Architectural DesignEdited by Andreas C Papadakis

ELEMENTS OF

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ARCHITECTURERob Kr ier

rt OvE; "TfiE OnI.AT VAiIETY OP AtCmTEcflnA Ba fla cltY ll^l ALVAYIIBEN tO nS B|lilcl|t|EllT; Otloittli II?(L<IOICAL IXE C-l|El

ACADEMY EDITIONS . LONDON

EDITORDr Andrcas C Pap.dakis

Firs! publishcd in Crcat Brihin in 1983 by /rcl it.crural D.sign tn ifrDlina ol thc aACADEMY GROUP LTD, 42 LEINSTER GARDENS, LONDON W2 3AN

Dktributed to rhc radc in ihe Unired Statcs of Amc.ic. byST MARTIN'S PRESS, I?5 FIFTH AVENUE. NEW YORK. NY IOOIO

ISBN: I 85490 17? X

Sccond cnlargcd cdition, 1992Copyrighr @ 1983, 1992 rhc Acrdcmy Croup Lrd All righrs rcsencd

- The entirc contcnts of this publicatiol r!! copyright.nd cannot bc r.goduccdin any mattltcr whsts@vcr wirhout wrincn pcamission from lhc publishcrs

AD Profilc 49 is published as pan of .Arcrrrl"ctwal DesiSn Vol/untc 53 9/10"1983

Translstcd from the Gcrman by Romrna Schncidcr. Origin.l rcrt prcpat d for public.tion by Dcitrnar Srciner.Photogrrphs illusuating lh. El€mcnts of Architccturc by Johann Kdiftncr unlcss othcrwis€ crcditcd.

Front and ba.k coe.r: Typological slndics of rcctangular buildings lnd U-typcs snd tow€rc by Rob Krier.lnsidc front and back cov?r.' Studcnt drawings of rhe intc.ior of thc Post Offic. Savin$ Bu*, Vicnn! by Otto wagncr

and thc staircas€ of thc An History Muscum, Vicnna by G Scmpc. and KV Hascnaucr.

Printcd and bound irt Sing.pore

ELEMENTS OFARCHITECTURE

BESCHAFFT AUS MITTELN DER

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THE WALL

The most obvious, pethaps evn the nost archoic, buildinS technique i to lor stone and thus to lom an homogeneous constructed ||.,ass. A long watt |.|.utt either bethick eaoueh to stond alone ot it needs to be suppo ed by a systen of pillan, bs and tenacia|, outer cov ng or zet\|ork.

THE COLUMN

In a niraculous liligrce natrre has l?ft us a mosnifc.nt .ac!.lop?.lia ol pnssihilities nhith tould be e\ploite.l ia btiUins.For thousan.ls oJ \edN the basic loms of dtchit..lure hdv heen shen sisDricatt iueryrctdtion in stote. The nodeltin! oJ the shdft.

the hase dnd tlrc capital sith thei onplex isml and srnrcturcl rcquir.nrcnts hds nto R.l to peiection oter the co .s? oJ lime.

THE HOUSE

The enclosing and protecting wll, the difrercnti;tiot ol roons idside, r'indo"s os to"rces ol light. doors as entrunces and erits,the rcoJ to k.ep out the ruin and cokl . . . all this, thenatkalb. rcchni.alb ot in the archiectunl oesthetic need no lonSer be questioned toda!. Folloeing the

desttuction of a de.p-.ooted nadition in the twenties. \'e must staft again, IeaninS to build f.on t he f ndane nlols.

THE CITY

The Beonetrj of the single hotse de fts itsJofte lrom the.on|tust uith li|ing nature.The Breater the dehsny ondth. nunber olhouses,the 8rcott the displacenent of naturc ond the eAvircnnent ond thus the nore inportant the artificial spaces b..on.. Sne.t and squorcs are

the ,ehicles of public life, r'hile qtiet cells in the fo.n oJ.ourtJards arc places ol rcfuge, intinacy and rctrcat.

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CONTENTS

A' LINDEI{UFET X.I I. BETIN SIA,iIDAC. I''9

ARCHITECTUML DESIGN PROFILE No 49

ELEMENTS OF q

ARCHITECTUREROB KRIER

Introduction by Andreas Papadakis and Kenneth Powell I I

A Criticism of Modem Architectur€

or About the Downfall of the An of Building 12

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTI.'RE 25

ELEMENTS I: INTERIORS 26

The Typology of Interior Spaces 26 The Art of Composing Spaces 36Cciling and Floon 210 Columns and Piers 44 Doon z16

Windows 49 Staircases 55

ef.ff"feVfS tr: FACADES 60' Enrericcs and Poials 69 Arcades 70 Ground FIoors 7t

' Bay-Wfurdows, Balconies and loggias 72 Roofs and Attic Storrys 74

ELEMENTS ltr: GROLTND-PLAN AND BUILDING F9 RM 76Squarc Buitdings ?8 Rccungular Buildings 8l T-shapcd Gr,ound Pfans 82

LTypes 85 U-Typcs 85 Building Comcs 86

Interior Courtysrds 90 Outsidc Staircrscs 92

Prosoect 94 Towers and Monumcnts 94

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Th.lttarkcl Placc in Karlsruhe lookin! lowards the Palacc

Tle Circus in Karlsruhe

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FOREWORD

To the Second Edition

It is with sreat pride that we are reissuing the Elemcnts of Ar..hitectr,z by Rob Krier. When this issueol Architecnu'al Desig, was first published in 1983 it was an instanr success with both students andacademics and quickly became a set text for a number of architecture courses throughout the world.

This \\as the first part to be published of Rob K er's book.4 rchitectu..l Conpos ior. When $ewhole $ork appeared a few years later i t was received equally enthusiastical ly. In the words of onereviewer. ' l t is, in i ts way, a masterpiece . . . [ t is an immensely r ich resource book, not merely for usein architectural education as Krier himself suggests, but as an inspired series of lessons in goodarchitectural design'.

I t is a great pleasure for us to reprint this issue and to take the opportuniry to include eight ofKrier.smagnificent colour drawings including the Wall. the Colrnn, the Holr.t. and lhe CiA.

Rob Krier is a theorist and an architect committed to seeking out iui lamenral architectural truths.His anal) sis oftradit ionalarchitectural form is set in the context ofpresent-day needs. He cuts th6ughmany of the simplisr ic fal lacies that l ie behind modern architectural cr i t ic ism and reveals how thearchitecural agenda remains constant. By severing archirecture's associat ion with changing fashionhe sho\\ 's how it responds to the b{sic human requirements which are unfulf i l led by design alone.while remaining a vital medium fo communicate the most signif icant social and spir i tual values.

Krier does not f i t readi ly into any of the contemporary styl ist ic categories. lhough his tradit ional ismis, in some ways, deep and sincere. He is a definite eclect ic, whose view of 'rr trdit ion' is original andfar from sfatic. He looks at tradition not as a static quantity, anchoring humanity to the past, but as ameasure of the present. Krier 's analysis of tradit ional architectural form is set in the context ofpresent-da) needs - he is not a simple reactionary - but looks beyond them.

The essence of Krier 's work is to be sought in his deep bel ief in the power of beauty and order _ notan artificially imposed, authoritarian order but that order which is pafl of the power of nature in theworld. He reflects the Modern Movement's anempt to redefine the image of a church, a house or amuseum and restores the place of symbolism, a guiding force through history

Krier is not just a theorist. His bui ldings are at one with his theory. demonsrrat ions of the power oftradition in lhe face of what he sees as an anarchic and destructive sabotage of ancient values. Hisinfluence on architectural design in the years since rhis book first appeared has been immense anddoes not look set lo diminish. In times of confusion and decay, as well as of rebinh and creativity,Krier reassens constant values. He is a true humanist who, Iike the artists and philosophers of theRenaissance, does not reject the past but looks to it to instruct and inspirc the future.

Andreas Paoadakis

A Criticism of Modern Architecture

or About the Downfall of the Art of Building

This essay, and the typological studies of the elements of architec-ture which follow, arc extracbd from Rob Krier's nngnum opus,Architectural Composition, currently being prepared for publicationby Academy Editions (see page 88 for d.etaik), This 'critical andadmonishing' essay, in Kier's oum words, 'should seme as a logicallink, connecting analytic ond applied theory, ond it shoud be citicalin order to selectivelyfiber the achievements in architecture ofhalfa century, to examine what they represent.'The ttpologies ond ,heaccomponying etamples of student work were made over a pefiodofyeals duing course work ot the Technical Unirersity in Vienna,where Rob Krier has been Professor of Architecture since 1975.Architectural DeriSn is pleased and proud to be able to publish theseettracts from what it considers will be one of the most imponantworks of architecturol theory of the twentieth century.

I do not intend to put cenain personalities on trial, or to producea lexical review with the aim of analysing every architecturalcontribution on the basis of its theoretical stability. What I want todo is to take a good look at architectural tendencies which, widelysupponed, have influenced whole decades; furlher, I wish to sepamtetheoretical substance from fashionable trends, and to formulatepropositions according to my own personal conviction. These willallow me to make a critical statement, and to give an outlook onan architecture which outlasts the present.

Modern architecture, in a disastrous way, has ruined citiesthroughout the whole world. The loss of spatiality in the moderncity is most especially deplorable. Some years ago, I published abook on this traumatic issue in which I tried to fathom the reasonfor this destruction,* Spatial urban systems havc been radically andcallously ignored, while the repertoire of architectural compositionhas been degraded just as brutally, to become the most primiriveformulae; and all this with poor economic and technical 'reasons'.

This development took place with fte euphoric suppon of the entire

a Ufian Spac., Acad€rny Edirions, 1979

Piazza Navona. Rome

professional world which iurally, during the time ofthe post-SecondWorld War building boom, saw the chance to realise the architec-nrral revolution dreamt of in the Twenties. The principles of tieCIAM Athens Charter, which concemed the separation offunctionsin the city (zoning), were incorporated into building law ar aninternational level and carried out with the rigour and scrupulousnessof bu.eaucratic machines. This deplorable state of affairs wasprimarily helped by the indescribable misery in Europe after theSecond World War. But oddly enough, in Warsaw for instance,where the situation was worst, areas in ruins which were imDortanlfor the city's idenlity were rebuilt wirh a heroic cenainq. Ofcoursethis operation was criticised by some people as producing merelystage-sets. Yet the Polish people had been disgraced wirhour beingat fault. They therefore made Warsaw a symbol of rheir nationalstrength. Our modem cities and their buildings are merely functionalobjects, without any ethical meaning. They are simply productionareas or housilg esurtes which people occupy avidly but leave withoursonow, because uglhess sooner or laler creates coniempt and disgustin every human being, and sometimes lgds ro delinquency.

The mass housing shortage was abuse? by specularors in orderfor them to become rich in a shon period of time. The profit-seekingattitude of these people forced the building industry into the use ofprefabricated systems and ceftain other materials regardless oftheirdurability. The planners, as if struck by madness, agreed to thisprofiteeringr by building extremely densely, they made it even easierfor building companies to make fast money-a vicious circle, stillrotating, but now conscious of its limits. Some planners evenwelcome the consumer/disposable ideology as a substitute for non-existent architectural concepts.

The revolution of modem orchitecture has failed, Even if it isdifficult for professionals to admit this fact, for years journalists andlay-people have been heaping reproaches on us and have given usthe most appalling repons. Citizens' initiatives, more than before,vehemently take up urban design problems. The press spies out andhunts down, with more and more success, the dubious operations

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of big building companies.Industrialisation has not lead to the perfection and reduction in

- price of building components as it was expected by Le Corbusierand his generation. All thst has been achieved is that throughmechani2ation, the architectural detail has be€n submined to the lawsof production terhnology. Ofcourse the ca.lculation of the maximum

- yield simplifics the consrructional solution. Also, reducingproduction time often offcnds sgainst all practical reasoning.Decadence in architecture and the ruin of building craftsmanshipgo together, and can only recover together.

Yet I have hope that, despitc the discrcdit architects and thebuilding industry have brought upon themselves by their own faults ,there might be a chance for a 'renewal'.

Mankind in our century continues to demonstrate its apocalyptic-- destructive power. The brutality ofself-slaughrcr is re0ectcd in all

pans of industrialised society. The architectural problem that wor-ries me is no doubt one of the most obvious. bui cenainlv not themost threarening problem tie twentieth ceniury has given binh to.

- The architectural problem will neither explode nor emit fatal radia-tion. But the illnesses which may be created by chemicals whichnew buildings arc stuffcd with, I hardly dare to foresee. We waitwith distrust and desperation for the results ofall these experiments

- which have plunged us into a meaningless venturc.Of cqurse the individual case does not maner so much, but a host

ofbad architecturc bccomes tlreatening. A few ugiy ouildings wouldnot be that serious a threat, but if they spread rc that in the end hardly

- one per cent of real quality is leff in building activities, then the

ComDutcr Ccntrc. Vicnna

The same stred after reconstrucrion

time would have come to sit up and take notice.Unfortunately this ugliness, this private kitsch, in millions of

variations flooding city boundaries and countryside in the form ofsingle family houscs, is not viewed that way by their inhabitants,as it is the case with their standard upholstered fumiture and walldecorations. Education, which at one time everyone enjoyed, hassuffocated under empty acs&eticism. A society, wealthier and betterschooled than ever before, is in danger of wasting away b€causeofirs selfishress, wh-ich is ofren accompanied by ridiculous gestures.In philosopbical terdS, this development seems ro represenr a logicalresuh. ln historical tc.ms it is certainly not tle only example of thiskind ofdevelopment. Bui the decadence in culrure to which I referis by no means confined to the private sector; it is even more obviousin these gigantic, hypenrophic building complexes. Aristocraticpower was successfully fought against, and when it finally ccasedto exist, we were indeed left with an immensely lavish but tastefulheritage. Ifthe modern bureaucratic and technocratic power struc-tures werc taken by storm what would then be left? Only a giganticrubbish heap ofuseless equipment and, ofcourse, a scorched earth.

Can we, with good conscience, cntcr into a heritage of suchdubious value? Who would be willing to take over all thishideousncss; who would further enjoy all these shapeless idylls?

I think we will put the 'throw-away' ideology into pracrice andpull down all the rubbish. This would be necessary anyway foreconomlc reasons,

Such is the sad staning-point of contemporary architecture. Hewho has not yet realised this should op€n his eyes and name me

Bourg€ois dining room in rhe 'inlemlional modemg: sryle

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the modern buildings in his close vicinity which will go down inbuilding history for having met high architectural demands. I livein rhe centre of a metropolis called Vienna. If I think about thebanalities which for the last 30 years have emetged from a groundthat is pregnant with tradition, I am on the verge of tears. Theillustrations which accompany this essay have been deliberatelypicked from anonymous modem architecture to be found in all ourcities. I am convinced that rnany lay-people consider these examplesas serious contempo.ary architecture. After all, similar crireria areapplied when, from a holiday catalogue, somebody makes a decisionabout his 'seaside hotel'. What then should one be guided by? Incase ofdoubt, certainly by the buildings which are close to the heanof the ruling panies; in vienna these would be the UN-City, theAllgemeine Krankenhaus (hospital), the FEnz-roseph railway stationor the Hilton Hotel, which is also frequented by Willy Brandl. \ 'hatalso gives certainty is the taste of big companies and banks which,by way oftrendy architects, try to pep up their image and, indirectly,their products and scrvices. So it is that lay-people are spell-boundand ter.orized by the taste of magnates, who abuse architecture fortheir own publicity and to be celebrated publicly as culhrral patrons.

