Engineering a Strong Pitching Elbow: An Off-Season Training Plan

Engineering a StrongPitching Elbow: AnOff-Season Training PlanAngel Borrelli, MA, CSCSGymScience Sport Performance, Pleasant Hill, California

S U M M A R Y

ELBOW INJURIES ARE THE

SECOND MOST COMMON INJURY

IN BASEBALL PITCHERS. SOUND

MECHANICS AND STRENGTH ARE

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR

INJURY PREVENTION. AN UNDER-

STANDING OF THE ELBOW

MECHANICS DURING THE

PITCHING MOTION IS A NECES-

SARY INGREDIENT IN A STRENGTH

PROGRAM THAT IS LOGICALLY

AND SCIENTIFICALLY DESIGNED.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS ARTICLE IS

TO EDUCATE THE SPORT

PROFESSIONAL ON THE SKILL

REQUIREMENTS OF THE ELBOW

AND SURROUNDING JOINTS AND

SUGGEST AN INTEGRATED

WORKOUT APPROACH THAT

COULD MEET THE

COMPREHENSIVE DEMANDS OF

THE PITCHING ELBOW.

INTRODUCTION

The arm-to-hand complex neverstops moving during the pitch-ing motion, and the precise

lengthening and shortening of theelbow joint required during each phaseof the pitching motion contributes toeffective acceleration and decelerationof the ball. The position and movementof the forearm controlled by the radio-ulnar joint, as well as the actions of thewrist and finger joints, control theexact position of the ball duringthe motion to ensure deception andvelocity and the pitch-type release.

The strength and endurance of thesemuscles are essential for maintainingand protecting the career and health ofthe pitcher. Fatigue and weakness havebeen considered to be a primary con-tributor to injury (5,9). In addition tothe concentric and eccentric roles ofthe muscles, their role in stabilization isof primary importance as a protectivemechanism to underlying joint struc-tures (5,19). An understanding of thepitching motion and the role of eachjoint is necessary to create targetexercises for the pitcher.

PHASES OF THE PITCHINGMOTION

WIND-UP PHASE

The wind-up phase begins with initia-tion of the pitching motion and endswhen the pitcher’s lead knee hasreached its maximum height. The handand ball is in the glove during this phase,and the elbow is flexed with minimalkinetics present at this time (7).

STRIDE PHASE

The stride phase begins when thepitcher’s knee has reached maximumheight and begins its descent towardthe ground. The phase ends when thelead foot makes contact with thepitching mound at stride foot contact(SFC). The elbow is extending toremove the ball from the glove andimmediately flexes to shorten the armfor its early cocked position. This is thefirst critical moment for the elbow joint(4,5,8). At SFC, the elbow joint mustbe flexed between 80� and 100�, andstabilization of the elbow during this

phase is essential (5). Excessive ordiminished flexion at this momentcan interfere with the proper position-ing in the next phase of the motionduring which the elbow is mostvulnerable (5,17). See Table 1 for thecritical moments and angle require-ments for the elbow.

ARM COCKING PHASE

The arm cocking phase begins at theinitial lead foot contact (or SFC) andends when the throwing shoulderreaches maximum external rotation(MER). During this phase, the pitcher’spelvis and trunk rotate in segments tosquare-up to the plate. During thisrotation, high levels of torque andkinetics are present at the medialaspect of the elbow (4,5,8), and thestabilization requirements of the elbowjoint and the radioulnar joint arerequired to assist in compressing thejoint and adding stability (5,7,18).

ARM ACCELERATION PHASE

The arm acceleration phase begins atthe moment of MER and ends at ballrelease. This is the shortest phase andthe most intense phase for the pitchingelbow (1,5,7). The elbow begins itsextension simultaneous to the uppertrunk completing its rotation towardthe plate. Elbow extension velocitiesof 2,100�/s to 2,700�/s have been

KEY WORDS :

elbow strength; elbow injuries;forearm; wrist; fingers; pitchingmechanics; strength training;skill-specific exercises

VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2009 Copyright � National Strength and Conditioning Association64

Copyright © . N ational S trength and Conditioning A ssociation. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited

reported (1,4,5,7,16,18). Even though ithas been shown that the extensionvelocity is not due to the extensors ofthe elbow joint (5), it has been shownthat the elbow extensors are responsi-ble for the maintenance of the angle atMER before extension (5).

