (moderate ES);Wilcoxon statistic (p = .02) confirmedsignificance for both.

(b) both the eyes open recovery mean (p =.001) and the eyes closed recovery mean(p = .01) were significantly higher thanthe eyes open baseline mean with bothhaving moderate ES; Wilcoxon statisticconfirmed significance (p = .02 and p= .03 respectively).

(c) both the eyes open recovery mean (p =.001) and the eyes closed recovery mean(p = .001) were significantly higherthan the eyes closed baseline mean withboth having moderate ES; Wilcoxonstatistic confirmed both significances(p = .02).

(d) eyes open recovery mean (p = .002)was significantly higher than the eyesclosed recovery mean (trivial ES), andthe Wilcoxon statistic (p = .02)confirmed significance.

Figure 5 illustrates that all meditators rightskin conductance were within optimal for


each session, and followed essentially thesame pattern as the left with the exceptionof eyes closed baseline and eyes closedrecovery. In terms of the comparisonbetween the eyes open and eyes closedconditions, sympathetic activation remainedelevated above baselines for both conditionsduring meditation and none returned tobaselines during both conditions.

DISCUSSION

Our discussion will focus on why thesemeditators did not appear to reflect

the generally accepted Benson’s relaxationmodel in that relaxation is an outcome of


Table 6. Significant Group Right Hand Mean Skin Conductance Sessions

Figure 5. Right Skin Conductance byMeditators

meditation.9 From this line of reasoning,it would be expected that if a meditationstyle prompts sympathetic activationfollowed by relaxation, then the physiologicresponse pattern would generally reflect anincrease of sympathetic reactivity abovebaseline during meditation and then returnto at least near baseline during the recoverysessions. This general pattern however didnot occur in this study. Clearly, thesemeditators reflected a sympathetic reactivityin their heart rate, and to some degree intheir hand temperatures and skin conduc-tance. These meditators also reported nodistress, but their physiologic responses, asevidenced by increased sympatheticreactivity, was contradictory to their self-report.

So, why did the meditators show greatersympathetic reactivity from baseline tomeditation to recovery, and with noperceived sense of distress? Might thepersonality characteristics of absorption,dissociation, and permeable boundaries playa role in their perceived lack of distress? Isthe lack of perceived distress always indica-tive of mind-body incongruence? Thefollowing discussion explores these logicalprobings as they relate to the fact that themeditators physiologic responses showedincreased sympathetic tone from baseline tomediation to recovery.

ROLE OF ABSORPTION,DISSOCIATION, PERMEABLE

BOUNDRIES IN PERCEIVED DISTRESSIn reference to the psychological measure-ment of these seven meditators, Hageman’s

data are the only substantive data collectionto date on psychological testing with RSEstudents, and she confirmed that this study’sadvanced meditators were similar in terms oftheir means to those RSE students who hadstudied at RSE for five or more years.30,43

In addition, these seven meditators wereyounger, mostly male, and were more charac-teristic of the RSE group’s “very high”absorption and “high” dissociation scores.N7

Thus, high absorption and high dissociationmay tend to characterize RSE students inthat they are more likely to be high inabsorption and dissociation (about 21% ofstudents) prior to attending the school. Theproportion of RSE students high in dissocia-tive frequency is not surprising in terms ofthe idea that dissociation, as defined byCalof, may also involve life-potentiatingexperiences, which is a point stronglyemphasized by Krippner in his cross-culturalresearch.32,33 Collectively, this perspectivecertainly reminds that meditation techniquesmay not be so easily removed from theiresoteric foundations or from the outcomesfor individuals who may be drawn to themin terms of some of their personality traits.

Other studies have shown that high absorp-tion, as a modest correlate of hypnotizability,high dissociation frequency, and permeableboundaries are correlated with the ability toachieve altered states of consciousness andparanormal experiences.53,59-63 Thesecorrelates raise the possibility that spiritualpractices emphasizing these personalityaspects in their attentional strategies ofvarious forms of withdrawal of attentionmight build upon cognitive strategies and


individual tendencies to promote the repres-sion of perceived threat. Thus, some individ-uals’ propensity for repression may increasethe potential for somatic distress in responseto perceived stress that the individual maynot bring into awareness. Although individ-uals who have permeable boundaries (i.e.,thin boundaried) may develop somaticdistress, they might not so easily repressperceived threat unless they also havedeveloped a repressive coping style.64

Although absorption, dissociation, andpermeable boundaries may play a role inperceived stress, they do not fully explain themeditators’ sympathetic reactivity oversessions.