As an example ofhow evident the opportunism ofpowerful clientsand architects can be nowadays, I would like to mention two buildingprogrammes in Vienna concerning the Ballhausplatz andSchwarzenbergplatz, which have become political issues. After tlteirfirst glass-facade designs had been successfully rejected by localinitiatives, architects and clients changed their anitude and architec-tural sytle, proposing for the iwo sites buildings with historicistfacades. Nobody knows whether these games were an attempl todeceive the citizens, or wheiher they were meant to be an ironicalaffront. The architects concerned, being among the busiest in vienna,are experienced tradesmen and entrepaeneurs. They are too clevernot to have a precise strategy for these kinds of prestige objects.Anyway, different groups got very concemed about the aichitec-tural tradition of vienna and initiated meetings and panel discus-sions, certainly to the amusement oftbeir supposed enemies. These'enemies' however, veered round to go the 'alternative \r'a) : thecitizens were invited to discuss proposals, to reject or agree. (heir

choices being manipulated according to the strategy of clienls andarchitects. These 'link' (left) tactics for the fooling of citizens aredisgraceful. Architecture has been degraded to a masque, ' hichchanges accoiding to a required role in a strategy. It wascharacteristic of the ensuing discussion that the plans were neverdealt with. Only the facades were discussed. l-ater it bp{cme apparentlhat the former did not exist at all. The 'Mother of the Arts' musthave gone asiray in a brothel. She has fallen to the marke! valueof a car-body. If this is not capable of being changed abruptly wecould end this chapter with some lascivious swear-words, and couldbetter devote our time to a good game of golf.

So much for the 'ahospherical'. Nou'we can begin our analysiswith a relaxed and enlightened mind.

At the beginning of this century, the revolt against traditionalarchitecture took place in several stages and with different shadesof opinion.

The garden city movement fought against the overgrowing of thecity. Art Nouveau, Vienna Secession or artists and architects likeAntoni Gaudi, Tony Gamier, Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffman, Adolfloos, Henry van de Velde, and many others, attempted successfullyto halt the industrialised historicism of the nineteenth century.

At the moment I live in an apanment block typical of the lastcenrury, and enjoy the room heights and the cross-section of thethree front rooms. But everything which lies behind this front is notwonh mentioning, although the flat is 27 metres de€p. Twelve metresin front of my window is a facade which could be ours, decoratedwith rhis successful industrial ornamentation in Neo-Classical style,exchangeable, but more bearable than an aluminium-profile facade.

vicnnr.b! i ld inSblSt lbcr ' . . . fo l losingclosel fFischer lonErlach.OuoWagner.nd Loos .. (quorilrion by rhe archncd lbou his building)

Ilodern alpine horel archirecrure. Salzburg, accommo&ting Nature'

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Frlnz nxeph Rai lway Srr l ior . v ienna. b) Sch$rdzer lnd Hla$eniczta

Srcet in Vicnna, lar€ nin€reenrh ccorury

All this of course does not rcach the level of architecture. Theyoung artists and architects of the nineteenth century detested thiskind of work for which the busy plasterers were in demand, andintended to put an end to such activities. They werc seeking formsand themes which would be good enough to take the place of theclassical styles such as $e Rornanesque, the Cothic, the Renaissance,the Baroque and Neo-Classicism, which in the nineteenth cenftrywere employed arbikarily.

Mackintosh achieved this libefation by takirg refuge in geometry.He did without classicat symbols and rilied oi the a'estheiic valuisinherent in well-proponioned forms. surfaces and structures. Theuaditional way ofcomposing the building body and irs interior werenot questioned by him, His conception became very influential fora.chitectural developmenr in the twentieth century.

Wirh Gaudi, the tiberation from the classical linguage happensalmost like a sensuous eruption. The sculptural quality of hisa.chitecture can be solely anributed to $e artist Gaudi. His individualplay wiih interpretations is too irrational to set a precedent. Wherehis architecture was taken as an example, the results were oftenawk'yard faLt pos. Still, straight-forward geometry is also a goodprotection for mediocre architects. The realm of irregular designcan only be mastered by extremely talented artists.

This may be a warning to all those young archirects who thinkthat ihe spontaneous individual line and liberation from geometryare the pre-conditions for becoming an artistic personality.

The Casa Mila, this immensely powerful architectural event, justcannot be repeated at every corner. k is a unique building. Theanalysis of the Casa Mila, a sreel-srructured building on a free planwith a sculpted sandstone facing, reveals a very interesting buildingtlpe which was only possible because of newQechnology. But thisis a specific quality which was cerrainly nor exploired superficiallyby Gaudi. Even if he had had to use a traditional solid structure.a similar effect would have resulted. The passion for constructionalsubtlelies is deeply rooted in the Catalan building rradition, and Gaudicertainly benefited from this background.

Whoever builds up and teaches an architectural theory mustexamine every theorem in te.ms ofits universality. This means thatthe margin of possible interpretations of principles has ro beanticipated, and all tangible exp€riences in history have to bereviewed for practical application. Thus, only solid principles remaina matter for instruction in order to guarantec sound high quality of\4ork. The truly great anists have indeed a command ofthis alphab€t,but tlrey are also aware of its limils. with their secure instincts. theyonly abandon approved rules once, after a long search, they havefound a yet unknown variant.

The Art Nouveau movemcnt was an international revolt aeainstthe historical styles being rrivialised. The classical decoiativeelements were replaced by floral and other omaments borrowed fromnature. But although the results were fresh, powerful and often ef-fusive, as best seen in the works of Horta, van de Velde andGuimard, they were too individual in rheir inlerpretation andtherefore could not last for long.

The artisb ofthe Viema Sec€ssion lcd by Ono Wsgner, Hofftnan,Plecnik etc. had essentially a more classical anitude and abstainedfrom expressionist gestures. Wagner's Post Office Savings Bank inVienna and Hoffmann's Palais Stoclet in Brussels are wonderfulhighlighls of this movement, Where Hoffsun still formally celebratesthe detail, Wagner exposes the consttuctive and technical qualitiesof the building's parts. Because of the numerous engine€ringbuildings he executed for the 'Sradtbahn' network and theDonaukanal, his attention was drawn on the design qualities ofunmasked construcrive details. The banking hall of the Post OfficeSavings Bank is designed with great technical precision as glass-steel architecture, which until then was only applied to halls andSreennouses.

Clasgow Sch@l of An by C.R. M&kinrosh, 1697,t9O9

:asa Mili|, Barc.lona, by A. caudi, 1905-10

Casa Barlld. Barcelona, by A. C.udi, Mdtro sration, Pafls. by H. cu'mard. 1899- ll0o

Palais Stoclet, Bruss€ls, by J. Hofrmann, 1905-l I Maison du Peuplc, Brusscls. by V. Hona, 18 -99

Road bridgc ovcr thc rivcr Norderelb€ by Mcycrs, Haue6 and Picp.r, IEE4-EE

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Watcr Tower, Hamburg, by von Lindlcy and dc ChaEauncuf. 1854

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Building ar llichaelerphtz. Vi€nna, by A. Loos, l9l0

- In retrosp€ct, one is amazed that in the nineteenth cennrry architec-ture and engineering were kcpt at a distance from cach other andthat the latter, wherc it was found to be necessary, employed theclassical orders as if ashamed of its nakedness.

- Adolf Loos always playcd a special role in the scene in Vienna.He did not join any group, and vehemently cririciscd the romanticair ofthe Viennese snrdios under Hoffman. Horv his banle agaiostOrnament should be understood is evident in his own work. He had

-a passion for panelling the walls with precious mate als. He also

used hollow piers and non-supporting beams wh€n, in his terms,this was required by the composition of rhe room. Somc of hisintedors were decoGted with classical friezes in plaster: the Doric

r-columns which emphasise lhc main cntrance of the Goldmancommercial building at Michaelerplatz in Vienna are me.e'decorations' (to be naughty). To accomplish lhis architccture, longspanning concrele beams werc inse ed storey by storey which, in

r-the phoographs ofthe carcasse. gave the impression ofbeing suitabl€for oblong window bands. Far from it! They were filled in withbricks and, after plastering, a simple perforated facadc appeared.This Viennese 'ruughthess' is not easy to tolerate. Very often Loos

ltook up contradictory themes which he then pieced together likecollages. Different facades in one building are oft€njoin€d togetheras if they have nothing to do with each other. The interiorcomposiiion of spaces, according to his 'Raumplan' (room-ptan)

sconcept, is interlocked and divcrsified, and surprising in terms of

Compcririon desiSn for rhe Chicago T.ibune by A. Loos. t9:l

their different heights. One of his projects, the administrationbuilding of the Herald Tribunc in Chicago, is one of the strangesraod most misleading statements in recent architectural history, notonly because of its gesture, but becaus€ of its anticipation of manyrepresentations in contemporary an and architecture. Loos was abiting critic of tlre International Style, and I can only unde.standhis entry for the Herald Tribune competition as a grandiose affrontagainst modernism l la Gropius, Hilberseimer, et al.

Clacs Old€nburg. 'The Bi8 Screw . Design for a monunent on Karlaplan.Stockholm. 1966

I think that if this building had b€en rcalised, idea and reality wouldnot have aSrecd with each other. This builCing, in among all the

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other kitsch. would have looked monstrous and ridiculousSteinberg s drawings picture similar American situations.Considering tie app€arance of the Herald Tribune Building, onemight associate this gigantic Doric column wilh the wonders of theAntique world. But lhis is not possible if one reflects on its meaning.An office tower among many others in an American city withmillions of inhabitants would soon have lost its spirituality.

vienna, benefiting from her topographical siruation. has alwaysbeen a place where cultural controversies have been fought out.Here, the south German Baroqu€ celebrated its splendid alliance witlforeign sqles in the masterly collage of the Karlskirche by Fischervon Erlach. Hildebrandt was by no means an orthodox classicist.His Upper Belvedere for Prince Eugen is a marvellcus architechrralachievement. It is a building which is not deep in plan, yet its cleargeometrical facade and carved decoration Sives the impression ofa gigantic complex when viewed from the city. The enormoussolenLnity of$e bulldings on the Ringstrasse is still experienced withpleasure. alfiough as culrural achievemens the) cannot compete witl

the unique musical creations of Beethoven. Schuben or Brahms'crearions which have not been surpassed anlwhere in $e world.

Gottfried Semper, who was commissioned to design theBurgtheatre. left Vienna head over heels after only three years. Hecould not cope with the intrigues and the manoeuvres of the vien-

nese partner Hasenauer with whom he had to wolk. and who

beslowed Semper's plans with an effusive local hue. So theBurgtheater. with the exception ofthe stage-set depot, as one ofhislate works has little in common wilh the strict discipline of hisbuildings in Zurich and Dresden.

In the t$enri! ' th ccntury thr 'nrusic ofBerg. Schdnberg and Webernhr\ !Jin! ' .1 irn internati ,)n! l rr 'putrt i(9. The ver) fL'$ modcrnbuil , l in!. in vicnnx huve n, ' t rcach. 'dlhc.rrnrc lcrcl. Like Ne,r-Classicisn et the beginning of lhc ninctecnlh centur). lhe clear.rational Ilod.rn trlovenrcnl $'us onl) halt--hc'arledl) supported inVienna. Only in the romantic exp.essionism of the Viennese'Cemeinde' (conununity) buildings ofthe T$enties and Thirties hasa generation of architects found its identity. This tendency. whichwas paniall) rooled in rhe school of Ono Wagner, gainedspontaneous public acknowledgement because many detailsemployed xere known by the population as classical motifs.

Ph' ofthe Bid turrenb€r8' quaner. Berlin. by A. Klein. 1930

Architects who adhered to the Bauhaus ideology certainly nrade funof the playfulncss of their Viennese colleagues. The laner werebranded as secret traditionalists, and for that reason thcy were notappreciated for a long time. These'Hof-Siedlungen' (courtyardestates) have a panicular spatial quality, especially in terms ofurbandesign when compared to the schematic linear housing estates; asfor example the Dammer-stock cstate in Karlsruhe by walter Gropiuso. Onkel-Toms-Hiine and Siemensstadt in Berlin. (This subject has

Hans Hotlein. vienna 1963i T.ansfomntion , a technical objecl b€comes a culrunl

Karlski.che, vienna. by J-8. Fischer von Erlach. l7l6-21

,+"II

Firit Coun Th€atre, Drcsd€n. by G. Semper. lElS--4!

wiug€nsEin's House. vienna. designed by himsclf down lo lhe last deBil

l8

Former slage,set dcpoi, Vicnna. bt c. ScnrDer. c 1875

'Karl Seirz-Hol. vierna. b! F. and H. Gessncr. 1926

7;

,l

tl

c

l9

been dealt with at length in my book lJtban Spoce, and thereforeI can do better than to repeat myself, but concentrate my thoughtson the architeltuie of the buildings themselves.) I hope nobody mindsthat Vienna, at preseot my adopted home city, is always the focusof my rcflections. In a similar way in which I teach my studentsto learn exemplarily from this city, my observations ofarchitecturalevents receive their orientatioin from this background.

Heinrich Tessenow, despite his lechrreship at the Akademie fiirAng€wandte Kunst (Academy ofApplied Art) which lasted for fiveye€rs, never beaame an 'echter Wiener' (real Viennese). But b€causeof his very honest, restrained architectural language, he cenainlyhad some followers among the architects ofcouncil cstates not onlyin Vienna. One aspect, however, should be pointed out in Tessenow'swork. Shortly after the tum-of-the-century, at a time when manyarchitecs were still concerned with heroic design themes of the nine-teenth cenNry Tessenow concentrated all his efforts on workers'housing. In Rome, Tony Garder was designing his 'Cit6 lndustriellc'at the same time. The beauty and freshness ofthese drawings werenever reached in Gamier's actual buildings. Both Tessenow's andGamier's projects catl be compared here as being representative forfuture generations.

ln every cultural era there are two carnps, the one of the traditionalists and the other of the avant-gardists. The two are mostlystandard bearers of the same age and educational background butwith different attachments to cultural heritage; the one cautiouslyweighing tradition, the other boldly questioning tradition. Anirudescan change qrith the life of an artist. However, at the time ofcomp€ting for bread and recognition, not the most polite commentsare Cxchanged. These, however, will be knowingly smil€d at thir-ty, forty yea$ later ...

One 'reactionary', the other 'progressive' ...Can art b€ the one or the other? After a short time ideological

hostilities disappear and what is left can be put in simple words:he was proficient, but incaPable.

An lives solely on $e quality of meaning and lhe embodimentof it. All a/ r,ac publicity should therefore b€ handled cautiously,ai least until suoerficial effecs have died down. Even in times whereculture is imposed by dictators, the socalled reactionary andopportunistic pieces ofan will only reveal their true artistic qualityand become recognisable for everybody after the ideological asp€ctshave become meadngless. The altist is at liberty to frecly choosehis means ofcxpression. He only disqualifies himselfthrough sloP-piness and incapability in terms of skill and design. Cezanne hascreated a fantastic <euvre with his innocuous landscapes and portraits;the Cubists with their violins, bonles 8nd cuttings: Morandi withhis arrangements of vessels etc, And none of them asked Permis-sion of the public to do this or that. Sometimes the price for theartist's freedom in his choice of theme and way ofexpression is life-long isolation and a concomitant undervaluation of the artistic qualityof his work. The anist's biggest enemy is t]le airogance of the'cultured' public. It only appreciates what is established and familiar.If one asks for p€rsonal judgement where no common interpretationexists, lhen a spiieful criticism breaks out condemning everythingtbat is not undeNtood. This has always been the case, and this touch-stone of every new artistic generation is at the same time itschallenge.

In this sense my criticism of the contemporary architectural sceneshould not be understood simply as being bitter about failedsuccesses. They help me to clarify my point, to strengoen myposition even at the risk ofjudging unfairly. Recendy I was accusedof working beyond the 'Zeitgeist' (spirit of the age). lndeed, foryears this is what I have been doing with all my strength anddevotion. My congratulations to the critic who has understood this.However, to be prc4ise, I have always tiought that I was workingbeyond coniemporary ne€ds, and that this was the reason why my

Cymnasium (Dalcroze lnttitute), Hell€rau. l9l0

Housing eslale n€ar Schwechat by H. Tessenow

D.awing from Ct, /a/6r'islle by T. Gamier, l9O4

'tfr,f, .'.,.iqi.\, archibcrure was not in dernand. That it was all to do with prescribinga 'Zeirgeist' never came into my tnind. The .Zeitgeist' is solelycreated by artists and not by the public. It is a very natural thingthat the older generation has to cope with their achievements beingquestioned, and therefore we do nor mind their struggling againstus. We for our paJt will not be supercensitive either, but neverthelessask for a fair battle. Despitc all hindrances, better arguments andachievcments always receive $e merit they descrve.