FOLLOW-THROUGH PHASE

The follow-through (FT) phase beginsat ball release and ends when thepitching motion ceases. This phase isalso an intense phase for the elbow asthe rapidly extending elbow must bedecelerated by the elbow flexors. Theelbow flexors are also responsible formaintaining the integrity of the poste-rior joint during the rapid extension (5).

KINESIOLOGY OF THE PITCHINGARM

ELBOW JOINT

The major flexor muscles of the elbowjoint are the biceps brachii, brachialis,and brachioradialis. The flexors actconcentrically to shorten the arm fromthe out-of-glove position to SFC andfinally to MER and act eccentrically todecelerate the arm during the FTphase.The brachialis should be recognized asthe only flexor muscle that functionswith the forearm in all 3 positions.Additionally, the brachialis inserts di-rectly into the anterior capsule of theelbow joint as a muscle rather than asa tendon and therefore acts as a majorstabilizer to the elbow joint (19).

The major extensor muscles of theelbow joint are the triceps brachii andthe anconeus. The anconeus is espe-cially active in short-range speedmovements (3). The elbow extensorsact concentrically to rapidly acceleratethe arm during the acceleration phase

even though not considered to bea contributor to the velocity (5,7).

TARGET EXERCISEREQUIREMENTS FOR THE ELBOWJOINT

The elbow joint flexors must be able tomaintain specific angle requirementsand to provide stability to the un-derlying structures, particularly theulnar collateral ligament (1,5,17). Thebrachialis is especially designed to dothis and must be a major priority inelbow training. Therefore, the elbowflexors must be exercised with all 3forearm positions: pronated, supinated,and neutral. The contraction require-ments are concentric and eccentric anda rapid concentric/eccentric contrac-tion cycle. The elbow flexors alsodecelerate the pitching arm and mustbe trained for deceleration with eccen-tric emphasis. Because the long head ofthe biceps is a biarticular muscle, actingas a shoulder flexor and an elbowflexor, the position of the shoulderduring the exercises should includeneutral and flexed positions.

The elbow extensors must be exercisedfor rapid acceleration and strength withvaried forearm positions. Exercises thatshow dominance for the lateral head ofthe triceps are important due to itsfunction as a stabilizer during the high-kinetics MER phase of the pitchingmotion (2). Additionally, due to thebiarticular design of the triceps, the longhead acts as a posterior shoulder stabi-lizer due to actions as an extensor of theshoulder joint (13). The position of theshoulder relative to flexion and extensionis therefore an important considerationwith regard to exercise selection. Becauseelbow contracture is a major problem forpitchers (19), full range of motion

exercises should be included for theelbow extensors, which can act as anactive stretch for the flexors.

RADIOULNAR JOINT

The actions of the radioulnar joint arepronation and supination provided,respectively, by the pronator teresand pronator quadratus and by supi-nator. Because the pronator teresattaches at the medial side of the elbow,its strength and endurance can playa major role in the prevention of ulnarcollateral ligament damage as well as inelbow stabilization (19,20). They playa significant role in elbow stabilization.

TARGET EXERCISEREQUIREMENTS FOR THERADIOULNAR JOINT

The pronators should be trained forstrength and endurance and for fullrange of motion. This can be accom-plished by exercising the forearm ina full-range pronation and supinationcontractions. Their range of motion isespecially important because of thesignificance that forearm position playsin the positioning of the wrist for ballrelease and location mechanics. Al-tered length can affect the wrist and itscontribution to velocity (6,9,19).

