Emerging Approaches and Methodologies

7/29/2019 Emerging Approaches and Methodologies

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Emerging Approaches and Methodologies in Teaching

In education, nothing is constant. What might have been status quo ageneration ago in educational circles may already be superseded today. Newapproaches may come to supplement already existing approaches. Newinsights about the nature of knowledge emerge every now and then.

Here, we will cover four emerging approaches and methodologies in the field

of teaching. The first one is constructivism. Constructivism is a learningtheory that presupposes that students knowledge is not imposed fromwithout by teachers but made by the students themselves. This learningtheory gives way for more active learning in the part of the student asopposed to passive learning. We will discuss how to make constructivismeffective in the classroom. The next approach is cooperative learning.Cooperative learning involves learning in groups rather than as individualswho compete or are isolated. We will discuss the benefits of cooperativelearning, common approaches to cooperative learning, and different ways tocarry it out in the classroom effectively. Then we will proceed to theinvestigative method, which involves examination of real-life or contrived

cases in different fields of endeavour like Science, Social Studies, etc. We willdiscuss the common steps applicable in the investigative method. Then wewill end with problem-solving method, which imparts problem-solving skillsrelevant in the world today. We will also discuss the attitudes of successfulproblem-solvers, metacognitive skills, and problem solving in the classroom.

Constructivism

In constructivism, there is no direct transmission of knowledge from teacherto learner. Students construct knowledge; they do not merely recordunderstanding. In a classroom that follows the constructivist approach,students' learning should be active rather than passive. Passive learningmanifests itself in many common forms. Listening to teachers' lectures,answering convergent questions (questions that lead to establishedanswers), and drill and application regarding information that the studenthas received. Note that all of these passive learning approaches focus on theinformation given by the teacher.

Active learning, however, includes the following: investigative work, workinvolving small groups, learning by experience, cooperative learning, andproblem solving. Look at the difference. In passive learning, the focus is onthe teacher - teacher lectures and students listen; teacher asks and studentanswers (and if student is wrong then in some way he gets corrected);teacher drills and students show whether they have reached enough toaccomplish the teacher's standards. In active learning, the students do theinvestigation; the students cooperate; the students grapple with problems;and so on. That is not to say that the teacher vanishes from the classroom;rather, she turns to being a "guide on the side" instead of being a "sage onthe stage". That is not also to say that information is unimportant in


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constructivist learning theory; what is different in constructivism is howstudents assimilate information.

Far from the familiar conception that teacher should "fill" students with"buckets" of information, students are naturally curious and want to see howthe world works along with that it means. Information is most useful andmeaningful for students if it is related to past knowledge students have(called schemas). According to Montessori, students do not get education

from teachers; instead, the "individual" carries out the process of education;students obtain an education not by "listening to words" but through"experienced from the environment". Learners become responsible for whatthey learn and the way they learn. Teachers do not impose meaning;instead, students make meaning.

Constructivism draws from the work of a variety of educational scholars,notably Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, John Dewey and Jerome Bruner.

To sum up, here are the major differences between traditional teaching andconstructivism:

1. In traditional teaching, students are filled with information; inconstructivism, students are thought of as thinkers with importantviews about the world.

2. In traditional teaching, teacher gives out information; inconstructivism, teachers are interactive and act as facilitators to thisinteraction.

3. In traditional teaching, lesson development is through recording ofcorrect answers; in constructivism, lesson development is throughseeking out what students think.

4. In traditional teaching, textbooks and workbooks are stars; inconstructivist teaching, primary sources and hands-on materials alsohave the stage.

5. In traditional teaching, curriculum is focused on giving basic skills andis rigid; in constructivism, curriculum is focused on big ideas and isflexible with accordance to students interests and questions.

6. In traditional teaching, assessment and teaching are distinct;assessment is often through testing. In constructivism, assessment istied up with teaching and takes place through carious activities.

7. In traditional teaching, students mainly work by themselves(individualism) or compete among each other (competition); inconstructivism, students often work together (cooperation).