To re-capitulate the aim of this essay, I would likc to mentionrhat my extensive words have only the purposc of putting mycriticism on a solid basis. I am not concerned about the normalchange ofgenerations, but that the ans worldwide are beine madebankrupr. To posit and prove rhis has required rhis long prJlogue.However, the dispute between 'reactionaries' and .avant-gardisis'has anothcr aspect; dre former, building on a safe repenoire, benefitfrom immediate succcss; the latter, seeking new ways, are existen-tially threatened. Today, as the 'Modernc' in all its banality is en-joying cultural acknowledgement, everybody who rries to avoid thiscul-de-sac by wa) of thorough studies of history is branded as areactionary. Nolr it is he who is called to b€ar the pioneer's standardand to suffer the priyations of a renewer. In both camps, only thebest talents will survive the hardest test, while struggling for therealisation fo their ideas.

Tony Garnier, who won the Prix de Rome in 1899, renouncedthe raditional B€aux-Ans programmc and devoted himself to a themencglected in the nineteenth century: the industrial city. His architec-oral concepts are of ingenious clarity and void of any decorativeromanticism. Ifone looks at Carnier's design for the prix de Romein the Beaux-Arrs publications, one wil l nirice rhat ir is sli l l tullyin line with the bourgeois fashion-architectuC of the fin de sibcle.All the more astonishing is his reversal afterwards, which had verymuch to do with his sojourn in Rome. His projects are disciplinedby an almost antique attitude. He was using the qualities of rein-forced concrete, srill new and revolutionary at the time, and refinedthis new material by way ofan aesthetic design which respected itsinherent constructional rules and logical composition. Uae citlindustrielle is abook which belongs to the most beautiful theorericalcontributions ofthis century. Garnier had a strong influence on the'Moderne' which was developing in the Twenties. But persooallyhe rejected the idea of becoming a promoter of this scene. Hisbuildings, however, did not fulfil the expectations of his powerfulearly work. Unfortunately he ended up in a structuralism, I la perret,which was popular in Frarce. Yct his Olympic Sradium and his abat-toir of La Mouche remain outstanding achievem€nts . Thus an avant-gardist became a bourgeois traditionalist. It was similar with perret.Perret's early work conhasts in 0le same way with his later buildingsin l,e Havre. Unlike Garnier, Tessenow developed from being apoetic traditionalist inro a classicist of the Thirties.

This pre-S€cond World War scene, so colourful and rich as it was,was abruptly ended in the middle of the Thinics when, on theContinent, dictators assumcd political power. The official architcc-tural canon for public buildings in German cities prescribed aprimitive and inflatcd Neo-Classicism which had nothilg to do withthe delicacy and elegance of the era of Schinkel, Weinbrenner orKlenze, Buildings in rural areas were to represent the 'Heimatstil'(homeland rtyle). Only industrial building was spared regimentationand could realise clear modem construction without Droblems. Thedebate on the architectural history ofthe Third Reich is immenselyburdened, despite the fact that it is an issue of the past. The newrulers quickly realised that neither the aesthetics nor the technologyof Modern Architecture were suitable to serve as tbe Dretence ofthe Party. The same applied to Modem An wirh its critical socialaspe.ts. The sob€r building bodies were anythinS but popular, theirbuilding technologies not tully developed, and therefore not reliableenough. To impress the masses, thc Nazis fell back upon the

ffi-;-**. . "/Dn\|ings frcm Cift ltdusri. e by T. Gamier. l9O1

Aba| lo ' r dc la Mouche. L] ,D. by T. Carnrer. Iq09-tJ

Maison Cassaodre, Versailles. by A. PeEer.

Alb€n Sp€€r's studio. Obersalzb€rs, l916

approved monur|€nt!.I orders which, given fie pressure of time theywere und€r, could still be mastered in terms ofcraftsmanship. Thcrcwas no time for new developments, and thcy did not want to runany risk. Thc model for a late Neo-Classical monumental architec-ture was found in *rc USA, and in colonial cities. Here, not onlypublic buildiogs but also banls, officc buildings and businessprcmises werc all alike in terms of the style described above. Thatthe Nazis used the best materials and craffsmanship for the fewpompous cditices they were able to build, can hardly be criticised.They sought to disguise the brutality of their regime with 8nappropriate (in thcir terms) architecture. In the history of urbandesign, thc plans for Bcrlin arc of'cxcessivc grandeur'. The urbangeography would, bowever, have b€nefited from them. If one €x-amines thc diffcrcnt stages of planning, it appears that the initialproposals were much more differentiated and sympathetic to the ur-ban structure in terms of scale. Only later did they become coarsein texture and lort in terms of space. A gigantic domed buildingof Boullde-like dirnension was to establish the high point in tbis B€rlinapotheosis. Sometimes one is tempted to think to oneseli 'Thcyshould have built all this stuff instcad of makirlg a war.' But thiswould probably have meant that the fascists would have been inpower for an even longer period of time. Io the Esstem Block thiskind of idiolic despotism is p€rpehDted. The Stalinallee which couldwcll have sprung from Sp€cr's Bebauungsplan (development plan)

Domed Hall planncd for Berlin by A. Sp€er. l9J8

Factory in W€stphalia by F. Schupp and M. Krcmm.r

by means of an oppressive architecture, became tha symbol for th€rise ofa young, comrnunist state which did not wa to be one. Lateron, as soon as the images ofsocialism wcrc fading away, the feeblearchiiectural thcory of capitalism came back into fsvour. If todaythe Berlin Wall was pulled down, the difference betwe€n the twoGermanies would only be economic.Otherwise East and West do notcoDtradict cach other on the levcl of gcDeral cultural taste. The Eastsimply did not succeed in finding an architectural language for itskind of society. It was oot possible *cause its social order is thatof a policc state.

I was very shocked to find the Wall being dealr with as anarcbitectural monument in an architechrral journal published in EastBerlin. Wc do rot car€ for this kind of macabre joke.

A schizophrcnia drug scems to exist in modern statcs, ihe effertof wbich is very unpleasart atrd painful. That 8 majority of the worldallows itself to be placed under schizophrenic tyranny cart only beexplained by an analysis of power mechanisms which have got outof the hands of society. Or are there indeed pleasant s€nsations aboutself{estructioo?

Or are there any natural automata which, in case of surfeit, orderself{estruction?

Literature, music and art anticipated thc apocalyse of the Fonieslong before it happencd. I fcar that the state of architecture, thismute imagery, has to b€ understood as a waming of an imminent

f\arl-Marx-Allcc (formcrly Slalinallcc), Esst B€rlin, by Paulicl. Hcnselmann. Hopp,t-cucht,Souradny lnd Hannlann, l95l-5?

22

spiritual abyss. The last time that this abyss opened up was afrermankind had inflicted the biggest self-destruction in its existence.I remember lhe boom of the bomb€rs very well. But today they wouldsound like light music in comparison with the vast amount ofdestructive material available now. How can beauty ever grow onsuch a brutal background?

Architecnrral culhre is interconnected but divided into two parts:the wide basis of common functional buildings for dwelling andworking, and rising from that, the small apex of buildings whichaccommodate special functions for society. k is legitimate to designthe latter in distinct manner, in order rhat they differ ftom func-tional buildings.

During the nineteenth century when the bourgeoNte was gettlngrich, it emb€llished its reside ial premises wirh all the atuibuteswhich were used by the dethroned aristocracy to stand our from themasses. The architectural language got so confused that it becamenecessary to find another way of distinguishing public buildings fromprivate ones. The former, therefore, were isolated from adjacentbuildings and set into a square, a park or sited on the top ofa hill.But this stcp soon found its followers. ln the Twenties the frec-standing object as sgch b€came desirable for bener living, workingand resting in general. Only one aspect was not taken intoconsideration; given that everyMy had the same rights, this de-mand would have meant the dcath ofthe city. Today this no longerneeds to be proved. Modern cities are the built evidence. The ma-jority of Americans claim that they do not want to have anythingelse other than ole modem 'anti-city'; 0tat only some 'fanatics' wouldstill prefer New York, Boston or San Francisco. [,et us wait andsee what happens if, br4ause of a new energy crisis, legs have lobe uscd for walking again. Maybe then Amticans will rememberthe good old Europ€an city again!

The confusion in architectural language became even moreprofound after the Second World War. As historical architecturalfeatures had been abused so much, architects thought thar they hadbeen left without any good examples and thercfore anempted aoexpress the special significalc€ ofa building by way of employingnovel methods of construction. For the last thirty years the wholerange of exotic structu.es has been tried out, for example, onchurches. Flicking through publications dealing with this subject,one shudders at so much ki6ch. In aerms also ofground-plan design,anything conceivable has berr put to the test. The undergroundchurch at lrurdes, or the one by Nervi beside Saint Peter's, canat best be called well-structured garages. These buildings havenothhg to do with churches. Many modem churches can b€ mistakenfor b€ing industrial halls; some of them are dcliberately designedthat way to suppos€dly reduce the distance between the church andthe faithful, To undermine the sacred in this way, given thesignificance of churches in the history ofarchitecture, is for me theworst asp€ct of our present cultural decline.

Temples and churchcs have been acknowledged and valued at alltimes, even by unbelievers, as the most noble symbolic buildings.They received the best of artistic and anisan achievement. Theyexemplified the architectural tradition ofan epoch. After the antique,they also became the most magniilc€nt interior public spaces. Arethere any other functions available now to compensate for thc lossof religious feeling? Thc reading rooms in public libraries, the restilgrooms in swimming pools or spon centles, station halls, concerthalls or theatres? None of these functions can cver reach the mysticand symbolic significance of a place of worship. Every hurnan b€ingis touched by lhe enigma oflife aod death. The fateful and inscrutabledimensions of cxistence atld non-eistence are as overwhelming asthey arc frightening. Nature, in its monumcnblity and bquty, bcingthe background for every0ing that happens, ordy cautiously revealsits secrets. To soothe his fears and to calm his senses, man haserected symbolic places on earth for the spiritual interpretation of

No 6, Sandwingasse, Vienna, c 1860

_No 42. Linke wienzcile. vienna, b) Kmunke and Kohl. 1896-97

Design by Archisram, London. l960s

his being. These buildings served as places of mediation betweenhim and the unnameable enigmas; the addressee in this fictitiousdialogue: a glorified human being, a God: the building: an idealisedaccoBrmodation for the supernatural. I do not klow whether thissubjcct is definitely lost in architecNre. For the time being, I amsatisfied pith the sacral buildings which history has passed on tous. We can live with these for another while longer. If an idea cannotbe celebrated genuinely anymore, what else can one do but stickto things one is good at? In this consumer world people are not veryinterested in spiritual values.

At the beginning of the Fifties, the confusion about forms gavea fresh impeNs to the developmcnt of new structures. T€chnologywas less loaded a term than form, and immune from id€ology. Aftera shon period of time, the aftitude spread that once the constructionalrequirements had been met, one had done justice to architecture.ln a similar one-sided way, effons were also concentrated on lhesolution of functional problems and cost-effective constructionprocesses.

But despite the miseries of the post-war pcriod, there are ofcourseexamples of an 'archite.tural' anitude towards design, and nowada;-ssome buildings from that time gain symparhy despite theirclumsiness.

One phenomenon, however, hit fie devastated middle Europe quiteunexpectedly: an exploding economic prosperity and in connection

with that, an unrestrained building boom. In order to encouragebuilding activities, governments offered special finance anddepreciation schemes which could easily be abused. It is maybe onlytoo natural lhat in this competition bet$een 'more money' and 'morearchitecture', the Muse was the loser.

Ir is a long time ago that a p€rson who commissioned a buildingdemanded the best skills of architects and craftsmen, because hisbuilding was to demonstrate his honourable position in society. Also,the house of the poor and tie house of the rich were easily com-parable in terms of elegance. despite rhe difference in expenditureand embellishment.

The idea of making a lot of money in a shon period of time hasdestroyed the quality of a building as such. Even rhe majority ofbuildings that do not need to meet high architectural demands havelost tle elegance which I have mentioned above. That is also dueto the fact that b€cause ofquick indusrrialisation, rhe building crafuhave been ruined.

Responsible for all this are first and foremost the architects andplanners who, burdened by growing competition, scll their soulsand professional credit with the empry phrase: 'If I don'r do it,another colleague will'. Can rhis faral lack of s€lf-resp€ct still beovercome? Who is the first one whose eyes must be opened, theone r,,ho buys or the one who produces? Both are cheated at themomenl.

The client who relies on cheap technology will soon have to payfor its defectiveness. He will also be bored quite quickly withsuperficial architectural cosmetics. The architect has rricked himselfout of the most elementary professional fulfillment; and I cannotimagine that the easy rnoney he earns can make up for the shameof blunt opDortunism.

There aii no less talented archikcrstday than in rhe pasi. Butnow, to a much greater extent, they are condemned to inactivityor their crearivity isjust not asked for. Very often they take refugeeitler in the arts scene where it is still possible to get fairacknowledgement, or they lecture at schools ofarchitecture whichguarantee anistic freedom and survival

But without practical challenge every theory is meaningless. Iwould very much like to prove my arguments with my own workiostead of letting others do this for me. But to build under today'sconditions is a damned hurniliatingbusiness, not very sympatheticto the fulfillment of theoretical and anistic ambitions.

Iffusrrations in this anicle are either from rhe archives of ArchitectwalDpri8n, Academy Editions, and Rob Krier, or from the following sources:Acte U. Modeme Kunst, Berlini Archigram Croup, London; Paolo Faroce.Piozza d holia, Bra'x.anre Editrice; Johann Kraftner (phorographer); HeinrichKulka, AdoA Loos, Likker'Verlag; Bemhard l,eitner, me Architecturc ofLudwig Wirgenstein.New York, 1976; C6sar Maninell, Cd!d/, EdilorialBlume, Barcelonai Propllden Kunstg.schichte , Band ll, Die Kunst d.s 19

Jahrhunden, Propyhen-Verlag. Berlin; Herben Ric]rfn. Der Architekt,Geschichte eines Berufes, Henschelverlag; Alben SWet, Architektur, Pro-plladn. Berlin: Sreinberg's Pdp"rrdck, Ro\rohlr: WaheFMuller-Wutkow,A rchit ektw de r Z+'anzigeiahrc in Deutschland, langewiesche Konigssein;lleltgeschichte des Archrie*tu/e, Belser/Elecrrai lviener Fassaden des 19Jah undens, BOhlau-Verlag, Wien. 1976.

ELEMENTS OF

ARCHITECTURERob Kr icr

r-lr--FtLffiJffiffir4g

25

Explanations Relating to the

Typology of Interior Spaces

geometrical form overlap and merge into a newshape. In this proccss one space, or even both,will be deformed, i.e. their formal separationwould be senseless, because it would yieldfragments.2. Two spaces being overlapped retain thelrindependence, remain recognisable, and toSethercreate a new spatial quality. The crossing of$ecathedral is aclassical example: lie longitudinalaisle and the lransept penetrate each other andform a common space which is emphasised bya dome or a tower,3. When two spaces overlap in a way rhar oneincludes the other, this gives rise to space withinspace. If the interior space is bordered by rowsof columns and segregated from the enclosingspace, the entire space rernains lo b€ experiencedsimuhaneously. Classical examples of this kindof spatial penetrarion are to be found in EglprianBaldachin Temples. The closer the two spacesmove together, i.c. if they become nearly equalin size, one gets the impression of or. space wifta double enclosure. Louis Kahn. for example,sets cifcular spaces into square bounds for lighlpenetration. Through diffe.ent openings in thewalls, the light is filtered when required, andindirectly led inlo the interior.