WRIST AND FINGER JOINTS

The actions at the wrist joint are flexion,extension, ulnar flexion, and radial de-viation (flexion). The muscles of thefinger joints act along the same path asthe wrist flexors and extensors. Thewrist joint flexes through the actions ofthe flexor carpi radialis and flexor carpiulnaris. The wrist joint extends throughthe actions of the extensor carpi radialis(brevis and longus) and extensor carpiulnaris. The wrist joint undergoes radial

Table 1Critical moments for the elbow during the pitching motion (5,7,8)

Phase Shoulder/arm position Angle requirements Muscular demands

Stride foot contact Early cocking Elbow flexion 80�–100� Flexion with angle stabilization

Acceleration Maximum external rotation Elbow flexion 89�–101� Stabilization by flexor-pronator mass

Ball release Elbow extension Extension to 20� of flexion Rapid extension without hyperextension

Follow-through Arm deceleration Elbow flexor eccentric strength

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 65


flexion through the actions of the flexorcarpi radialis, extensor carpi radialislongus, and abductor pollicis longus.The wrist joint undergoes ulnar flexionthrough the actions of the flexor carpiulnaris and extensor carpi ulnaris.

TARGET EXERCISEREQUIREMENTS FOR THE WRISTAND FINGER JOINTS

During the pitching motion, the wristjoint is the final joint contributing tothe velocity of the pitch and has beenreported as contributing approximately21% of the total velocity of the pitch(14). Its position and muscles activatedduring ball release change with thepitch type (10) (see Table 2). Thefastball is delivered with the wristmoving from hyperextension to a neu-tral position through the action of (inthe direction of ) flexion. The actionof the wrist for the curveball is ulnarflexion. The wrist should be worked,therefore, in both the sagittal andfrontal plane. Additionally, becausethe finger and wrist flexors insert onthe medial aspect of the elbow, theirstrength and healthy range of motionplay a vast role in maintaining elbowintegrity and injury prevention. Adecreased wrist range of motion canaffect the length–tension relationshipat the elbow joint. Medial epicondylitis,a common medial elbow problem forpitchers, can be prevented by main-taining flexibility throughout the fore-arm and wrist complex (10,20). Fullrange of motion and multiple exercisesare therefore included in the workoutplan.

EXERCISE POSTUREREQUIREMENTS FOR ELBOWTRAINING

As has been mentioned previously, theelbow flexors and extensors are biar-ticular in nature, acting at the shoulderas well as at the elbow. For this reason,correct exercise posture is essential.The shoulder girdle houses the armand should be properly aligned overa slightly elevated rib cage. Both rightand left sides should be symmetrical,and the elbow and wrist should bealigned directly under each shoulder

Table 2Pitch-specific muscle dominance (10)

Fastball Curveball

Brachioradialis Extensor carpi radialis brevis

Pronator teres Extensor carpi radialis longus

Extensor digitorum communis Pronator teres

Extensor carpi radialis brevis Brachioradialis

Extensor carpi radialis longus Extensor digitorum communis

Flexor carpi radialis (finger flexorand assists in pronation)

Flexor digitorum superficialis

Flexor digitorum superficialis Flexor carpi radialis (finger flexorand assists in pronation)

Supinator Supinator

Figure 1. Hammer curls.

Figure 2. Reverse curls.

VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 200966

Engineering a Strong Pitching Elbow


joint. Incorrect positioning of the armcan produce excessive tension at theshoulder, producing incorrect tech-nique and creating vulnerability toinjury.

TARGET EXERCISES

Hammer curls. The hammer curl(Figure 1) is an elbow joint flexionexercise that targets the brachioradialisalong with the biceps brachii, espe-cially the lateral head, because of theneutral grip (3,12). The brachioradialishas been reported to be the dominantmuscle in the fastball (Table 2). Thepitcher holds the dumbbells witha neutral grip and performs a dumbbellcurl with the dumbbell remaining inthe neutral grip position throughoutthe motion.

Reverse curls. The reverse curl (Figure2) is an elbow joint flexion and radio-ulnar joint pronation exercise.

Because of the pronated grip, it targetsthe brachialis (3) and the pronators.Fatigue of the forearmmuscles has beenreported to be a major contributor tofailure at the level of the ulnar collateralligament (7,10), and strength and en-durance of this muscle can contribute toprevention of injuries to the medialelbow (9,19). This exercise is performedas a barbell curl with a pronated grip.An EZ-curl bar is recommended foreasy positioning of the wrist joint.