So far, so good. We have a coherent theory that indeed makes students thecenter of learning. What can teachers, as facilitators, do to makeconstructivism work well in the classroom? Here are some ways:

1. When discussing concepts, teachers should supply plenty of examples.2. Teachers should promote an atmosphere conducive to interaction.


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3. Teachers should relate concepts to real life. If possible, teachers shouldmake students work in real situations.

4. Teachers should focus on what students think regarding a certainconcept.

5. Teachers should ask the right questions so that students will beencouraged to think. The best questions to be asked in constructivismare open-ended questions with plenty of wait time.

6. Teachers should focus on processes more than on answers.

Though there exists no single best constructivist approach in teaching, thereare many approaches that, when applied correctly, are deemed to beconstructivist. Some of these approaches are cooperative learning,investigative learning, problem-based learning, interdisciplinary teaching,and application of technology to teaching.

Cooperative Learning

Why Cooperative Learning?

Traditional learning, as we know it, is rife with competition and individualism.In a classroom, Competition is basically the principle that one studentssuccess depends upon other students losses. Individualism basically focuseson self rather than others during the learning process. Both systems areproblematic because competition produces a winners-losers dichotomy inclass and this can lead to emphasis on winning rather than learning,hostility between either side of the partition, and frustration especially forthe losers who cant seem to learn. Individualism removes the dichotomybut students are deprived of the opportunity to socialize with others,communicate with others, and learn meaningfully from each other. Analternative to these two is cooperative learning.

Cooperative learning strategies aim to develop cooperation betweenstudents. Cooperative learning involves students working in small groups toachieve mutually determined goals. Because of the group orientation,cooperative learning can be used to teach many other skills aside from thetraditional basic skills and HOTS; it can also be used to teach awareness ofstudents differences and interpersonal skills.

What should be present in any cooperative learning approach? These shouldbe three, according to Slavin:

1. Group goals Group goals put students focus mutually determinedlearning activities. With group goals, students learn from each otherbecause students help other students. Students also learn how to askfor help. Evaluation is for the performance of an entire group.

2. Accountability for each individual - Groups succeed as individualssucceed; therefore, individuals should be responsible. Everyone must


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contribute even students considered as slow. Slow studentsshould consider it their responsibility to ask for help so that they canmaster material; fast students also gain individual fulfilment forhelping others.

3. Equal opportunity for students to succeed. Again, fast and slowlearners should succeed together. Both types should makecontributions. One way to encourage students to make contributions

proportionate to their abilities is to give them different assignments.

David and Roger Johnsons components of good cooperative learning aresimilar to Slavins, though there are more dimensions:

1. Positive interdependence2. Face-to-face interaction3. Individual accountability4. Social skills5. Group processing

Types of Cooperative Learning

1. Peer tutoring This is a simple cooperative learning approach wherestudents help together, whether in pairs or in small groups. Ornsteinidentifies at least three types of peer tutoring: (1) within-class, (2)higher grade level-lower grade level, and (3) any two students in equalstanding.

There are advantages to peer tutoring, and here are some of them:

Tutors are often less threatening than adult teachers

Tutors and tutees become friends.

Tutors can cater to the individualized learning needs of slowstudents.

Tutors learn how to teach, which is an important skill that can becarried over to maturity. Tutors gain mastery of their material.

Tutors can explain material to tutees in easily understandableways.

Tutors can determine what exactly the tutees are having a hardtime with. (Tutors sometimes develop more awareness of thisthan the teacher can).

2. Student Team Achievement Divisions (STAD) This is one cooperativelearning approach developed by Slavin. STAD involves division of theclass into teams with four or five people. Members of teams areaccording to rank; usually, there is one high-ability, one low-ability, andtwo or three middle-ability students. STAD involves the following steps:

Presentation of lesson to groups. (lasts for 1-2 periods)


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Team study. Here, worksheets (fewer than number of students ingroup) are distributed. Students do not just answer; theyexchange explanations. Teachers move around for monitoringand can give some help. The team is not considered done untileach member can score 100% on a practice quiz.