Funher possibiliries of transforming bisicgeometrical forms arc the processes ofbuckling,bending. breaking, s€paration and fragmentation.This happens mosdy if several elemenls ofdifferent geometrical shape should be joinedtoge$er, and if one has to adjust to the other.Ler us imagine an octaSonal space which issurrounded by a conidor. Because of the givengeometry of the octaton, il has lo b€ buckledseveral times, in a srnse to submit itself to theSeom€trical form. However, it can achieve anindependent spatial quality if the buckling poin6 ,by expansion, are rnrde into joints. Or anotherexample, which very often can be found inhousing construclion in the nineteenth century,in weinbrenner's work for instance: in a given

ground-plan form, which very often resuhed fromthe shape of the site-p€rhaps a triangle as rheresidual site benreen two streets-dle main spa.-e!were insened as independenl forms-as circle.square or oval, Between them and the exlerorskin, spaces ofdeformed shape rernained, *hichsometimes had lhe awksard effecr of beingme.ely remnants. because tbey originated fromsomething which was of more importance- Sothey offered $e possibilir) of accommoddrrngtechnical facililies. Bul ofien lhey are independentlocali(ies of the 'in between' and have enoushspadal charm to accofirmodate staircas-j. for

The 'perspective distonion'. i.e. the aflificialfiunipulation of the effecl of depth. can b€ creredby simple geometrical tricks, as Scamozzi didwit-h his stage set ' in lhe Teatro Ol impico inVicen7n: and Bemini in both his design for SainrPeler's Square. and his famous staircase in tlteValican, the Scala Regia.

The 'dislorlion' of a geometrical form can lnmost cases ha acibuted ro faleful. historical

The examples ofinterior spaces listed here donot in any way represenl a complete lypolog\ .The publish€d drawings have emerged fromexercises wili my studenls carried out in the firstyear of lheir course . I am of the opin ion thal rhedecisions which form the design of a space. ora building, can only be completely undersbodif they have been apprehended rhrough dra$ingthem. Il may be noted lhat my students draw€xclusively in Vienna, so that they learn torecognize the city in which they sody with allits aualrtie\ and the characteristic features of rt.local architectural rradition- That modernarchitecture thcreby gets the shorter end ofconsid€ration is not surprising. Th€ goodexamples in modem archhecture aie anyway loo

nowadays have an almost €litisl character. Theso-called liberation of spaces by modernarchitecture has given rise to the unfonunate term'flowiog space'. Spaces were separated inloareas, only able to function, but withoutcontributing to b€tter functioning. The repressronofclear geometry has not resulted.in a truly freeand poetic solutron of room forms, but indeformed structures, which no looger allo$ ameaningful relationship b€tween wall andop€ning. The naNre of a room is very muchdetermined by its enclosure, which dernarcatesit from the exterior and rurns it into an intenor

The diagrarn shows in the horizonlal lhegeometlical ground-plan forms: square, triangle,ci.cle and the amorphous figure; and in $evertical the possibilities of transfonnation of thesebasic elemenls by way ofaddition, penetralion,buckl ing, breaking, accentuation of theperspective, or effect of depth and distortion.These op€rations ar€ put together side by sidewithout any valuation. The examples presentedbere, however, are only a fraction of the variantscreated so far by human ingenuiry.

At this poinr I \rould like to suggest rhat, from$e history of building, one should picrure thegreat variety of forms for oneself and refresh itagain and agair by *ay of drawing exerciser.

AdditionAddition is rhe most elemenrary principle oforder. Wilh $e most simple way ofaddition, theelements are only closely joined and form anaccumulation or a group. Their relation to eachother ensues from the proximity, a so-calledtopological relation (Norberg-Schulz) .esuhingin an irregular, amoaphous shape. In contrast tothal, geometrical relation means a relation whichis created by a geometrical principl€ of order,e.g. by axiality or parallelity. The basilica servesas an example in which several similar elementsofspace are arranged in parallel. ln th€ perspe€-tive of depth, a series of impressions of closedspaces ofnave and side-aisles emerges, whereasin the transverse direction, because of rnetransparency of the order of columns, the entirespace can be perceived. By augmenting theheighls ofside-aisles towards the nave, lhe latleris especially accentuated and the orienlationtowards the altar is emphasised. We have herethe different heights of spaces as a means ofdesign to express the hierarchy of spatialelements.

Penetrationl. Two or several spaces of dif ferent

Interior SpacesAs the saning point of architecnrral comgosition,lhe srnallest spatial uniry, tle interior room,should firstly be srudied. Normally an interiorspace has for its bounds: walls, piers, ceiling andfloor, being the traditional elements. Windowsand doors serve as connections with the exterior,By these, the technical elements of a space aredetermined. It becomes cornprehensible anddescribable by the definition of irs size,proporlion (relationships between length, height

and width) and shape. These componedts retbrdirectly to the firnction of the room because theyallow for the r€sideoce of peoplc, the accom-modation of fumilurc and lhe execution of cer-tain activities.

Shapes and ainospheres of spaces can b€describ€d. At first we rEcognize the geometry ofa room, e.g. cube, cylinder or different formsmixed together. we can also sp€ciry $e exactsizes and identify $c proponions by relarinSlength, widrh and height. Although we stilldescribe rooms according to rheir basicgeometrical foftls, clear and simple spaces

space. kt us consider the geometry: a sphere hasa maxim!m €nclosure. ln geometrical terms. ircannot be connected !o another form. Inaccordance with lhat, the circutar room is notdirectional and rests in itself. Symmerryemphasises independence, In a rectangular space.the enclosure is created by the uninterruptedrelalionship b€twe€n |he four walls, especially theinteSrity of the comers. Rounded comersemphasise lhe enclosinS character of fie \r'alls.By different lreatmcnt of the surfaces n rermsofcolour and texture. by arrangentnl o[ openingsand incid€nces of lighr, the enclosure ofa spacecan ei6er be emphasised or b.oken.

More difficult is rhe d€scriprion oflhe qualityof a space. Very oftert when we describe theircharacrer, we talk about small, spacious, low.high, oppressive, friendly, comfonable. cold orwarm rooms. Very often for these appraisals ofa space, not only ils geometry but also irsattributes are caucial. In this sense every inrcriorspace offers a complete 'cultural image'. gi\.enby proportion, light p€netration, strucure.

- furniture and accessories,Already the accenruation of the surfaces

confining the room adds ro i!5 character: dividingvenical and horizontal elements, floor texlure.

* omaments and mouldings on ceiling and walls.extensions. bays, colours and materials etc. Thebasic forms are equally changed by piers srandingfree in the room- New spaces 'within the space'are crealed. According to rheir purpose, the!

- aniculate and structurei they form transparentwalls dividing the space. and because we movern lhe room. new perspectives. vistas and spacerelationships emerge again and again.

With thc kno*ledge of these effecrs. thearchilect can give to a room the character whichsuits ils function and signilicance, He can createa sacred space which makes p€ople worship. alecture-hall helping people to concenlrale on

- listening, or an office room which, b€cause ofits functionalism, places work in the foreground.

Finally. owing to E-adition, symbolic meaningscan be anributed !o certain forms. Archeoloeists

- and ethnologists have inrensively conceiredthemselves wirh rhe significance ofcenain formsofspace. Psychologists too, like C.G. Jung, rnadeimf,onam contributions to tle exploration ofarchetypes. Hanns Sieder. rhrough ertensive..- research in his book U4onnen der abendldn-dischen Baukunst (Archaic Forms in WestemArchitecrure), comes to lhe follo\r'inq mesls:'Considering ... existing forms, excluding each

- olher in the circular or reclangular house, ii isconceivable from what is krown about thedifferent stages in change of house construclionin ltaly and Creece, that we can lrace backprccisely the genesis ofa reclangular house born

- out ofa circular house via oval and apse-shapedpreliminary forms. Decisions of tlat kind infavour of the circular or the rectangular houseare rooted in the entite existence of $e human

- beinS; lhey are not at all left to the free will.Culures not yet fon*d or no longer sound, ,natefotmless buildingt.' Sieder also mainGins thatcerlain geometrical forms of spaces gavcexpressron to a corresponding physical ard

- spiritual atritllde: 'A nondirectional circularspac€ allows for relaxation and concenfation. Anoval-shaped space encloses lwo points ofencounter. The form of the apse has risen from

the feuerschism ('firescreen ) ro the s)mbolicplace of spirirual promulgadon. A broad spacebecomes a place of prepararion. a longitudinalspace a route leading to some\rhere. Bo$ spatialdirections meet in the square-L\e crossing-theplace of ritually structured concenration.

Of course $e mythically influenced a(itudeconceming rhe effect of spaces does nor applvto such a degree to contemporary archilecture,e.g. housing construcrion. Bur it is cruciallo bearin mind thar cerlain rooms fumighed in a cenain

XEI:I CEOMETRICAL GROUND FIGLRESII ADDITIONIII PENETRATION

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way can actually and significandy stimulare andinf luence the spir i t and emorions of rheinhabitan6. This should also be undersrood as awaming to those who think lhat size and formofa room are only ro be determined by lhe spacercquirements of sondard furniture. and thereforeforgel about o$er spatial qualiries. Only if wesucceed in understanding the relaiionship bet*eenform, proponion, effect and usefulness can wcachieve a meaningful and wel l -balancedcomposhion.

IV BUCKLINGV SEGMENTATIONVI PERSPECTIVEVII DISTORTION

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Square Interior SpacesThe square remains clea.ly recognizable ar beslby means of an al l-round symmetricalarrangement ofopenings. A we -balanced sDatialeffect withoul dircction is shown in illustrationI, in which the ope[ings are placed on lhe roomaxes. Going be)ond lhis. $e space can bestrucored by \r'ay of a subrle. square grid ofpilasters, door lintels and beams. As the geometryof the space is specially supported, the squareachcves an elen more po$etful expression(illuslration 2). Also in illusrration 3, we navea square ground-plan, but a space with acompletely differenl centre ofgravity because oflhe pier and cross-vault. Here. lhe tectonics ofthe vault are more important than lheground-plan.

In illustralion 4 to 7, examples of srructuresare shown which-ofren for technical orfunctional rcasons-in each case give to the spaceentirely differenl relations and directions. Theyalter the scalc, and are confusing when il comeslo describing the proponions. When divided bymeans of a row of piers (illustration 4), twoequally relevant recEngular spaces are creareo.By the division ofthe square into rhree parts inone direction (illustralion 5), the emphas$ islaid on the main sDace' in rhe middle. This in-lensification can be reversed if lhe middle parlwhich one enters is narrower lhan the two boroerareas. In this case rhe space in tlte middle gainslhe charactcrofa route, and so lhe areas on eachside b€cornc more signihcant. Illustralion 6 showsan enclos€d space with a skel€lal canopyconstruction inside. A sDace within a sDac€emerges. By that. the shape ofthe entire spaceis intensified; the canopy defines an almosr sacredarea and the edges become a silent zone; athreshold ar€a which, although existing inside thespacc, does not fully belong to it.

The fully skeleral inlcrior space (illusrralion Z)is of course only co0ceivable ar a larger scale.Here one rhinks of a space designed for specialtunctlons: fte vasr hlposlyle hall of the CreatTcmple of Ammon in lGrnak wilh irs 134sandstone columns: the base of the terrace in lhePark Ciiell (Barcelona) by Gaudi; or the Danreumproject by Tenagni. Illustrations 8 and 9 showthe centnlisation of the square by way of roundedor bevelled edgcs. These 'manipulations of theedges' , however, need to be minor in proportionto lhe sides, in ordcr to avoid indistinct spaces.Otherwise this superimposition may iasilyprovoke associations wirh a circular or octagonalspaca.

28

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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE t: INTERIORS

Distorted. BasicallvSquare, GeometriesSuch spaces only poss.ss the notion of.ccntality,found in the original basic geomerical form.Because ofbays and fronral $reshold arcas, thefollowing examplcs (illusrmlion I to 3) have aninterm.diate position betwecn 'pure spaccs' anda series of spaces. Windows and doors in the baysform panicular architectonic spaccs rridr strongindividuality. They almosr force the rniddle ofthe space to rcmain void bccaus€ the us€r'sattentioD is focused on rhe bays.

Rhythmic Segies of Spaces{ illustmtions 4 and 5)Stations of a rout4 with a small cntrance arcawhich functions as a'bordar-crossine'. Thcanteroom has a clear oricntation: a rictangrewhich accompanies $a oura and prepares us forthe main space. This main space has de form ofa square, but only at its final window front do€slhe routc end, Thc roulc is mainly rccognizableby ils serics of spaces in p€rspcctive. Such aneffect is prohibited in illusfarion 4 where fourcolunlns form an additional spatial fihe., wbichpsychologically'stops' thc route.

Rectangular InteriorSpacesThe simplc, rcctangular space witb an opcnpitched .oof (illustrarion 6) is an archerypal formfor the housc. lt is to be found as seDulchre. aswcll as bam or garden house . This foim of spaceis a Sood aramplc of the significancc of usednat€rials. From the rush-hut to thc solid stoneshrine, lhc meaniag and charactcr of thc spacecan thcreby be subjectcd to a complete transfor-mation. Thc sudace texrure det€rmincs the wholerange of what is prccious to $ hat is nErely rmke-shift. This is somerhing that applies in gcneral!o cvery spacc, but here this fact is panicularlycvldent.

ln rectantular spaces (illustrations 7 and 9),the location of the olanings is panicularlysi8nifica . Ifrhey are posirioned in lhe short sides(illustration 7), tie room tains ar airy aEpsphcrEwith a cleir alignm€nt along its longitudinal axls.By inscning rows ofpiers,d|is tendency is morcmanifcst. Thc dark side-zoncs can be assignedlo secondary purposcs and activities. Alongitudinal barrel (illuslrarion 9) cnphasisescvcn more thc closed crossdir€ction,

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Octagonal Interior SpacesThe variants of ocugonal spaces prcsenred here(illustrations I and 2) have. according toconrem_pomry unde$tanding, quite an exotic charact€r.Nevenlrless thcy do rcveal some advanrages. Bywa) ot stretchtng. octagonal spaces develop aclearly defined middle zon€ and two narowineedge areas. The room lhereby gains an inrimatistability.

Cross-shaped InteriorSpacesThe crucial problem with cross-shaDed intenorspaces (illustrations 3 to 7) is rhe valuation of thetwo directions. Illustration 3 shows meinterpcnetration of two rectangular spaces of tlesam€ kind. lfone focoses only on rhe inncr pan.tie equivalence oflhe spatial areas is withoul anydoubt still existent. But this space also hasopentngs-doors or windows-which because ofdifferent valuations, immediately establisn ahie.archy b the spatial areas. I would like in thiscontext to cite Palladio's Villa Rotoitda as anerarnple. a building with a similar ground-planwher€ the cffecl of the different prospects isnorieable, A spacc havingan irtrinsic hiemG*nyo f dir€.tions will be achicv€d, if for examDle Ineproportion ofone part is changed. Illusrr;don 4sho*s the effect that can be gained by such anarangernent: onc port of thc space is elevated andth€reby demotcs the side pans to bays. A focusto the centml space (illuslrations 5 and 6) isreachcd by a crcss-vauh, or even mote so, byelevating $c crossing arca. This space. which iscalled 'crossing' in centralised plan churches, hasa supreme symbolic and mythical significance.

Circular SpacesIllustration 8 shows a rcund wall-shell withur asquare room, cstablishing a panicular inner area.By the principlc 'space within space' residualare3s rcnain $hich have becn develoDed ropcrfection, espccially by thc American architecfIaris K!hn, with thc r.sult t|at iDtcrEsthg spatialenects were crcated. Thc circular sDace inilluslrEtion 9 bclongs tike square and crois to rhc

30

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'archetypal forms' of architecture. The axtremespatial consequences rcquire a well{onside.eddiscrer ion as ro pract ical appl icat ion.Psychological aspects have also to bc taken intoconsideration; not cvery human bcing can copep€rmanently with such a polre.fuI form.