Spider curls. Spider curl (Figure 3) isan elbow joint exercise that targetsthe biceps brachii and should be per-formed with an eccentric emphasis.The long head of the biceps brachii isa 2-joint muscle acting as a flexor of theshoulder joint. The position of thisexercise using the flat side of a preacherbench places the proximal attachmentat rest.

Overhead dumbbell extensions. Theoverhead dumbbell extension (Figure 4)is an elbow joint exercise that targetsthe triceps brachii, especially the lateralhead (12). The lateral head is said to bethe main stabilizer of the elbow duringMER (2). Because the long head of the

triceps is a 2-joint muscle acting as anextensor of the shoulder joint, thisposition puts the long head on slack,making it available for maximal re-cruitment. The position of the scapula

should be isometrically stabilized dur-ing the performance of this exercise.

Lying dumbbell extensions with prona-tion. This exercise targets the elbow

Figure 3. Spider curls.

Figure 4. Overhead dumbbell extensions.

Figure 5. Lying dumbbell extensions with pronation.



joint extensors and radioulnar jointpronators (Figure 5). The forearm is inneutral at the beginning of the con-traction phase of the elbow extension.It then pronates as the elbow reachesfull extension. The lowering of theresistance, or eccentric phase, reversesthe movement. The position of theshoulder joint, along with the elbowextension and pronation, makes thisa skill-specific exercise for a pitcher.

Supination/pronation. The radioulnarjoint is targeted with this exercisethat works both actions of the joint(Figure 6). Because of the tendencytoward fatigue in the pronator flexormass of the pitcher (9), this exercise isextremely important for injury pre-vention. Additionally, the range ofmotion of the muscles can be main-tained through the agonist/antagonisticcontraction/stretch relationship.

Plate ball-grip wrist motions. The wristjoint actions of flexion/extension andradial/ulnar deviation are targetedduring this exercise (Figure 7). Thegrip used on the plate involves theimportant index and middle fingers forpitching and makes this a skill-specificexercise.

Rice bucket. Submerging the hand,wrist, and forearm in a bucket of riceand performing grabs and motions thatinvolve the intrinsic muscles of thewrist and fingers makes this an impor-tant exercise for pitchers. Because thefinger muscles insert on the medial andlateral elbow, strength throughout thismusculature is an important injuryprevention measure. Fill a 5-gallon orlarger bucket with raw rice. Make surethe bucket is filled with an amount ofrice deep enough for the pitcher to beable to submerge an open hand and atleast half of his forearm. Have thepitcher alternate through the followingmovements: (a) submerge an openhand and grab and squeeze out fistfulsof rice for 30 seconds while the handremains submerged in the rice. Remindthe pitcher to emphasize pressure forthe middle and index fingers. Remove

the hand and rest for 30 seconds. (b)Submerge again an open hand andgrab an amount of rice that spreads thefingers in a fastball-grip position. Flex

and extend the wrist for 30 seconds.Again, remind the pitcher to empha-size pressure for the middle and indexfingers. Remove hand and rest for

Figure 6. Supination/pronation.

Figure 7. Plate ball-grip wrist motions.

Figure 8. Elbow-high cable curls.




30 seconds. (c) Submerge an openhand and at least half the forearmwith a straight elbow. With the elbowjoint remaining still and the handholding a fistful of rice, rotate theforearm clockwise and counter-clock-wise (pronating and supinating) for 30seconds.

Elbow-high cable curls. This exercisetargets the elbow flexors in a flexedshoulder position (Figure 8). Theshoulder must remain stabilized, dis-allowing movement of the arm duringperformance of the curls.

Overhead rope extension. Thisexercise for the elbow extensors hasa dual role of emphasizing scapularpositioning (Figure 9). The pitcher’sposture should be emphasized withscapular retraction and stabilizationof the shoulder joint. This exercisetargets all 3 heads of the tricepsbrachii (12).