Quizzing. Here, students take quizzes individually. Individualscores averages are obtained to get team scores. Grading isdone immediately or students can be assigned to check each

others papers. Recognition.

Change of teams periodically, e.g. every 5-6 weeks.

3. Team-Assisted Instruction (TAI) This is another of Slavins cooperativelearning approaches and is similar to STAD, but there is greateremphasis on diagnosis. The difference is on the administration ofworksheets. Students first answer worksheets individually, and thenteammates give assistance. A score of 80% or more is needed for astudent to be able to take the final quiz. Recognition is just like in

STAD, plus the provision of super teams, great teams, and goodteams. The emphasis of TAI is mastery learning.

4. Jigsaw classroom This approach is best for high school students.Students are divided into groups to learn more about the topiccurrently discussed in class (e.g. symbiosis) Each member of theteam, however, studies about different aspects of the topic (e.g. onemember focuses on mutualism, one on commensalism, one onparasitism, one on competition, etc.) Each group has a designatedexpert, or the best in the group, who meets with other experts. Thenthe experts teach the group what they have learned.

5. Group Investigation Groups of students solve a common problem,generally an ill-structured problem (will be discussed in ProblemSolving Approach). Examples of group investigation involve dioramaconstructions, science experiments, and science investigatory projects.Here are six general steps in group investigation: choosing a topic,cooperative planning, implementation, analysis and synthesis,presentation, and evaluation.

Fostering Cooperative Learning

Here are some ways to foster cooperative learning:

a. Restructure the classroom environment.b. Present group objectives.c. Present expectations clearly.d. Tell students the value of dividing labor.e. Promote an atmosphere of sharing.


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f. Promote an atmosphere where students can communicate well withouthostility.

g. Give signals whether necessary.h. Check groups periodically.i. Evaluate both groups and individuals.j. Give rewards to groups.

Investigative Method

This method involves the use of investigative cases where students canlearn. Such a method is useful in science, mathematics, and social studies,where there are many ways to obtain a solution. Investigative learningensures that students can deal with complicated situations as well asmanage the way they learn. Skills obtained in investigative learning can becarried over to a lifetime. Some of these skills involve ability to getinformation, develop answers to questions (here develop does not simplymean give; develop also has evolution of answers as a goal), supportanswers, make decisions, apply scientific methods, and communicateprogress and findings.

Cases for the investigative method provide meaningful contexts for subjectmatter, direct student exploration, and help in developing skills that areimportant in solving problems for a lifetime. Also, because cases crossdisciplines, students can find out the interrelationships between disciplines.

Here are steps involved in investigative learning:

1. Present a case in front of the class. A student from the class reads thecase; others are provided with copies of the case.

2. Identify important issues. Students can identify keyphrases that canmake them highlight important points in the case. They can also writedown their own preliminary ideas.

3. Determine major themes. Students will try to answer what the case isgenerally all about. This intensifies focus as well as reminds studentsabout the inherent complexity of the case.

4. Let students ask questions: Students need to write down questions andidentify 3-5 of the most important. This can be done as a group.

5. Let students gather resources. Students can write down potentialresources where they can look for answers to key questions.

6. Define problems. From research and from discussions, students shouldidentify main problems to tackle.

7. Design investigative approaches. Students can obtain resources fromthe laboratory or field. They can also synthesize their readings.

8. Find materials where support for conclusions can be gathered. Also letother students review results.

9. Present results. Students present results in the form agreed upon, suchas a 3-5 page paper, a brochure, an illustration, or a Powerpointpresentation.


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10. Evaluation. Evaluation can be done by using a rubric, by peerevaluation, by self-evaluation, assignment of points for groupmembers, and exam questions.

Problem Solving Method

Much has been said about problem solving as one of the necessary skillsneeded in todays speedily changing world. Problem solving skills are

important because these skills are general they can be applied in a largenumber of situations.

John Deweys Reflective Thinking

John Deweys reflective thinking for problem solving involves five steps: (1)Know the difficulty of the problem. (2) Identify the problem. (3) Look at thedata then form hypotheses. (4) Accept/reject hypotheses. (5) Form andevaluate conclusions.