The overlayinS of two basic forms-the squareand ihe circle-has b€€n atlempted in illustration1. Compared to the altitude of the cube, thecyclinder is lower and lherefore four segmentsremain as bays. This is an example of thedifferentiation of heights in a room and theresulling effects. Nowadays, lhinkin8 io threedimensions is very often neglecEd when it comesto desien. The circulaLsDacc with the souarecanopy in the middle {tuiration 21 inteniifiesthe significance of the central space. At thc sarnctime lhe room gives the impression of openness.A hetcrogeneols space with rnrny side-rooms andbays (illustiation 3) delermines its centre by wayof an insened cilcular space formed by piels andcovered by a dome. This is a technique whichcan also be applied to lal€r adaptations ofexistinSspaces wherc one often achieves valid architec-Nral results. Circular spaces, to d€velop theirsparialiry and functional uscfulness, ne€d a certainminimum dimension which should not beunderestirnaled. Esp€cially height and form of lheceiling are crucial. In illustration 4 a hiSh circularspace is cut through by a bridge which, becauseofits transparent strucNre, allows p€rception ofthe olcrall space. This example also hints st thefact lhat circular rooms, being nondirectional,are often used in a boundary position as themediation of spaces with multidirectionalstructure. Illuslration 5 describes two cyclinderswhich interlock. The transparent tangenlial zooeoffers a fascinating arperience of space. Afamous example in architectuml history is theholse of lhc Russian conslructivist ConstantinMelnilov. Illustrarions 6 and 7 show circularspaccs in each case beinS related to otber rooms.The laier are designed as loggias or anteroomswhich surround the central space. Theseanangements place on the circular spac€ anaftbiYalent role. On the one hand, it is a spaceof tranquilliry, void of fumiture and otherequipment. On the other hand, it serves as a kindofdlstributor, being in thc bcst position to connectdifferent routes and meanings. Illustotion 9actually belongs to thc them€: composition ofspaces. In plan, sqlarc, octaSon and s€mi-circleform a rhylhmic scquenc€ of spaces. It isimporlant io note how cle3rly geomelrical fonnscan be broucht into correlation.

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Addition and Penetra-tion of Spaces in Prac-tical ExamplesThe basic forms dealt wilh above can give rise!o innumerable combinations of spaces; so it isoul of the question that the employment ofclearforms restricts crcative irnagination. Consideringthe mighty heritage ofarchitecoral history, theaberrations of modern architecnrre have provedone fact: spaces which can be described, whichare conceivable in real lerms, have the advantageof multifarious ways of utilization; still-and thisfact cannot be pointed out often enough-abuilding erists in g€neral longer than its initiallyassigned utilization. Illustralion I shows a square,tenrshaped spacc, fonned by an inner shell whichs€pamtes i( from a cor.idor. The roule leads froma represenlational staircase-inserted in anellipse-lo an ante-space lllter into the mainroom. In illustration 2 a directional aectangularspace leads to a semi-circulaa one which has arelieving effect, promising a pleasant vtsta.Narrowness of the two spaces creatcs anlmportant tension. In the space which is shownin illustralion 3, it is the vaulting of thereclangular space which creates a relationshipwith the semi-circular forecourts. I l tusrrat ions 4and 5 picture examples ofsimple series of spaces:through an entaance afea one reaches arectangular room which is terminated by a semi-circle which is ils culmination. Illustrations 6 and7 prove that it is also possible io give reclangularspaces a centre by way of widening and thesuperimposition ofa cenrral circular space. Thelasl rwoexamples, illustrations 8 and9, deal witha rectangular space with curved ends. It gainsdiffer€nl spatial effects by way of irs innerconfiguration or widening.

ELEME:{TS OF ARCHITECTURE It INTERIORS

6

Oval-shapcd spaccs (illuslrations I to 3) are nota mcdification ofcircular spaces, but stand as anindep€ndent type which, since the Renaissance,has always becn s€€n as a contrast to the circle,Th€ circle represcnB a moncaentric view oflife,the oval shape a duo-centric one . Thc circle wasfavoured by the conservative, neo-classicallhaorisls (Albcni, Brasunte) in the RcDaissance,whcres the modehs (Penrzzi, S€rlio) preferredthe oval, vrhich reached its prime in theBaroqu€.* Of cours€ from a formalpoint of vi€w,lhe oval allows for similar operations as do€s rhecircle. However, similar to the rectangle, the ovalis dircctional.

Triangllar spaces (illusr.ations 4 to 6) areconceivable as special ftrrns becausc of thatrpointed eages, which arc?ifficuh ro tulty urilize.For praclical reasons, the triangl€ is oftcndeformed; the edges are cut off or rhe three sidesare rounded oul. The T.inity churchcs of theBaroqu€ are known exanplcs ofthis. For secularpurposes, the triangle is suitable as mgdiation ofthree distinct dircctions oftraffic routes, or if atnrnk road splits into two less important ones.

Sp€cial shapcs (illustrations 7 io 9) $dch fromall possible polygons to the irregularly modelledspace-urc cave.

To and this chronology, it may bc rernarkedthat all spaces should have in common definingbordcrs. A space should always allow itself tob€ defurd, describcd and understood wi$out onehavinS to take refuge in its airnospherical valuesto besin with.

' Scc l.od. 'Dic ovalcn Kirch.nrii.tmc dcs Cinqucn-ro', il R(,nisch.s Jahtuuch Jtu Ku^sts.schichte, 1tlvolum., 1955.

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35

ELEIIENTS OF ARCHITECTURI Ir ItiTERtORS

Diagraounatic inrcrpr.tadon of Pailadio's Sround'plans cxplaining sparial rclatioNhips

The Art ofComposing Spaces

cuided by thc work of Palladio, I would like todernonslrate horv spaccs should bc brought itloscqucncc in ordcr to crcate spatial and aesthcticrelationships. It is not sufficicnt to be wellacquaintcd with $c quality of a single space assuch. One must also be ablc to join spaccs iD away that togcthar ihcy nukc an intercstinScomposition.

l T.atro Ollnplco, Vlcenza l5t0The auditorium dcviates from the semi_circularvitruvian typc, conunon at lhat dme, bccausc oflack of spacc. It is . half amphithcatrc in planwith .isint tiers of scats. At thc l.v.l of fte toPticr, the spaca is terminated by a colonoadcconsisting of blind and frec-standinS columnsgiving acccss to thc stairs which src siNatad inthe comets. This sclf-co ained geom€ldaal spaccappeaB as if ins.ned into an irrcgular larger onc.The stage is linked with th. audiencc by wry ofa rcctilinca! scenae Jrons. a .ichly structuredfacade widt fivc openiogs throuSh which scvan'slrccts' are visiblc in exrggcrat€d Pc$pcctivc.This pcnnancnt sc!lin8, reprasenlhg a city inRcnaissarrcc style, only allowed fo! tha pcrfor-mancc of classical plays.

2. Pdrzzo Porto. Vlcebz! 1549The ccntrdl spacc of this complcx is an innercourtvad which is siuratrd bctwccn two lic kaloalacc block. onc for thc usc of thc matcr aidiis houschold, and thc other for Sucsls. The twotivinS arcis widr idcntical facadcs are situatad ba*_ween two public strcats. Ona antcrs the palaccthrough a vcstibulc with four colunut slrpPor-tinS a cross-vault. Frcm thcrc a narow corridorlcrds to cenral conilc which on clch sidc hafivc axca. Thc $ace bctwc€n thc i*o columnsin thc ccntrc is biggcr than thlt bcNecn lhcothcrs: 6,3/6,3/8/6,3/6,3 (frct). Thc colurn$ arciwo srorrys high lrd suppolt a Sdlcry on lhc lcv.lof lhe upper floor which is also hcld by srnatlcrpilastcrs opposiE lhe columns. Thc only clcltEntthat has no symnEtrical countcrysn is thc rnrnstairc8sc which is situatad at onc si& ofthccoutt'yard a{ually distant from thc two cntranccs.Pa.lladio's intentiol was !o focus attcntion oo lhccortilc, bcint drc mo6t bcauritul pan of lhcDalacc. Thc staircssc is rathaa modest in lcrmsof spatiality. Palladio ncvcr craatcd latSc-scaleconnccting spaces betwccD the difrarenl floors.

36

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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTTJRE I: INTERIORS

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It was only in thc Barcque that the st ircasebecame a theatrical evcnt. h thc Venetian NDeof palace it always renained a secondarv element.Much more imponrnt was the rhyfhm of spaccsro be experienced whcn walking through theroonE: the vicissiNde ofwide and nafiow, squaEand rectangular spacrs suggesting ei6er to llnSerof to continue one's way.

3. Palazzo V.lnrrara, Vlc€||'o 1565The scquence of spaces in this palace corrcspondsin a rnalv€llous way to a cadenc€ ofdiffercni lightintensity. One enters rhe building throlgh a darknarrow corridor which leads to a dim arcadedhall. the transparcncy of which gives access torhe brighr squarc innerSounyard. The spacctrerwe€n the columns difinishes from the middletowards the sidesr 2/4/4 n W4/2 (fr,t\ . Th.reforclhe light penetration is morE intense in the middleof th€ spacc where one actually walks. On theo6er side of the counyard one enters aSain a dimhall which mediales b€tween Ihe exterior andinterior, and which on both sides is narowed byone vertical axis. Then a dark corridor, whichis shoner than the fi.st one, leads into a tarocnwhich has a proportion of 2:1.

4. Palezzo Thlene. Vtcenza 1542/,16The ground-plan of this palacc is one of lhe moslintercsiing in Palladio's early work, From alripartite en!"nce hall, the ponal of which is cm-phasis€d by a ponico, onearrives in a square in-ner courtyard which is surroundcd by an arcade.The comers sccm to be denscr b€€ause their hishrectangular openhgs are only 4 feer widc whe;lhe normal opcnings are 8 fert *ide. The samerhythn is applied to thc orSanisation of the up-per floor. Of inte.rst is the varicty of differcspatial geomet.ic! which ar€ aftanged round thecoulOfard within the wholc complcx forming aconsistcnt scrics of sluces. Square aoorns alter-Date with oblong or tnnsverse r€ctargular spaces.Comers are aniculat€d by way ofthe ocbgonalroom-width bays. The stalEscs atr oval in phn.

5. Pslrzzo Porto, Plsz?r Cartello, Vlcenzat57lOnly two window axes have bcen built from thisdcsiSn Oottom riSht). The facsdc's dominan!featurc is a tigantic order of colums. A spacpustripanite cotftnce hall was rneqnt to lcad to acourtyard consdruted by a rcc(angle and a scfir-circle. Thc concave back wall absorbs rnovcnEnlin the dilcction of ahe longitudinal axis. Spiralstarrcases are grcupcd around the courtyard foracccss to thc buildinc.

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6. Villa Rotonds, Vicenzs 156tu7The Villa Rotonda is the most consistent e*unDleof a symmetrical plan. The idea for such acomposttron was cenainly also due lo thetopographical characler of lhe si!e, a gentlysloping hill. Palladio's inrention, ro conslrure arelationship bctween rhe laodscape and tfiebuilding. is manifesred by way of the broadextemal stairs on all four sides of rhe villa. Asthey rise rowards the house, they form a buiftcontinualion of the nahiral hill. The entrances onall four sides are emphasised by porticoes for theenjoyment ofthe views all round. Inside, the twomain axes nrn ihrough narrow halls, slightlywider on the entry axis, and meet h a rounclcenlral space which is rwo-storeys high andcovered by a dome. In conlmst to the plans whichI have described before, it is not the axis ofdeoththat is the rnain principle in this case, bur ihehamonious arrangement of rectangulal roomswith a circular rnain space in lhe centre

7. Vlls Pisani, Bagnolo di Loniso lS42The main entrance is situared on a iouitudinatside of the spacious rectangular courtya;d *,hichrs mostly suftounded by an arcade. Thecorunrnsofthe arcade are interrupted in the enlrance arcaSrvulg way toa tliple flighr ofslairs and a ponico.The vestibule le3ds direcdy inro the cross-shapdvauhed main spac€. The passage ro rhe gardenrs lhrough a lransverse recbngular loggia whichhas two semi-circular terminations on the snonsides.

t. VUla Pisad, lltontagnana (psdur) l5S2From th€ street and an outside shircasc. onearrivcs directly in rhe square main room wirich,by way offour free-standing columns supportinga transverse barrel vault, is divided into mreezones, A corridor gives access to the loggia wherethe position of the columns cortesponds to thatof the main space. From here on! has accesseilher to the upper part of rhe buitding by wayol two oval staircases on each shon side of theloggia. or one condnues on axis into the gardenby way of an outside sbircase.

9. Chies. d€l Redentore, Venice 1576The ground-plan consists of three spadal ar€aswhich correspond to different funitions. Thechurch is entered and a long rectangular naveprovides rhe spatial frame for the Drocessionalroute of$e faithful. Thedirection of movemenris emphasised by lhe longitudinat barrel vault andthe double columns of both sides of the nave,which in €ach case constiture a niche. The nav€terminates al rhe most imponant pan of $echurch, the s€lf-containcd chancel which iscovered by a dome and is accessible from allsides. The space is er arged on rhree sides by wayofaps€s. The back ofthe middle aDse is a *allof columns through which the cioir can beviewed.

10. Tempietto Barbaro, Mss€r l5t0A rectangulaa portico gives access to a circulardomed spac€. To this space chancels are attrchedwhich arc situat€d on the prolongation of the rnainaxes. They have rounded back walls and ther€byconespond to thc form of the main space. Theentire composition is orientated towads thecenlre, as with the Villa Rotonda.

38

ll. Chicsa deue Zlt.Is, Venic€ 1579A recuotlc, which is enclosed from the outside,includes a basically square rnain spacc in itscentral arla covercd by a dom€. The edges of disroom arc bevelled in order to rn€diate souatc andcircle. A r€ctangular anteroom supponing aba.rel-shaped vault is extended in front of lhcmain space. In contrast lo th€ Tempieno Barbaro(10), the entrance axis is orientated towards asingle chancel *hich is anached ro the oppositeside of lhc rnain spacc.

12, Chless di S. Luci., Venice t564Herc also, we have an cnclosed. nearly sqlare

plan, which has no projecrions oradditions. Fmman anteroom one arrives in a rectangular mainspace which is covered by a transverse barrelvauk. The chancel is situa(ed in rhe prolonqarronof de longitudinal axis \ idr semi-ciicular n-ichesadded to it; it is flanted lo the left and rhe righrby mjnor squarechapels wirl compound column!in the comers. The emphasised tr;nsverse direc-tion ofthe main space creates a calminq counter-balance to the movement axis ofentran; to alLr.

13. Palazzo Capra, Vicenza 1563-64Similar to the Palazzo Pono (2). a rhythmical,syrnmetrical sequence of spaces develops along

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the axis ofdeplh. A narro\! corridor leads to awidened anteroom and futally lo a quiet squareinner counyard surrounded by an arcade sup_ported by four free-standing columns. Tmvers_ing the counyard, the rooms Sradually narowagain,leading inlo a lo88la follo{ed by a seconcland la.ger courtyard.

14. Project for r Prlsce in V€nice 155f,This project discloses a very evenlful sequenceof spaces along a lonSitudinal axis. The squareentrance hall is structured by way of four free_standing columns carrying a cross-vault above.

-This room is folloeed by lwo basically

rectangular sPaces at aiSht angles to each otherwirh similar dimensions which, when takentogether, form a T-shape. The lransverse roomhas semi-circular apses added lo ils shon sidesFrom tlere one reaches tle rectangular mainroom which picks up the motive of|he four colunms from lhe entrance hall. This sPace is enlarg-ed to the left and riSht by a second axis. A smallloggia creates the transition to the counyard and,on the left, gives access todreoYal siaircase inlolhe house.

15. Project for a Prlace ln venlcewhen compar€d with tbe former example lils

Ground pllns of projeds b) Palhdio (contrnued)

project shows a similar organisation; however,rhe situation is different. The transverserectangular entrance hall is bigger and again isconstituted by four free-standing columns. Ashort narrow corridor leads to a snuller oblonghatl which to the left receives liSht from theadjacen! courtyard, and to the riShl gives accessto the main staircase, A second short corridorleads throlgh an arcaded hall inlo the courtyardwhich, on its opposi(e side, is conlined by as€cond arcaded hall.