Cable wrist flexions and extensions.This exercise develops the finger, wrist,and forearm musculature (Figure 10).During the flexions, the bar should rollto the finger tips on the eccentric phaseof the exercise.

Drop curl. This is an exercise for theelbow flexors targeting decelerationstrength. The exercise begins withthe pitcher performing a single-armlow cable curl and holding the con-traction isometrically against the re-sistance of the cable. The pitchershould hold the contraction for 6seconds, followed by rapid extensionof the elbow and an immediate and fastreturn to the isometrically flexed elbowposition.

Rapid fire cable extensions. Thisexercise targets rapid extension of theelbow joint, with the shoulder in a 90�flexed position (Figure 11). The con-tractions should be of a fast short arcnature returning to or slightly morethan a 90� elbow flexion positionbetween contractions.

Weighted ball wrist releases. Thepitcher is performing a fastball-gripwrist release alternating through a se-ries of weighted balls (Figure 12). Fiverepetitions (reps) should be performedwith a regulation weight ball, followed

by 5 reps at each weight (7, 8, 9, 10, and11 oz) and finishing with 5 reps atregulation weight. The wrist movesfrom hyperextension (in the directionof flexion) to neutral. No elbowextension should be allowed.

Figure 9. Overhead rope extension.

Figure 10. Cable wrist flexions and extensions.



INTEGRATED WORKOUT PLANFOR OFF-SEASON TRAINING

To fulfill the many needs of thepitcher’s arm, the number of exercisesthat should be performed is more thanwhat would be practical for a singlebout. An alternating workout plan issuggested as a way to solve the di-lemma and is demonstrated in Table 3.Each workout contains exercises thathave a synergistic effect among thetarget exercises as well as with thesubsequent workouts.

In the sample off-season protocol(Table 4), the pitcher is on a 3-daycycle training plan (upper body/lowerbody/off ) and the elbow training isincluded with the upper-body day andalternated for each workout duringthe 14-day microcycle. The objectiveof the off-season protocol should be to

restore full range of motion, hypertro-phy, strength, and strength endurance.The 4 workouts are designed toprogress from hard, medium, and easyto specialized. The purpose of thisorganization is to give adequate re-covery to the dominant flexors andforearm muscles that are the primaryfocus of the first workout. Because ofthe demands of the pitching motion tothe flexors of the elbow with variedpositions of the forearm, it is necessaryto emphasize varied grip positions forflexion exercises ensuring preferentialrecruitment of the desired muscles.

GUIDELINES FOR ELBOWTRAINING DURING THE PITCHINGSEASONS

Elbow training should be given carefulthought during the pitching seasons

Figure 11. Rapid fire cable extensions.

Figure 12. Weighted ball wrist releases.

Table

3Integratedplanforanoff-seaso

n14-daymicrocycle

Off-seaso

nMonday

Tuesd

ay

Wednesd

ay

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Monday

Tuesd

ay

Wednesd

ay

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Training

plan

Upper

body

Lower

body

Off

Upperbody

Lower

body

Off

Upper

body

Lower

body

Off

Upper

body

Lower

body

Off

Upper

body

Lower

body

Elbow

workout

#1

Off

Off

#2

Off

Off

#3

Off

Off

#4

Off

Off

#1

Off




(preseason and in-season) because thisis when the pitcher is most vulnerableto injury. His range of motion, mus-cular strength, and muscular endur-ance must therefore be maintained.His pitching and bullpen schedulebecome the dominant factor whendetermining not only the days for hiselbow training but also the individualworkout objectives and exercise se-lection. Programming should be im-plemented for each pitcher withcareful consideration of his injuryand/or pain/soreness profile, histraining experience, and his role(starter, middle relief, or closer).

A SAMPLE WORKOUT SCHEDULEDURING THE PITCHING SEASONS

The pitcher can alternate betweenworkouts that are designed to restore/recover the musculature and workoutsdesigned for strength maintenance/

endurance. The restoration/recoveryworkout can be performed the sameday after the pitching bout (game) orthe next day. The strength maintenance/endurance workout can be performed2 days before pitching. See Table 5 fora sample workout schedule.