IDEAL

The IDEAL model, devised by Bransford and Stein, lists down five steps:Identify (problem), Define (problem), Explore (ways), Act (on the ways), Look(what you have done).

Heuristics

Heuristics are problem-solving strategies. They are to be distinguished fromalgorithms, which are definite processes that lead to an answer. Determiningthe sum of two fractions involves algorithms. Solving word problems involvesheuristics. There are so many heuristics and only a few of them can beapplicable to any problem at any time, so problem solving in educationshould involve practice in using heuristics. Nevertheless, some heuristicsprove to be powerful enough for many common problems, and Richard Cyertproposes ten of them (but there are many, many more):

1. Keep the basic problem in mind. Take care of the details later.2. Dont commit to a single hypothesis when there are many that you can

use.3. Find ways to simplify the problem.4. If an approach is not working, try another one.5. Ask questions.6. Be willing to question assumptions.7. Work backwards.8. Store partial solutions for later.9. Use analogies.10. Discuss the problem with others.


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Heuristics are commonly used in teaching mathematics, although they arealso applicable to problems in any field. George Polyas seminal work, How toSolve It, discusses several heuristic methods, the most important of whichare stated as questions or exhortations: Look at the unknown! Do you knowa related problem? Can you derive the result differently? Can you check theresult?

Successful Problem Solving

One of the assumptions that teachers should discard once and for all is thenotion that successful problem solvers use a single definite strategy for agiven problem. Successful problem solvers have many strategies (orheuristics). Teachers who sternly insist on one method for solving a problemmay be cultivating an atmosphere not suited to problem solving. Teachersshould find out how students process information in their minds so that inturn they can teach students in accordance to the thinking processes of thestudents. Such actions as asking questions, looking at students solutions,and listening to students answers in-depth can go a long way.

According to Bloom, successful and unsuccessful problem solvers haveplenty of differences. Here is a summary of these differences:

Successful UnsuccessfulComprehension Reacts well to selected

cuesMisinterpret problems

Previous knowledge Knows how to mobilizeold knowledge

Dont know where orhow to begin.

Style of problem solvingbehaviour

Can state what they aredoing

Cant clarify what theyare doing

Attitude towardsproblem solving View problem solving aschallenging Problem solving is oftenfrustrating

Metacognitive Skills

Metacognitive skills are skills that enable us to examine the way we think.There is consensus today that metacognitive skills play a significant role inproblem-solving. These skills jelp us represent how we do things, evaluate,and modify our approaches. Here are metacognitive skills that successfulproblem solvers often employ:

Comprehension monitoring: knowing when one understands or not. Understanding decisions: knowing what is doing and knowing why.

Planning: taking time to develop a strategy, considering options, andnot rushing.

Estimating task difficulty: knowing how difficult task is so as to allocatetime.

Task presentation: staying with the task


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Coping strategies: staying calm, being able to cope when things arenot going easily, not giving up.

Internal cues: looking for context clues when up against hard or newproblems.

Retracking: looking up definitions, rereading previous information,knowing when to look back.

Noting and correcting: using logical approaches, double-checking,

recognizing inconsistencies, contradictions, and gaps in performance. Flexible approaches: willingness to use alternatives, knowing when to

look for another strategy, and even trying random approaches thatlook good.

These skills must be practiced. Also, a child has to be in the formaloperational stage (of Piagets cognitive development) to be able to employthese methods at ease.