16. Pslazzo Angsrano, Ylc€nza 1564The ground-plan is conslitulcd by a sequence oflhree spatial unils, rrhere one preparcs for theoext. All arcas have in common the motive ofthe position ofcolumns bul differcndy aPplied.The entrance hall is slructured by way of tworows of columns in transverse direction and cor_rcsponding half columns recessed into lhe walls.The adjacen! first courtyard, with an arcadc, hasthe same width as the entrance hall, bu! is muchde€pcr. The colunms surround the counyard or yon three sides and, as arcades, support a 8allery.The open founh side of the entmnce axis givesaccess to lhe main slaircase so that lhe narrowpassages on both sides of lhe staircase into thesecond arcaded courtyard appear as polongationsof arcades of the firs! courtyard- The larSercourtyard is again surrounded by an arcade withthe exception ofthe staircase area. By the spac-ing oftheiows ofcolunns, the width of the twoolher spaces is taken llFJagain.

17. Palarzo Torre, Verom 156lThis building is free-standinSand hasan enclosedreclangular ground-plan. The two mainintersecting axes delermine lhe organisation ofdifferent spaces, The shorter entrance axis leadsfirst ofall into a reclangular space, lhen into thesquare main ball, and from there again hto a rec-tangular space which accornmodales lh€ manstaircase. The three rooms hav€ the samc widthand are lransparent because of the colurnns. Thelonger axis runs throuSh the two side entranceswhich, by way of narrow corridors and snrallanterooms,l€ads again into the central hall.Theprinciple here is the gradual widening of spacestowards the cenlre.

16, ViUr Mocenico, 1564Thc wholc composilion is orientated lowards thecentml hall as is the case with the Villa RotondaThe difference here is that a definite main axisexists, On two sides exterior spaces are createdby way of quaner-circle arcadcs which preparefor lhe interior. Here we also have located thenrain entrances, whose ponicoes consist of eightcolumns, whereas the side<ntrances on the othersides only consist of six colurnns. One of the maincntrdnces is especially emphasised by way ofsnentrance hall with free-standing columns and theadjacent main staircase.

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Ceilings and FloorsThesc cxamplcs should only scwe as a smali m-dication of what wc havc lost in terms of trear-ment ofthe most ihportant surfaccs ofan intenorspacc-thc floor and thc cciling. Thc surface ofa room which wa use e3ch day, on which we walkall the time, cannot tr€ dealt with only in termsofuscfulncss or case of maintenaDcc. Tha sam€applics to rhe cciling, the tlrminatior of I space

above our hcads. A sprce's significancc and us€,indcpcnd€nt from its sizc, car bc adapted andstructurcd by way ofan intentional and pair|stak-ing fcatment of thesd suafaccs. Centralisedspaccs can be emphldsrd, lincs of movemcntscan bc represcnted. No carFt covcring the en-tire floor can have the effect which is so clearlyachicved by scparatc betutiful nrgs on a haad s:ur-faca i the crcalion of sriall islands within a space,of infonnal borders which underline the crnploy-ment and structure of thc room; 8nd vhich also,

whcn looked at, give rise to a little happiness sndrelief. With one cxemple, I would also likc roexplain thc clonomic aspect of a sound tr€ftlentof surfaccs. Ai thc moment timber ceilings arevcry popular. But, riany pcople pr€fer to usechcap vcnecrcd pancls, or even foarn rubb€rberns with an cmbossed wood pattcm. Aftersomc yesrs suchjunk becomes dusty, sciatchcdand mean-lookin8, and has to bc raplaced by ancw ceiling. Compalcd wirh this, wc still findin old houses unpainted ceilings rnadc of natural

Srudent worls on rhe thcm. of Ccilings and Floors

40

Jmb€r. Every few years they are cleaned withsoap and brush and thcteby develop ovcr time1 silky lustre, a patina, which makes the matetial,n the course of decades, more and more)e5uritul.Thesc thrc! clamples demonstrate thc pnncipleof floot and ceiling corresponding to each o0rcr.lhey show how thc two surfaces are brought intonlo relationship by way of fornul and consttuc-

-ional compositions. Thc first eramplc (illustra-

tion l) is the banting hlll of Otto wagner's Post

Omce Savings Bank in Vienna. The Slass bricksof the floor correspond to the glass roof in ilsteodency towards dernaterialisation. The pie6cmerge fiom the floor pa(itions and Penetratethe roof into infinity. Also in thc next example(illuslration 2) the companments of thc vaultcorrespond to those of thc floor. Thc transverselrches of the cciling are represented in the floor,thc riles ofwhich repeat lhe diagonal principle.A classical, 8€omctrical ordcr is applied inillustration 3. ,osef Plccnik created an alrnost

sacral space whendesigning lhe entmnce hall for$e 'Zacherlhaus' in Vienna fillustratioo 4). Froma shiny floor riadc of naunl stone, black nudlecolumns rise and break through an exquisitelydctailed bright cciling. The close positions of themarble colufius, and their sitnificancc as panof ihe composition of the spacc as a whole, makcit necessary to leave them wilhout base andcapi(al. What is most crucial is the cnvelope ofthe whole space.

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|or orlhe Domed Hall, Palais Rasumofsky, by L. Monroyer. t806-07

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on |he ftcme of Columns and Picrs

thc ground and has to carry a load; this aloneshould have beeo sufficient enough to tlestowhigher considerarions on rhese lwo prop€nies.Concrete or brick piers are probl€matic due toItE vulnerability of their edges, which up to a cer-tain height rcquire special prot€ction. The reasonfor the cmployment of banal concr€te, steei ortimber piers nowadays is v€ry simple and clear:it i5 due to high wages which have far exceededthc pric€ of nuterials. Experimenls with concrerepicrs by Morandi or Nervi, for cxample, are nolonger possible because the making ofthem hasbccome too exF,€nsive. Exposed steel piers had

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lo disappear from the classic reDenoire of ar-chitecture due to rigorous fire regulationsl anofte qual iry of l imber which is general l ! avai labletoday is so feeble thal it hardlt allows foranisantreatment. Does all this mean rhe end ofthe col-umn and pieras an element in archilecural crea-tion? Of course. the high wages for fabricarionarejustified. But it would be imDonant to maKesociety apprcciaE the significarc; of archiccNraldesign and architecrutal themes, and lo therebygain public supporl which $ould make it mean-ingful again lo learn from lhe Ancienrs how tous€ columns as a device of structure,

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Columns and PiersCennrries of architectural culture have created aninex.haustible variety of forms of columls anopiers. In Creek architecturc cpochs w€rc namedafte. their orders- Time and again theproponioning anddecoration ofa column or oierserved as an indication 6nd characterisation ofa cenain architectural style. The students'dowings which accompany this chapter shouldmerely remind us of this. h remained for ourtimes to give up thecontinuous refinement ofthisarchaic form. A column has a relationshiD wirh

_ Arcade ofa building fron rh. jttiddle Agcs, borcgna Bas€ of a pier, Basilica San Viialc. Ravcnna. 545

villa Salrcgno. Sanla sofia di pcdcmonrc, by pajladio,1569

Easc ofa picr in rh. coldcn Hall of rh€ casdc Hohcn-salrburg. c 1500

Ponal of thc HciliSgeislkirchc, vi€nna, by J. Pl.Cnik,l9 l0- t I

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE I: INTERIORS

DoorsIf one considers thc conception of an inleriorspace, every opening, whelber door or window,means the violation of the wall. These violadons,however, givc the room its direction and i$ ap-propriate meaninS. Doors playa decisive role lnthis context because they prepare the visilor forthe spatial cvent to come. The significance of thedoor should thercfore be considered from dif-feren! sandDoints.

A cnrcial irrc-condition forour rellection is torecognize the door as teing an ihporlant symbol.This baial statefiFnt rnakes s€nse ifone examinesthe many versions of door formats available alpresent. We are used to a door havinS the formof an upright rcctangle. Here lhe most popularsizes lie in lhe proponions l:2 to l:3 (illustra-tion l). Beyond this, lhe meaning ofa door canvary accordinS to its purpose. A low door forinstance, which givesaccess to the parlourofanold farm house, clearly codmunicates that theprivate arca is to be penetrated into. Doors ofdesame kind can be emphasised individually by wayof addidonal openinSs on the sides or above(illusrralion 2). This kind of arlculation alsofacilirates orientation. It is not always the scaleof rhe human body which detennines the size ofa door. Espccially in monurnental buildings, thcdimensions of the openings darivc from lheproponions of thc raceptive space. Quile oftenfor everyday purposes, a door within a door {,asconceived, which could be used easily by peoPlejust wanting to go thmugh. But when rnajorevents occurred, the cnlite over-dimensioneddoor was opened. Descendants of these palacedoors arg still to be found in bourgeois housesof the nineteenth century. Thc norrnal foldinS-door of a Vieoncsc bourgeois house had a widthof 1.25 rnetres and a heiSht of 2.50 metrcs. Butnormally only onc half was opened (about 60cmwidth)-seemingly nowadays a hardly bearablestandard. (I am always amused to see some 20Ostudents who came to my lectures at the T€chnicalUniversity in vicnna goinS in and out throughsuch a nanow slit without anyone havi[g the idesto open the s€cond winS of the door; a goode&mpl€ of the relativity of frrnction.)

More delermined by tunction is the position ofa door. But even under complicated functionalconstraints, it is possible in most cascs to findan appropriate position which is in gc.metricalharmony with thc room. Illustratiods 3 to 6 showattempts lo craate a plecise relation bct\reen walland opening. Of prime imponance are the pro-

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ponions of door heighr and door lintel !o fieresidual surfaccs at the sides of thc door open-ing. As a mlc ir might bc approp.iate to applythe sysiem of prolrcnion which dctcrmincs theground-plan and thc clevatiol ofa building alsoio the s€condary elenrents such as windows anddoo$. lf i! is nol possiblc !o coordirlate door andwau in this way, therc arc other dcvices to never-thcless achieve a harmonious space. Rclativelysimple is the creadoo of niches in a wall or lheconcentmtion of a group of doors and windows.A morc difficult method, bu onc *hich helps tocffich the spatial afiiosphcrc, is to insen bayswhich by way of piers are s€parated from theactual room and would cushion irrcgular post-tions ofdoors. This 'fiher' in front ofthe open-ing would c.eate a propet door space which issymparhctic to thc functional structure of the ac-tual room (illustration O. The combination ofdoor and window clemcnts (illustration 7) is veryappropriate, esp€cially in the cas€ ofbalconies,terraces anil loggias. It is css€ntial, however, thala distinction in terms of proponion and sizcbetween door and windo\, is retaincd.

Befo.e I cnd this s€ction, I would like tomention some technical and constructional factorsreladng o doors. The violarion of thc wall causeoby a door can b€st be ovcrcome by fair-facedbrickwork. The aftangement of lintcl and doorlcaf is determined by the logic of the brickworkstttrcore, and the frame is s€qrred in thc rnasofyaccordingly. Ifthe walls are plastercd, the doorfram€ in most cases si{ply surrounds theopening. And because of the incessant ctackbetwc€n timber, plastcr and wallpapet, $einhabitant rcalises very soon that these differentrnaterials are difficulr tojoin properly. With olddoors. these weal areas were resolved by wayofrichly prof cd framcs and the employrnent ofbeautitul timb€r. ln addition to that, tnedecorators uscd mouldings to achievc a p.opertransidon from door frame to wall. (A fantasticexample is Otto Wagncr's design for themanagcment roorns in the Post Office SavingsBank in Vienna. The doors are treated as logicalclcrncnts of thc conposhion of the wall surfaces;lhe *all panels are thercforc of the ssme limberas thc door and window fmmes.) Our contcm-pomry standard door sets offcr fela possibilitiesin terms of design. Today we can onlyconceotrate on the quality of proponions, thematcrial and colour. The st€cl frame is merclythe rcpres€ntation of a fmmc around lhe plaindoor leaf. I think there is no longer any sign oflhe old type ofdoor. SeeminSly our building m-dus!ry is or y interestcd incoshing nahtral pro-ducts such as timb€r into fibrcs only !o laler gluerhe stuff together agrin and to roll it imo bigsheels. The tcclurique of rnaking penels oul ofboards had led to astonishing results whichb€camc rcal works of an.

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Th€ S€c.srion Buildirg, vi.nna. byJ.M. Olbnch. 1898 Zachcrlhaus, Vienna. by J. Plcinik. 1903-05

Building at Michacl€rplaE. vicnna, by A. Loos, l9t0

ilindows

he theme ofthis section is the window ano nsrlationship to interio. space. lts effect on the

outside, the facade. is deah with in the seclondealiDg with the composition of $e facade.

Wilh respect to the relarionship berweenindow and interior space, first of all the

- indow's function as the source of lighr is ofgreat imponance. To b€ more specific, we shouldralk about the effect p€netrating light has on $e

Lteiior space. To the same extent that a roomcrcat€d by its wall surfaces, it is enliv€ned by

Iighr. One may think ofa sunbeam striking upona white wall or producing reflections somewherc

rthe room. The pl6y oflight and shadecreatingaight and dark zones in a room, motivates our

*,var€ness of the space-whereby nol only thesource of the light, the window, remains in oui.onsciousn€ss, but also the illuminated surfaces

f$e room: $e terture ofthe walls, a sparklingoor, fumiture or other objects which are given

-prominence by the light. Thercfor€ the design ofan interior space and the choice ofmaterials and

tours, should always uke into account the effectf p€netrating light.

* one aspect that is quite often underestimatedis the quality of light and its dependence on therime ofthe day, season, weather, cardinal points

rd intensity. All this results in certain thoughunsn8 light atmospheres which we expcrience

;s harsh, soft, suMued, dazzlinS, sparkling,obscure, misty etc. It is also imponant to find

rt what quantity of light is app.op.iate for a)ace. Too little light can only be complemented

-y artificial illumination; too much or too direcl

light should be filtered wi$ the help of devices.,rch as shutters, blinds, lintels, transparentinains and plants. Also forms of double skin'all construction which allow indirecl (i.e. rts

;rcnsity weatened) light to penetmte are a goodand appropriate solution.

I do not allow my students to design horizontalbbon windows. because I want them from the

rrrst moment on to tackle the Droblems of the

window and its sigDificance for the room. In theend,lighl coming from a ribbon window only hasa very monotonous and banal effect on space,Therefore for housing developments, theappropriateness of ribbon windows is ratherlirnited. I am of the opinion that single sourcesof light offer an opportuniry for the space to bel i( in a much more excit ing way while lhey alsoallow the cr€adon of areas in shade which arevery pleasant in time of direci sunlighl penetra-tion. Equally doubttul in |erms of benefir is tleful ly glazed wall or cunirn wall . The excessiveamount of lighl is exiausting for lhe eyes, andoddly enough, after having tom up the wall, onehas to counteract the implications of excessivelighi by way ofspecial sun prolection equipment.The room itsclf is completely open only on oneside, i ts geometry is dertroted. and lhe tensionb€tween inside and outside is diluted. But, ifforfunctional or design reasons one \vall of a toomhas ro be left open, it is much bette. to apply anarchitecturally effective method, such as a rowof piers or welfo.dered bars, which would notdestroy, butenrich, the interior space. As we arenot in favour of the ribbon window, we have tocome to terms with the position of the window.ln general, we can €slablish that if a room lspenetrat€d by light onlt from one side, which intheextreme case could be direct sunlighl, an un-comforlable dazzle will easily result. Bu! if themain source of light is balanced by a smallerwindow on another side-the opposite one wouldbe b€st- or fmm above. lhen the room will bebetter lil. Even reflective masonry surroundingbig windows can soften t}te contrast b€tween thebrigh! outside and the dark inside.

Nor only is rhe way in which lighl affects iheinterior space significant \r'hen lalking about theposition of a window, but the view presented isimportant. The *indow f!_ames a cenain pan ofour environment and makes it inlo a kind ofpictur€, but one which is changing conslandy,very much in constrast to the motionless paintingoo the wall which can be an artistic subsdnrdonfor what migh! be seen lhrough a window. Theawareness of the outside world is inlensified by

a cross window, or generally by \rindows withstruc$ring bars, and becomes wealer the biggerthe window opening is. Thus windows or glasswalls which are too big, which open up theinterior spacc tolally, make the room uncomfor-uble; the feeling of safety and securily is lost.If nevenheless a generous lransition from theinside !o the oulside is desired, one should notthink of achieving this in an abrupt way. butgradually. by way of loggias or transparent ancllightweiBht projeclions (verandas for instance).lf we considerall the points which are si8nificantwhen dealing with the window-such as lightpenetration and its effec! on the interior, Iightquality, position of the window, view from thewindow-then it becomes obvious l})at, strictlyspeaking, fie window deserves as much care asdoes tle actual room.