SYMPATHETIC REACTIVITY INVOLVED

IN MEDITATION: AN ANOMALIE OR

NOT?Our findings are in line with other researchdemonstrating that sympathetic activation iscommon with active meditation techniquesusing accelerated breathing or voluntaryhyperventilation, and that it does not appearto result in significantly increased autonomicreactivity for heart rate beyond optimalfunctioning as our sample of these sevenmeditators illustrated.59 Furthermore, theAlexopoulos and his colleagues study foundthat the practice of rapid breathinginterspersed with adequate pauses of slowbreathing (e.g., Sudarshan Kriya meditation)may result in relaxation, visual imagery, andcounteract the stress related sympatheticeffects.60 Posse and his colleagues studieswith hyperventilation more intense than inSudarshan Kriya meditation found thatvoluntary hyperventilation did not decreasecerebral oxygen in normal subjects, and that

voluntary hyperventilation quieted thefrontal and parietoccipital cortex but not thesubcortical areas.65,66 Their findingssuggested that a quieting of emotional relatedstress occurs when utilizing voluntaryhyperventilation with meditation. Theseaforementioned studies lend someunderstanding of why the meditators in thisstudy did not report a stressful experienceduring their baseline, meditation, or recoverysessions even though sympathetic activationoccurred above baseline.

In addition, Olsen and his colleagues foundthat there were different physical effects (e.g.,modest hypocapnia; normal brain tissue PO2with increased cardiac output; increased renalblood flow, lithium, and sodium excretion;minor increased renal sympathetic activity) involuntary hyperventilation.67 Moreover,other research utilizing accelerated breathingwith different meditation types (e.g.,Bhastrika, Kapalabhati, Nauli, Agnisara,Hatha Yoga) revealed autonomic reactivity,which suggested that the subjective experi-ence of such techniques was stimulationfollowed by relaxation as evidenced byEEG.68 Although our meditators were notassessed on all of these aspects, they did showincreased cardiac output, which at the veryleast suggests the possibility that their acceler-ated breathing technique likely prompted thecardiac response.

Our study did not measure hormones, but itis related to our testing protocol results inthat some meditation practices may heightenperception and lessen emotion via corticalarousability while simultaneously decreasinglimbic arousability.69 One study found a


brief increase in cortisol and human growthhormone after only three minutes ofhyperventilation, which also supports theidea that 3-minute testing sessions aresufficient in length to effect and monitorphysiologic response as in the example of ourmeditators.70 In this regard, Kukumberg andhis colleagues found that hyperventilationincreased cortical, skin, and motor nervesexcitability; however, there is data suggestingthat hyperventilation during meditation mayalso cause a release of pituitary hormones(e.g., vasopressin, oxytocin) throughhypothalamic output mediated via vagalafferents, which contributes to decreasedblood pressure and increased emotionalbonding.71,72 This effect could also impactthe perception of stress and act to lessen it.

The meditators in this study did not show asignificant increase in blood pressure volumeor muscle tension across sessions but they diddisplay individualistic responses within thesessions. None of the meditators exceededthe optimal blood pulse volume rate duringmeditation; however, all but one meditatorincreased the blood pulse volume rate abovethe meditation level during recovery. Thismay be explained by the fact that relaxationis not always associated with changes inarousal, and that relaxation training mightincrease cardiac parasympathetic tonewithout other effects associated with medita-tion.73,74

Furthermore, the physiological effects ofcontemplative activity show wide variabilityin that an extreme trophotropic state maysometimes trigger an extreme ergotropic statethat may be ecstatic in nature (e.g.,

samadhi).75 In some circumstances (e.g.,deep absorption with or fixed attention onan idea or an image; extended contempla-tion), the heart rate may increase.76,77

However, other research has not foundconsistent changes in heart rate duringAnanda Marga Yoga or progressiverelaxation.78,79,80

Thus, autonomic reactivity appears to varyby the type of meditation, and sympatheticreactivity in particular appears to be commonin active meditation styles and acceleratedbreathing techniques, which may havepractical benefits, such as stimulationfollowed by relaxation and a quieting of theemotions. However, can sympatheticreactivity during meditation and recoveryalternatively be indicative of mind-bodyincongruence when the self-report of stresscontradicts the measured physiologic markersof stress?