EXERCISE SELECTION, SETS, ANDREPETITION DURING THEPITCHING SEASONS

Exercises that first address the specificneeds of the pitcher should be selected.

For example, a pitcher who has hada history of a prior surgery on his

Table 4Off-season 4-workout integrated plan

Workout 1 Workout 2 Workout 3 Workout 4

Intensity Hard Medium Easy Specialized

Exercise Hammer curls Lying dumbbell extensionwith pronation

Elbow-highcable curls

Drop curls

Off-season setsand reps

3 3 8-10 3 3 10–12 3 3 8–10 3 3 6 s hold w/rapidreturn 3 3–5

Exercise Reverse curls Supination/pronation Overhead ropeextensions

Rapid fire extensions


3 3 16 3 3 16 3 3 10–12 3 3 5–7

Exercise Spider curls Plate ball-grip wristmotions

Wrist flexion/extension

Weighted ball wristreleases


3 3 8–10 3 3 12–16 3 3 20 5 releases at eachweight*

Exercise Overhead dumbbellextension

Rice bucket

Sets & reps 3 3 8–10 30–45 s 3 2–3 bouts*

Rest 1–2 min between sets and2–3 min between exercises

1–2 min between setsand 2–3 minbetween exercises

1–2 min betweensets and 2–3 minbetween exercises

1–2 min between setsand 2–3 min betweenexercises

Rep = repetition.

*See exercise descriptions for details.

Table 5Sample workout schedule for the pitching seasons

Saturday Pitching (game)

Sunday Elbow recovery and restoration

Monday Off

Tuesday Bullpen

Wednesday Elbow strength maintenance/endurance

Thursday Off

Friday Off

Saturday Pitching (game)



elbow may not be able to do what wemight consider ‘‘maintenance’’ duringthe in-season. His needs may warrantthat his elbow become stronger, notweaker, as the season progresses. Inthis case, the exercises can be selectedon their appropriateness to his need(Table 6). The second consideration forexercise selection during the pitchingseason is that they be varied to stillmeet the comprehensive demands ofthe pitching motion without creatingoveruse. For example, specialized ex-ercises such as deceleration (dropcurls) or rapid elbow extension (rapidfire extensions) may be inappropriate.See Table 6 for exercise selection.

Sets and reps for a restoration/recoveryworkout should be performed with theobjectives of range of motion andincreased blood flow. Thus, a higherrep pattern (12–16) can be utilized.Depending on the fatigue level, 1–3sets may be sufficient. Sets and reps fora strength maintenance/endurance

workout should be performed for 2–3sets of 10–12 reps except in the case offorearm and wrist exercises wherehigher reps are warranted. The chal-lenge for the strength coach during thepitching season is to make adjustmentsto balance the pitcher’s needs forstrength maintenance/endurance andrest and recovery (11,15).

THE PITCHER’S FEEDBACK: THEMOST IMPORTANT VARIABLE FORPROGRAMMING

Although the exercises suggested arecomprehensive in addressing the needsof the pitcher as per the demands of thepitching motion, his personal needsmust be taken into consideration as theprimary source of the requisites for hisprogram design. Once the program isin place, the feedback from the pitcherwith regard to soreness and recoverytime and training effect should serve asa guide to the strength coach for fine-tuning the sets and reps to meet eachpitcher’s requirements. There can be

no replacement for the ability to havein-depth discussions with each pitcherregarding post-pitching soreness orpain to determine how to vary theworkouts and exercise selection.

Angel Borrelli

is the owner ofGymScience SportPerformance.

REFERENCES1. Andrews J and Whiteside J. Common

elbow problems in the athlete. J Sport Phys

Ther 17: 289–295, 1993.

2. Atwater A. Biomechanics of overarm

throwing movements and of throwing

injuries. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 7: 43–85,

1979.