Teaching Problem Solving

Here are five processes related to problem-solving in mathematics, thoughthey are applicable to many other subject fields:

Attending to prerequisites

Attending to relationships

Attending to representation

Generalizability of concepts

Attending to language

Reflections

Constructivism

I find constructivism one ideal approach to classroom management, and onethat respects students. However, a major problem with constructivism in thePhilippine setting is that some long-time teachers may not be used to cedingpower for the learners and some students are already used to beingpassive inside classrooms. Thus having many classrooms in the Philippinesshift to a constructivist orientation may pose some problems. Fortunately,with more and more teachers knowing the constructivist approach inteacher-training institutions, these teachers in the future can apply it to theirfuture classrooms.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning may be long overdue already, yet its existence assuresme that the students of the future will have a more worthwhile time in theirclassrooms than they are having now. The high-stakes competition existingin classrooms today (no matter how implicit) can take its toll on studentspsyches in the future. If they are taught in school now to compete, then most


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likely they compete with each other their whole lives. If in school they areused to classroom individualism, then we have a glimpse of how theyll treatothers in the future. Through cooperative learning, students get to shareeach others fates.

One downside of how cooperative learning is executed (not of cooperativelearning itself) is the possibility of groupthink: Instead of students sharingideas, they all stick into one idea, and they regard as an outsider anyone

who thinks otherwise. Another downside is the possibility of slacking off some students may leave all the work to the more capable ones. Finally, ifcooperative learning is enforced as a way to lessen individual competition,but the groups themselves are made to compete, then we are no better offthan before.

Investigative Approach

Investigative approach to learning makes students aware of real problems ona particular field of endeavour. When this approach is applied regularly, thenstudents will be able to develop the mental processes needed to grapple

reality as they grow up. After all, students rarely use textbooks beyondschooling period do they? (However, investigative learning requires anextensive knowledge base, most of which is obtainable from textbookreading.) What matters are the skills that students have obtained throughinvestigation. Furthermore, investigation promotes curiosity, and curiosity isone trait that anyone should possess for a lifetime.

Problem Solving Approach

Of course, content is important when applying a problem solving approach tolearning. If I dont know what the Pythagorean theorem is I wont be able todeal with complicated right-triangle problems someday. However, in thePhilippines there has already been too much emphasis on content and on thetechniques used to sneak content into students minds, most notablymemorization. Clearly there needs to be a shift in emphasis from what toknow to how to know and what to do. After all, problem solving skillsare applicable not only in Math and Science, the two subjects linked most toproblem solving, but also in many other subjects. In English, problem solvingcan be a matter of knowing how a story can be made better. In SocialStudies, problem solving can be a matter of answering What if, Whatsimilarities exist, or In our time, what would X do?

One other thing that hinders problem solving education here in thePhilippines, I think, is the notion of some teachers regarding one rightmethod of solving particular problems. I think that making students stick toa one right method inhibits curiosity. What if there are other methods, andwhat if these other methods can be applied to other problems? In problemsolving, more is always applicable to less, even if many of the more are


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sometimes wrong. But that makes problem solving an activity wherestudents know how to take reasonable risks and learn from their mistakes.

References

Barnsley, C. (2007, July 7). Lighting fires, not filling buckets constructivismin the 21st century [Web log article]. Retrieved fromhttp://taspd.edublogs.org/2007/07/07/lighting-fires-not-filling-buckets-

constructivism-in-the-21st-century/.

Constructivism (learning theory) (n.d.). Retrieved April 18. 2011 fromWikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Constructivism_%28learning_theory%29

Constructivist teaching methods. (n.d.). Retrieved April 18. 2011 fromWikipedia: http:/ /en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/Constructivist_teaching_methods

How to Use Investigative Cases with Examples (n.d.). Retrieved April 22,2011 from Teaching Entry Level Geoscience:

http://serc.carlton.edu/introgeo/icbl/how.html

Jacobsen, D.A., Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2002) Methods for Teaching:Promoting Student Learning (6th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.

Ornstein, A. C. (1990) Strategies for Effective Teaching. New York: HarperCollins.

Ryan, K. (1996) Those Who Can, Teach (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.

What is Investigative Case Based Learning (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2011from Starting Point: Teaching Entry Level Geoscience:http://serc.carlton.edu/introgeo/icbl/what.html

Why Use Investigative Cases? (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2011 from StartingPoint: Teaching Entry Level Geoscience:http://serc.carlton.edu/introgeo/icbl/why.html


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Emerging Approaches and Methodologies

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