MIND-BODY INCONGRUENCEOur findings indicate that the active medita-tive style used by these meditators mayprompt greater sympathetic reactivity duringmeditation and recovery, and that themeditators’ physiologic response wasgenerally within optimal functioning inwhich sympathetic tone in general waselevated at least for a brief period. In lightof the fact that five of the meditators scored“very high” in absorption, four scored “high”in dissociation, all were “thin boundaried,”and all reported minimal or no distressduring any session, the significance of thephysiological results compared to self-reported distress collectively imply a mind-body incongruence.


There are multiple caveats to this evocativeimplication in terms of the well accepted“relaxation response.” Not all researchersfully agree with the widely accepted“relaxation response” because considerableother research have revealed differentautonomic responses for meditationtechniques that relax than for those thatexcite practitioners.26,81,82 Increasedsympathetic activation alone does notdemonstrate mind-body incongruence. Inaddition, the ability to become highlyabsorbed and dissociated from stress maycounteract the effects of increasedsympathetic reactivity. A most interestingconundrum is whether there was mind-bodyincongruence, or whether the sympatheticactivation was more representative of acceler-ated breathing or voluntary hyperventilationtechniques as we have noted in other activemeditation studies we have cited. There issubstantial support for the latter, based uponother studies with techniques similar toRSE’s C&E Breathe, cognitive reframing,and attentional strategies.

CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONSBased upon our analyses and other contem-porary studies from 1931−1996 toonumerous to mention in this article on theeffects of meditation, accelerated or voluntaryhyperventilation breathing techniques do notappear to accentuate sympathetic reactivitybeyond the normal autonomic functioningor, tend to create a mind-body incongruencesevere enough to lead to somatization.83

Admittedly, the generalizability of our smallsample’s findings is very limited due to theprotocol used. One important consideration

is whether the physiologic response wouldhave returned to baseline if longer than 3-minute sessions had been used by Krippnerand his colleagues. We would concur thatit is likely that a longer protocol would showa return to baseline as other studies alreadymentioned have found.

Nevertheless, our findings offer valuableinsight from a broader perspective becausethe underlying ideologies of meditativepractices (e.g. utility of dissociation,attentional strategy, emotional release,reframing, deconditioning of habitualpatterns) are pivotal in the goal suitability forstress reduction, emotional balancing, and/ortransformative experiences, in particular forthose not adhering to the esoteric beliefs thatmay involve an expectancy outcome.Secondly, the relaxation response alone maynot be the best indicator of meditation’simpact on health. Lastly, the comparison ofcognitive perceptions to stress with themeasurement of sympathetic reactivityduring meditation and recovery may bemisleading without other supportiveevidence for mind-body incongruence.

More importantly, our findings highlightthat not all meditation practices are the same,and suggest that some individuals maybenefit from active meditation styles thatutilize cognitive strategies more in line withtheir personality characteristics. Activemeditation may appeal and be easier forthose who are drawn toward active imagina-tion rather than the “clearing of the mind”techniques. Even though the passive medita-tion styles are reflected more in the scientificliterature than the active meditation styles,


the recognition that health benefits are notlimited to passive meditation styles offers animportant practicality: there are options inselecting meditation styles for health issues.This clarification is especially important forindividual differences in utilizing differentmeditative styles without the esotericunderpinnings.

Future research is needed with larger samplesutilizing longer test sessions to explorewhether sympathetic reactivity prompted byaccelerated breathing may exceed thegenerally accepted optimal levels over time.Other measures (e.g., cortisol, pre-frontalEEG, physical fitness) may help identifymarkers of meditative mind-body incongru-ence. Finally, comparisons of breathingtechniques, with meditation or not, mayclarify the roles played by personality traitsand expectancy outcomes, either implicit orexplicit, that are involved in the foundationalbelief system of the meditative practices. Itis our hope that this article will encouragemore studies in this relatively neglected lineof research.

Not withstanding, some researchers mightprefer a different protocol used in the presentstudy (e.g., longer than 3-minute testingsession for each condition; functionalmagnetic resonance; repeated measures acrossmultiple sessions; larger sample). Althoughthe testing protocol used certainly precludesany major generalizability, the documenta-tion of sympathetic reactivity within anactive meditation style provided fertileground for the discussion of our researchquestion and the comparison from a broaderperspective of an example of sympathetic

reactivity within active meditationtechniques.