Table 6Joint and muscle actions for target exercises

Joint Joint action Muscle Target exercises

Elbow joint

Extension Triceps brachii; anconeous � Rapid fire cable extension

� Overhead rope extensions

� Lying dumbbell extensions with pronation

� Overhead dumbbell triceps extension

Flexion Brachialis; biceps brachii;brachioradialis

� Spider curls

� Elbow-high curls

� Drop curls

� Hammer curls

Flexion with pronated grip Brachialis � Reverse curls

Flexion with neutral grip Brachioradialis; brachialis � Hammer curls

Radioulnar joint Pronation and supination Pronator teres; pronatorquadratus; supinator

� Reverse curls (pronators)

� Pronation/supination

� Lying triceps extension with pronation

Wrist/finger joints Flexion and extension; ulnarflexion and radial deviation

Flexors � Weighted ball wrist drill

� Rice bucket

� Plate ball-grip wrist motions

� Cable wrist flexion/extension




3. Basmajian J and Latif A. Integrated actions

and functions of the chief flexors of the

elbow. J Bone Joint Surg 39-A: 1106–

1118, 1957.

4. Braatz J and Gogia P. The mechanics of

pitching. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 9:

56–69, 1987.

5. Fleisig G, Andrews J, Dillman C, and

Escamilla R. Kinetics of baseball pitching

with implications about injury mechanisms.

Am J Sports Med 23: 233–239, 1995.

6. Glousman RE, Barron J, and Jobe F.

An electromyographic analysis of the

elbow in normal and injured pitchers

with medial collateral ligament

insufficiency. Am J Sports Med 20:

311–317, 1992.

7. Loftice J, Fleisig G, Zheng N, and Andrews

J. Biomechanics of the elbow in sports.

Clin Sports Med 23: 519–530, 2004.

8. Pappas A, Zawacki R, and Sullivan T.

Biomechanics of baseball pitching.

Am J Sports Med 13: 216–222, l985.

9. Reinold M, Fleisig G, and Andrews J.

Biomechanics and rehabilitation of elbow

injuries during throwing. Athletic Ther

Today 5:12–18, 2000.

10. Sisto D, Jobe F, Moynes D, and Antonelli D.

An electromyographic analysis of the elbow

in pitching. Am J Sports Med 15: 260–

263, 1987.

11. Szymanski D. Collegiate baseball in-

season training. Strength Cond J 29(4):

68–80, 2007.

12. Tesch P. Muscle Meets Magnet. MRI

Analysis of Muscle Use During Lifting.

Mansfield, OH: BookMasters, Inc, 1993.

13. Thompson C and Floyd R. Manual

of Structural Kinesiology. New York,

NY: McGraw Hill Publishing Company,

2004.

14. Toyoshima S, Hoshikawa T, and Miyashita

M. Contribution of the body parts to the

throwing motion. In: Biomechanics IV.

Nelson RC, Morehouse Ca, eds. Baltimore:

University Park Press, 1974. pp. 169–174.

15. Wathen D, Baechle T, and Earle R. Training

variation. In: Essentials of Strength Training

and Conditioning. Baechle T and Earle R,

eds. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,

2000. pp. 513–527.

16. Watkins R, Dennis S, Dillin W, Schnebel B,

Schneiderman G, Jobe F, Farfan H,

Perry J, and Pink M. Dynamic EMG

analysis of torque transfer in professional

baseball pitchers.Spine 14: 404–408, 1988.

17. Werner S, Murray T, Hawkins R, and Gill T.

Relationship between throwing mechanics

and elbow valgus in professional baseball

pitchers. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 11: 151–

155, 2002.

18. Werner S, Fleisig G, Dillman C, and

Andrews JR. Biomechanics of the elbow

during baseball pitching. J Orthop Sports

Phys Ther 17: 274–278, 1993.

19. Wilk K, Arrigo C, Andrews J, and Azar C.

Rehabilitation following elbow

surgery in the throwing athlete.

Oper Tech Sports Med 4: 114–132,

l996.

20. Wright R, Steger-May K, Wasserlauf B,

O’Neal M, Weinberg B, and Paletta G.

Elbow range of motion in professional

baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med 34:

190–193, 2006.



Engineering a Strong Pitching Elbow: An Off-Season Training Plan

Documents

Transcript of Engineering a Strong Pitching Elbow: An Off-Season Training Plan