Basic Forms and BarsThe square, tle triangle and lhe circle are lhebasic geomelrical forms for the window. Thelatter two, however, have to be regarded asspecial forms. Traditionally they were used forspaces of eminent or solemn significance. It istherefore recommendable to trcat circular andtriangular windows with great care, and to usethem sparingly so ihat their meaning is nottrivialised. Othe.wise they would degene.ate tonegligible graphic attribules too quickly (illusrra-tio[ l). The classic window has a rectangularupright format. For thousands of years of ar-chitecture, this kind of li*lt source has proved tobe the most economic both in terms ofconslruction and in optimal terms of functlon,Related to constructional considerations, thesimple argument againsl broad windows is thatlhey violate th€ wall considerably. In terms offunction,lhe uprigh window has evolved to meetmosl simply and efficiently the requirements forsufficient li8ht, air and view.

The square window, although representing aprecise form. is a very abstract. and. in addirion.a very banal format. It can be appropriate if inthe composidon of a facade it is used as aharmonizing element together wi$ olher forms.

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ELEMEMS OF ARCHITECTURE I: INTERIORS

In anonymous rural and urban architecture,squarc window formats are almost exclusivelylsed for s€condary utility spaces. Vcry rurely arcthey applied to dorheslic buildings. Scvcrd timeswhen I thought I had discovercd a squarewindow, it tumed out ir facl to be slightlyreclan8llar. The exact squarc has also thedisadvantagc of apFarhg disto(€d whcn vi€wedfrom a cenain anglei face to facc it takes on ahorizontal fonrut. The most common windowproponions resuh from the division of the circleinto 6rer parts ( I : I . I 6); the division of th. circlcirro four pans (l:1.4); lhe golden section; andthe proportion l:2.5 (illustration 2).

I should mcntion that all my recortunendationsconceming differen! aspects of design, althoughthcy rnay sound irrEfutable, always allow for filst-rate exccptions. I refer only to k Corbusicr's'ribbon wirdow' or Aldo Rossi's 'square wirdow'.windo\r divisions are firsdy related to the kindof oper ng one is dealing with. They have tocomply with basic function, such ?rs opcnin8.ventilation and cleaning. In addition to these,window bars c6n be employed for the aestheticstructuring of thc window plane (illustrations 3to E). This Lttrr desiSn rcsponsibility has beenvery much ncglected in the rccent years. h wasrhouSht to bc cnough to satisry the passion foran unhindered view by way of panorama glaz-ing, which was rnade possible by th€ produclsof the Slazing industry. Very often as a re$lt,the intimacy of a spacc was destroyed: tastelcss'cunain culturc' tr,as tbc us€r's aesponsa, Bccauseof all thcse rcasons onc should go back again tosensible divisions for the window and reconcileits desiSn with that of the facade.

Th€ simple divisions, dependint on the kindof openinS, are horizontal or vcrtical, and thesuperimposition of these two. The colunon'window-caoss' has be€n quite successful. It iseconomic in tcrms of timbcr consumPtion andhandy in terms of ventilation and clcsniDg. Oneofthe top casarncnls can oFn sepantely by wayof a levcr rnecharism. Thc lowcr sftlc hungcasemcnts also allow for tbe uMvoidable curtainsto be moved asidc when lhe willdow is io beopcncd. If people have fcar of heighls, Ihey canle3n on the closed cas€ment and look out $roughthe other oFned one (illustration 6).

The cxamples in illustration 4, which showdiffercnt arrangcments of bars, are ratherdecorativc. Thesc windows aae sp€cial in l€rmsof their strucure, lheir figurarion. the lensionberween larSea and srnaller divisions: they havean indcpendcnt architectu€l siSnificance. The

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ELEME\TS OF ARCHITECTURE I: INTERIORS

window surface itself becornes an imDor.antelemen! of design. It would be precarious toreplace these kinds of windows by synlhetic orpanorama glazing. They would destroy thetexore of rhe facade.

A successful bar patrem in architecruml historyis the multiple divisioo of the window in fairlyexact square compartmen6 (illustration 5). Forthis rype, the differcnt thickness of bars ls acharacteristic which results from the construc-tional functions of frame and thinner elcmenls.

Vertical sash-windows, common in GreatBritain, allow for the greatest graduarion ofventilalion. Both halves of thc window can bemoved upwards and downwards and they canremair in any F,osition-ir can come in eitherfrom tle top or the bonom. Special forms ofwindows deak with here are seen as derivarionsof the re.langular window (itlustrations 7 and 8).

As regards rhe combrnation of differcnl*indow forrnats, J would like to suggest a smpre'peasan! s maxim' (illustration 9):l. Different window fomrals should never lineup witi either lheir lintels or their sills. Otn€r-wise this would be a typical result of T-shapethinking . Cut the formrls out of dark cardboardand mo\e them around on the facade drawing:yo! *ill leam quickly how to avoid banalsolutions. The tension of the fomraE one roanother is teometrically measurcable.2. One should b€ carcful with lhe addition of iden-tical fo.rnals both in the horizontal and lhe verucardirection. Ifone tries to alt€male lhe sires storcyby storey, it will become evident how lively $erelationship betwe€n opening and nusonry canbecome (illustration 9).

Window Flgur€sWindos figures are created when differcntformats are brou3ht int6

"ar15",,ainterdependence. They can even ba::t in anarchitectural faame and thciefoae b.ao6rc apaaticular element oithe facade. I have sketchedsome examples to explain what I mean: palladio(i l lusrrarjons l . 2 top, 3). Schintcl ( i l lu.r:arion}2 bonom.4. 5 top and middle. r, . 7). Gaudt(illustration E), and tr Corbusier (illustrarion 9).

Window figurcs are always CividcJ intodifferent elements. Openings with differentfunctions and m.anings are combined !o foi,-I an'image'. The resuh is an exciting conducr ot lightinto the in@riorand an archirectura! aniculationon the outside. Window figurcs nrc also esFriallyaddressed to cxt rior space. He.e the rclationshipto lhc overall facade is crucial.

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Markelhall in l-andstrasse, Vienna. by J. Diirrhamner

No 12, Akademiest.asse. Vienna, by C. Vostrovky.and Schlors Schnnbrunn , vienna. by G. Aicher

BuildinS ar Ilinorirenplatz, vienna. by E. Aich€r

The Wlndow ss Room DlvlderThe cxamples in this plate have treen measuredup by sl.dent"J from old Vicnncsc buildings. Theyshow dre refined treaunent, ahe richness in dctaillnd de significance which was applied to th€ win-dow. The bay window in illu$ration I is design-ed as a spccial room. A window is not rnercly'a hole in the *all', it defines a real space withan ar€a in faon! of thc witrdow, a bre3st-wall zoneand an erterior space. This is best describcd bythc cxpericncc wc havc whcn approachinS a wrn-dow: we are no longer inside and not yet out-side. Behind us Iics tlrc prot cting room and infront of us the exteaior world. The window hasto be casy to reach to bc uscd. lr should also tellus sonEthing about the significance and situation

of the rooms behind. Illustrations l, 2 and 4 alsoshow windows $ here lhe space between exteriorand interior windows can b€ used. By lhis, anoDtimal rcsDonse to diffcrcnt climatic ne€ds is en'sured- because several casements are availableto be opened or leff closed. This work much ber-ler than even thc most sophisticated modem ven-tilaiion systems (if they work at all!), These hintsadvocate that the window should b€ understoodas a spatial element and not as tnnspar€nt wall.

A spccial theme is inroduced by lhe archedwindow (illustrations 2,3 and 4). Althoughdividing the arch is an exremely risky task inaesthetic lerms, this w.s often undertaken toemphasise certain windows over others. In thenin€leenth cenrury thc archad windo\t was alao

used in engineer-designed buildings. But the barsin the arch alrcady usher in the domination of themacbine (illustration 3).

Hcinrich Tessenop had slrong opinions aboutfilling in pans which came into conflict with theoverall formi especially when-as with lhe archedwindow-a rcctilinear division meets with an archso lhat unsightly residual are3s remain. As muchas an arched window can be very attractive, thesedifficulties should not be brushed aside. Albenihas pobably expEssed the most sevene r€strictionconceming this problemi '[n thes€ Sons ofAp.rtures various desiSns have becncommendedl but lhe best Architects have nevermade Use ofany but Squares and stmit Lines.'r

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Facsde lnd Window AxlsFunhet reference lo a conEmporary grievance

E is given by ihcs€ facsde segmen6. The windowslet us irnagine the wonderfully high roomsbehind. It is rcally qucstionable whether theloweted ceiling heiShts in council housingrepresent such strikinS proSrcss. Ofcourse they

L ar€ cheaper than the old ones. Bathrooms andtoilets are cxpensive: but would anyMy thinkof ignorinS them in council housing becausc ofcost facrors? | just want to hinr at the priorities

_ which should govem us when rnalinS buildings.Unfonunately onc priority, the quality of thespace, has been nost ersily renounced. And whatalso b€€n lost in this contcxt is the high, reprEsen-tative window. Therefore, again an admonition

Studcnt works on thc thcme of wiodows

H. R. schmrdt

from Albeni about thc lreaiment of *indo$s:'...from whalever side we takc in the Light. weought to makc such an Opening for it, as mayalways Sive us a free Sighl of lhe Sky, and deTop ofthat Opening ought neve. to be too low,because we are to see the Light with our Eyes,and not with our Heels; besides the lnconye-nience, $at ifone Man gets between another andthe Window, rhe LiSht is int€rceptcd, and all lhcrest of thc Room is darken'd, $hich neverhappens when the Light comes from above.'

Without inlending to anticipate tle section onfacades, I would like to show herc parts offacad€s which rclate to tbe vertical graduation ofwindows. The examples demonskate that informer times the valuation and meaning of

paniculaf storeys was also applied ro dle dcsignof their windows. The a.rangemcnt in thesebuildings reprcsented social conditions, becausediffercnt storeys were inhabited by members ofdifferent social classes. N€verthcless today weare attracted by this differentiation not only fornostalgic rcasons. It allows for sponEn€ous orien-tation, the racognition ofpanicular storeys anda precise archilcctunl designation. To achicve6is, it is nor absolutely neccssary to use differ€otwindo* formats for special stor€ys. Differentrnat rials on the facade can also suppon a similareffect,

'L.onc Banish Albcni, 1.r Eookt on Archit.ctun,EnSlish tnnslatior publishcd by AIccTinnt. London| 965. chaDEr XIl.

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Studcnl works on $e them. ot SBkcascs

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Staircases

he slaircase is lhe venical element ofaccess inbuilding, which enables one to ascend and

lescend from one slorey to the next. Theprimitive forcrunner of the staircase is lhe ladder.: is the shones! connection belween two places.ot it is also steep and hard lo use. In most cas€s

- is not firmly insBlled in orde. to be used

flexibly, and therefore lacks any proper spatial.r architectonic quality. The other extreme, thermp, allorrs foran almost imperceptible lransl-on from storey to storey. The differences in

leight are very easily overcome. But the spacewhich is required for a ramp is considerablyrrger rhan for a slaircase because of the gentleise of the former.

- The function ofa staircase determines its formand at the same time shapes the enclosing space.we perceive either a straight flight or twopposite diagonal fli8hls which cut through the,Jace. or a windinS movement which turns

-pwards.

The way a skircase runs: whether itrequires a-typically vertical-well; where i( fi(slto the ground-plan: its construction and rnaterialre all aspects which contribute to its form.

- A shon glance at history shows the chanSingemphasis which was given to the staircase. Theqomanesque spiral staircase, for inslance, hado light and having the shape of a tube filled a

_lecial r€cess in the masonry or was prcssed into. circular (ower. lt fulfiUed the purpos€ oftransporting people upstairs and downstairs like

venical conidor. Du.ing the cothic period, theuter skin of the suircase was a(iculated by

-rcades. columns and tracery. Light could

lherefore penetrale and it could be looked'hrough. In the sixteenrh c€ntury we have stair)wers which werc extended vedcally beyond

-rc buildings thcy belonged to, havinS a'crow's-

nesa on !op. Here the motivc of lhe staircase islinked wi$ a social funclion. In Baroque palacesthc well ofthe staircase b€comes a representativeHall. The staircase itself is gorgeous in detail,oversized and nrns up in several flights. lt is fullof lighr and sometimes ends under a mighrycupola. The acrual purpose of the staircase tsdominated by the nolion of representation. Thetypical staircases in relidential buildings in Vien-na reached lheir prime in the nine|eenth century :curved stairs of naturai stone, frce projeclion overone side, minimal lhickness of rnaterial, generousgaps bet*een flights. anistically designedbanisters and profiled handrails. The well wasin most cases illuminated by a rooflight and quiteoft€n, besides water-taps, conlained sculpture orstone benches. ln Orto wagner's residentialbuildings 6ese detaits have been executed as realmasterPreces,

In the years after the war, space was cul downfor economic rcasons and the large-scale stair-case has been sacrificed without hesitation. Thisis why we have merely functional staircases inour modem buildings. They appear as an sddidonof disjoin@d s€ctions with tiny landidgs andminimal flights. The Senerous 8ap bctwecnflights, which allo,*ed the view from storey tostorey, has almos! completely gone.

The staircase, which fomerly was an impor-tan! area of human conmrlnication. has to begiven back hs approprialc significance in abuilding. solutions for stai$ on a moreappropriale scale a.e still possible. It is notdifficult to crcatc thcm as spaces which we findpleasan!, which receive enough liSht and allowviews to the outside , and which arc enlivened bya sunbeam pcnetrating through a roofli8ht. Thewidths do not need io be enormous: l.l0 metresto l 20 metrcs is anough, if landings intervenevJhich allow for conversation or resting on abench.

- The mo$ imponant requLement ofa staircaseis that the degrce ofrise is as gende as possible,in order to rcduce to a minimum lhe effortnecessary for climbing. To determine aconvenient angle ofrise, firsl ofall the stride ofa hurnan being must be taken into consid€ration,which on average has a lengrh of 63 cm. lt isassumed lhat the movement in vcnical directlonrequires a double effon in comparison wilh thehorizonul one. This means in arithrnetical terms.onc trcad and twice the riser should make 63 cm.The most comfortable staircas€ accoading toVicnnese tradition has risers which arc 14 cmhigh and treads of 35 cm width. Unfortunatelymost staircases are steeper lpith risers of lE to19 cm because a rcduction in floor space can beachieved. If lhe heiSht of steps is less than 14cm, the botlom line of convenierce is .eachedbecause difference in altitude is only very slowlymastered.

The staircase and its surrounding space are aness€ntial pan of the architectonic composition ofa building. Its function of giving access todifferent storcys can ooly be achicvcd in ameaningtul way if lhis quality is irnrnediately ob-vious; in olher words, if it is clear that the starr-case serves as a device of orientation in abuildinS. Today one nukes do with lechnical andSraphical guidinS systems insrcad of organisingrouGs and stairs in a way that by their positioo,by way of their relations to the entrancc and thcirparticular form, the plan of the building can bcunderstood and visitoa can easily oricntatetbcmselves. If a building has !o acco[unodates€veral siaircases, the hierarchy of significanceand frequency in terms ofuse can be rnanifestedin desiSn, while unmistakable areas arc crcated.Form directly fulfills function. H€re the wholerichness of typological variations is at ourdisDosal.