In conclusion, our key findings are valuablebecause they point to an important clarifi-cation that more significantly highlights thevaried potentialities of using differentmeditation styles for health, and forunderstanding the varied outcomes onmeditation studies. Our key findings alsoillustrate the diversity in individual physio-logic response from baseline to meditation torecovery. Lastly, our key findings highlightthe practicality in clarifying the potentialitiesof meditation styles that emphasize thepositive use of personality characteristics(e.g., absorption as a modest correlate ofhypnotizability, dissociation, permeableboundaries) for individuals who have agreater ability to cognitively focus inaddressing health concerns.

• • •

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:We would like to thank the researchers who sharedtheir unpublished data from Krippner and hiscolleagues study upon which our data analyses werebased.34 Our study was supported by the Chair forthe Study of Consciousness, Saybrook GraduateSchool, San Francisco, California. An earlier versionof a portion of this data was presented at an RSEconference.84

CORRESPONDENCE: Joan H. [email protected]

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EndnotesN1. Dissociation is defined as a natural adaptation

to the complex demands of life that allowsindividuals to disconnect their own knowledgeof behavior from body sensations, emotions,self-identity, self-control, and memory.32 Assuch, dissociative experiences fall within acontinuum from life-potentiating to life-depotentiating occurrences of which culturalnorms play a significant role in their positiveor negative impact.33

N2. RSE claims that its teachings are based oncommunications from the alleged entity“Ramtha, the Enlightened One” whosemessages are purportedly channeled by JZKnight, the founder of RSE.35, pp. 11, 39

Knight has described her early encounters with“Ramtha” and over the years has claimed that“Ramtha” has prescribed a series of exercisesfor RSE students.36 One fundamentaldiscipline taught at RSE is the “C&E Breathe”

or “Consciousness and Energy” (C&E)technique that is used to accomplish variousgoals (e.g., desired life change, self-healing).This technique is used with cognitive focusing(e.g., specific or repetitive phrases, visualiza-tions). It is most frequently done whenadepts are in an altered state of consciousnessin which their responses to their bodies,emotional history, and/or thoughts arereframed into a different perspective of reality.This belief system strongly emphasizes theproposition that physical, mental/emotional,and spiritual health may be impacted by theirpractice almost immediately or in a briefperiod of time, dependent upon theindividual’s willingness to change. Melton hasdescribed their technique, which we paraphrasehere.37 The meditator assumes a half lotusposture with closed eyes, folded legs, andslightly elevated buttocks. In this position,they tighten the lower part of the body, take adeep breath through both nostrils, and thenexpel the air with great force that makes thesound of turbulent rushing air. They incorpo-rate a ritual consisting of a combination ofspecific hand movements (e.g., tracing atriangle in air), visualizations, and thefrequently repeated phrase “so be it” duringthe process of C&E Breathe. This method istypically done while wearing a blindfold orwith the eyes closed.

N3. RSE does not refer to its meditation as akundalini meditation, but there are variedesoteric meanings for kundalini that haveparallels in many of the mystical and Gnostictraditions.

N4. Hyperventilation, voluntary or not, involvesrapid breathing at a rate faster than one’snormal breathing pattern or more deeply thanthe body requires with each breath. CO2levels were not tested in the Hageman study.

N5. Krippner and his colleagues’ research with thephysiological data has not been previouslypublished, but the psychological measureswere.34 Out of courtesy to RSE, it must beclarified that this study did not measureelectroencephalograms (EEGs) as other mediahave erroneously reported.

N6. Because Knight claims to “channel” the entityRamtha, she was measured three times whilechanneling Ramtha, but the data wereconfounded by artifacts due to movement and


electrode loss during the first session. Hence,Knight’s measurements while channelingRamtha were not included in our analyses.

N7. Notably, new RSE students in the Hagemanresearch were not significantly different intheir absorption or dissociation categoricalclassifications than those who had practiced forfive years or more.30,43 In her earlier study,the RSE students had a mean age of 41 (i.e.,range 14−83), whereas students in the laterstudy had a mean age of 50 (i.e., range18−95) and participants of both studies weremostly female (i.e., 65%, 73%), respec-tively.30,43


Experimental - Ramtha School Benelux · Experimental SYMPATHETIC REACTIVITY DURING MEDITATION Joan...

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