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official staircas. in the Post Office salin8s Bant.vi€nna. by O. waSner

Buildingst Michaclcrplatz, VieDna, by A l.oos,l9 l0

t5

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE I: IMERIORS

Si!ircas€Similar to the ladder put against a wall, thestraight stair is the simplest solution. IllustmtionI shows an example which is fitted into a frameof piers and b€ams. If a stmight staircase issituaied in a bigger space, access to the differentstoreys can t'e given by way of a gallery (illustm-tion 2). This type works very well in publicbuildings. The respective stair lo the next storcyis easy to find, and lhe gallery allows all roomson one level to bc enlrred widDut difficulty.Mor€ €conomical in tenns of space, and ther€forEbetter suited for housing developments, is thesquare well ath straight flighrs of sbirs of thesame size as lhe landings (illustration 3). Onccommon solution is the developrnent of twostraiSht flighrs with an inErmediate landing(illustralion 4). If fte landinS is bordered by anexlerior wall it is possible to arrange for the wellto ger nabiral ligh!. Thre€ flights of slairs (ilustra-tions 5 to 7) havc !o be seen prirnarily as beingrelaled to reprcs€ntation. They alnost direcdy askfor'dignified striding'. The crGmple in illustra-tion 5 is suitable for repetition over sevcralstoreys. A broad staircase sbns with one fli8htuntil the intermediata landing is reached, at whichpoint i! tums into two fliShts which arc narrowerthan the tirst one. However, the ctample inillustration 6, where two fli8hts rise in differentdirections from the intermediale landing, has itsbest effect ifapplied only once in a building. lnillustration 7 two flights of stairs from oppositedirections meet to become onc stair. This iormis recornmended espacially for passage-ways witrtwo enttances, as they can be approached equallyfrom both directions. The type in illusttation 8,which is a flight of two stairs wi$ preliminarysteps leading to it, dernands integratio[ into a highspace which allows lhc *hole staircase to belooked a! from elsewherc. A very cosdy solutionis shown in illustration 9, where stairs changetheir dkection on cvery level to Siva accessaltcmalely to opposite sides. This can be suilablefor sDecial solutions.

ELEIIENTS OF ARCHITECTURE I: INTERIORS

The geonEtrical riodification of stmiSht staircaseleads to spi.al stairs. In difficult spatial situations,for inslance comers, a two-fligh! staircasc on atriangular ground-plan can be applied (illustra-lion l). A variarion oflhis form is s slair risincin lhrce Ilights on the ssme ground-plan (illustra:tion 2). but herc only a small landbg rcmams.Two fli8hts of stairs on a polygonal ground-plan-for examplc a hexagon (iltustration 3)-pmvide the well wilh a high spariat qualirr.Illustrarion 4 is more rclated to the cxDloitationof a geometrical fo.m where thc sides of anoctagon are consliotcd altemately by flighb andlandings.

Illustrations 5 to 9 show eromples of spiralsbircases, The verylnarrow newel slaircases(illustrations 5 and dfarc difficutt for cldcrlypeople and unsuilable fo. bigSer objecb to betransponed. This is not the cas€ s/ith *indingstaircases on half<ircular (illustririon 7) orovalground-plans (illustrations E and 9). Here { $also possible to find one's own walking rhythmby either climbing on the inner or the outer side.Whal should bc avoided is thc alEmation ofcircular and straight stcps, because this makesit very difficult to find one's natural walkingrhythm.

Staircasc in a building fmm th€ Biedenneier p€riod, vienna, c 1830 Staircase in a building from the Biedemeier p€nod. Margarethenstrass€, vienna,c 1830

Staircase for the officials Beamreosti€ge in the Post Ofllce Savings Bank, Vi€nna.by O. waSncr, l9 l0-1912

Spiral staircalc, second building phasc of the Post Office SavinSs Bank. Vienna,by O. Wagncr with O. Schonlal, l9l0-12

58

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Entranc. hall of a r.sidential build if,8 in Lnndsrrass€, vienna, by ,. Brychb. I 862

'Majolik h.us at dlc R.cht wicnzeil.,VicMa. by O. wrgnci, |898

59

Facades

The facade is still the most essential architecturalelement capable of communicating thc functionand significance ofa building. I say 'still'. havingin mind its theoretical destruction proclaimed rnthe lwentieth century *here the ideology ofthefree-slanding object, visible from all sides,became Dredominant. The p€rfection of thebuilding

'body had prioriry over the crealion of

a specific'show-side'facing lhe stre€!. It is onlyin receot years, after the rediscovery of theimponance offte public realm and the value ofurban life, that the facadc rcgained a newvaluation.

The facade never only fulfills lhe'naturalrequirements' dctermined by the organisation ofthe roonLs behind. h talks about the culturalsiuation at thc time whcn $e building was built;it revels criteria of order and ordering, and givesan accolnt of thc possibilities and ingenuily ofomamentatioo and decoration. A facade also tellsus about the inhabitatts of a building, gives thema collectivc identhy as a communily, andul(irnatrl) is the reprcsentalion of the lalter inDublic.

The root ofthe word 'facade' slems from lhebtin 'facies' which is synonymous with thewonds 'face' and 'appearance'. Therefore, if wetalk about the 'face' of a building, the facade,1pe mean above all the froni facing the strect. Incontrast to that, the back is assiSned to s€ml-public or private exterior spaces. Both theseDhenomena of front and back relate-roughlyipeaking-on lhe one hand to public rcsponsibili-ty and on lhe other hand to the privat€ s€lf-reprcsentation of the inhabitanls compared wilh

the more representative character of the sreetfacade, the back of a building is more open andcommunicates with cou(yard, Sarden andlandscape.

The often-used framed facade rnade of liShtmaterial and glazing is too stlndard in tyPeandtoo abstracl in character for housingdeveloDments. It does nol allow for aestheticdifferentiation and is too vulnerable andtransparent. Such a'skin facade' has nothing todo with the appropriate facade for a residentialbuildinq. which should be more closed and con-cealinq-towards the street. in order to protect theorivarf spherc of lhc iniabihnts All these;eouirenenls arc sliil best met by the solid facadewh'osc massive, protecdng exterior wall Nperforatcd by openinSs lo let air and liShlo€nerrate into the intetior of the building Also'in terms ofenergy consumplion the solid facadeis *ithou! doubt much more approPnarc' b€causeits exterior wall has a higher thermal storagecapacity . ln Austna, the energy Problcms causedby glass facades have al.eady been taken intoaccount. In public buildugs a smaller proponionof windows in a facade surface is allowed ascompared with previou5 )ears This Propodionbetween opening and Plane has at least stoppedthe unhindercd developmen! of curtain walls, andhas helped lhe solid facade to Sain new ropicality .

The comPosition of a facade, laking intoaccoudt the functional requirements (windows,door op€nings, sun proteclion. roof area) isessentially todo with the creationol a harmonlou!e ity by means of good proPo(ions, venical andhorizolal structuring, materials, colour and

decorative elements, Since Vilruvius architectshave been lrying to develop metrical relationswhich would give an ideal order and strucnireto the facade-and also to floor plans and roomsThis was thought to be the way ofachieving ab_solute b€auty. Especially h the Renaissance, suchanefipb were rcfened to systerns of numt€rs andrules of proportions. Plato's philosoPhy was lalenas a basis, as werc the thoughls of Neo_Platon$m.Saint Augustine app.oved-and so Renaissanceanists were lhorouShly convinced ftat the wholeuniverse was a rnatiemalical and harmoniouscreation. By such thitikinS, rules werc establishedwhich wittkowcr describes as follows: '. .If ftelaws of harmonic numbers p€rvade everythingfrom the celestial sDheres to the most humble lifeon canh, rhen oui tery souls must conform tothis harmony... ' t

But the aim of reaching a harmonious beautycannot be achieved only in this way One needsonly to considerfiat the oblique view Siven fromthe bottom of a buildinS, togetier with theconstantly changing constrasts and effects ofdepth caused by light and shade, prcvenl us fromperceiving such truly calculat€d proponions ex'acdy. Neveiheless it seems very impo(ant to meto examine window proponions with the helP ofthe golden section, and equally to study the pro-ponions of op€ning and parap€t, base and totalheight etc. This exercise will lead after a whileto a 'narural' sense ofpleasanl, harmonious Pro-portions, e.g. a well-balanced composition. h isthe rhythm in architecture which, similar tomusic, rouses emolions in us. Therefore it ispossible to transfer conceptions of musical theory

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rccdy lo architectural composhion. Thetnlarilies of tension-relaxation, €vent-interval,accord-conlrasl; the principle of repclition; the^.ocess of lhe theme being carried ihrough in

riations; all crcat€ the rhythm ofrnass€s, planesd l ines.

-Let us. for examole. reflect on winoowopenings which repeat themselves again and

ain. which in succession wilh the wall)ments. creale the contrasts of open-closed,

-rkli8ht, smooth and rough surfaces. A! th€

same time because of p€riodical repelition they_.oduce a quiet order and vary the same theme

)m storey to storey by way of-for instance-_yrhmical diminution towards the top(appropriale becaus€ the light quality increases).

An importanl aspect ofstructuring the facadeto make a distinc(ion betwe€n the horizontald the venical elements, each of which can, in

Ecmselves, create an adequaie general effect.Normauy the proportions of the elemenG should-'rrespond to those of the whole. AccordinSly

low broad buildings, windows, bays, elc.,*)ad proportions would predominate, whereasin high buildings slender elements give a sens€'.f th€ large being found in lhe srnall and the srnall

ing found in th€ large, as it is similarlyperienced in naore.

-Following the ordering principles ofa facade,$e constructional conditions can b€ made visi-rre, e.g. by chanoelling the bearing forces into

:rs. This articulation ofvenicality would em-

-asis€ a panicular effect of the facade.

How€ver, this is not lo put constniction too muchinto the foreground or to show every nail orjoint,

ELEI\IENTS OF ARCHITECTTTRE IIr FACADES

bu! to rcveal the narure of construclion andcraftsmanship.

Besides conslruction lhere are many otherthings necessary in terms of function or simplynarrative elements which add to the animationofthe facade: \*indow surroundings and lintels toaniculat€ the independence ofthe windorps, rain-pipes. shune15, roof projeclions which giveshade, materials that emphasise the masses(rusdcalion) or loosen them (reflectinS matble),window boxes and Virginia creepe. give thebuilding a summer or winler appearance.

The horizontal layering of the facade resultsfrom the differcnt areas offunction. Inprinciple,a facade should never be designed withouthorizonral differentiation. A clear differ€ntiationis especially appropriate between the Sroundfloor, the ordinary storeys and the attic. Thefacade as 'built border' acts in a similar way tothe portal: in Ge.rnan the word for wall is 'wand'which has to do with 'uenden' (to tum) or with'wandlung' (change); the wall is therefore theplace where lhe exlerior lums into the int€riorand vice versa. This transitional zone has thefunction of exchange, becoming more lively ifthe surface has a certain plasticity and ifmovemenl is evident. B) way ofwall Projections,ledges and pilasters the plan€ of lhe surfacedevelops threeiimensionality, b€coming a relief,whereby light and shadow, foregrcund andbackground, become perceptible.

The facade as a whole is compos€d of singleelements, the laner being entities therns€lves withan exprcssive capabiliry of their own. ThecomDosition of a facade. however. consists of

structuring on lhe one hand and ordering on theolher. The elemenG base, window, roof etc.,which by their narure are different things, willalso therefore be differcnt in their forms, coloursand rnaterials. All these pans should remainrecognisable individually, although $e commonlanguage binding tbem lo the whole has also tobe found, However, not every means ofconnectinS or matchin8 is sensiblet for instanceto locate the upper edges ofwindows and doorsin one line would contradict the differentmeanings they have. lf the heights are slaggered,the common factor could relate to similarproportions or shading gradations of a basic

lf we do not approach the design of a facadeas an autonomous work ofan. but incontexl withadjacent hislorical facades, it is necessary loemploy differcnt elements which sepamte the newfrom the old as well atones $/hich join andconnect both. Thus $e choice ofelements shouldfirsl of all be relaled to the language of thehistorical facades. Parts of them, or particularaspecls, will be taken across, a purponingconlinuity being achieved by such a thenuticapproach. But g€nuine continuity is onlyconceivable once the indep€ndent quality of lhenelr facade, add its new conditions and dernandsare upheld. The relationship b€twe€n old and newis in any case adialogue, a conversation betweenlhe past and the present.

*Rudolf Winlow€r, ,irn!r..'/ ml Pnncipl.s in thc A8eof Hunanatn, Ac^deny Ednions, lrndon | 9?3, p 27.

6 GRIGAR

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This plate shows tundamental possibilities forthe design of a facade. First of all, vJitlr srnallsketches, I would like to again hint at thcde.isiverole geometrical proponions play for thcharmonious apparance of (he facade (illustmtionI ) . Considerations of 0ris kind are, of course, no!ro be separated from the whole building body.If, be.ause of a disadvantageous site or restrictivebuilding regulations, an unsatisfactory solutionof $e facade will transpire, this can be at leastpanially prevenred by carcful composition, i.e.a deliberate zoning of rhe facade (illustrarion 2).Yet when applying this kind ofdcliberatc zoning,harmonious gcometrical pmponions havc to bepaid atention to (illustrarion 3). By thedistribulion of windows in drc facade, a panicularcffect can b€ emphasised or suspcnded (illustra-tion 4). Herc thc possibilities range from a regulardistribution of cqual windows to an irregular andfigurative arrangemcnt. Windows can becombined in snBll groups to form panicularfigures, or thcy can divide the facade by b€ingalmost sepamtc elemen|s (illustrarions 5 and 6).

While windows are thc most important meansof composition, the facade itselfcan b€ trcaredas a sculptural pan of $e building. Specific pansof the building can be cxpos€d (illustrated ?),whereby the foreground and lhe background ofLhe facadc are determined (illustralion 8). Thesuperimposition of diffe.ent building parrs is yetanothcr subject of composition, which will bedealt with again in thc section on the three-dimensional composition of a building (illustra-rion 9).

ELErIENTS OF ARCHITECTLTRX tr: FACADES

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ELEI\IENTS OF ARCHITECTURI II: FACADES

By means ofthepans ofelevadons, shown here,the lheme of facade figures running lhrcu8hvenically can be explained with examples.

llhsration l: The distriburion of windows rsbased on 6eir axes. Similar window proportionsare reduced in size storey . This motive underlinesthe perspective of lhe facade; it makes thebuilding appear higher than it is in reality, andsymbolises the need for more lighl penetrationinto the lower storeys of buildings in narrowsareeis,

Illustration 2: Here rhe windows increase insize which makes the facade appcar lighter andsymbolises its constructive logic.

Illustmtion 3: An almost'rnathernatical' orderis achieved by doublinE rhe number ofwinoo$sin each storey and by. a-t ik same time, reducingtheir formats. Thus a very active facade providesnevertleless the same amount ofopening spaceIn each storey.

Illusuation 4: Similar in appearance to theexample shown in illustation l, this figure,however, is not determined by lhe axes of lhewindows but by the grouping of windowstogetlrer.

Illuslration 5 : A figurc in ar| almost lite.al sensedevelops from this arrangement of windo*s,which is based on the coordination of differenrfonnals on one vertical axis. Here lhe emphasisIies on rhe enrance and rheanicularion ofthe anicby way of a regular s€ri€s of equally sized

Illusuation 6: This somehow uneasy figure hasa mther casual effect composed of differentwindow forma6. Il is probably ofimponanc€ atthis point lo again call one's anendon rc the spalialeffects ofinterior rooms which can lead to suchfiguralion on the facade.

lllustration 7: A projected base with rcgularopenings (instead of pilastcrs), allows for the zoneabove to employ a new, independent,organisalion ofwindows. This is a popular rnori\ ein 'big city architecNre, where the ground floorhas a separate meaning. Adolf t os applied lhistheme in his buildinB al rhe Michaelerplatz inVie.na and the House ofTrisan Tzara in Paris.

lllustrarion E: One venical element accumulatesall necessary openings ofthe adjacen!.oorns. Thelwo storey high glazing folds into the tefiaces,&e middle section accornnodating the sitlin8room and the sides of lhe bedroorns.

Illustration 9: The same figure as the onlyopening elem€nt in lhe facade; a gigantic figurewnich runs tbrough all storeys. The scale ofthe building must be able to cope with sucha monumentat openlng.

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These examples no longer show only pans ofthefacade. Slendcr high buildings are demonstratedin their total composilion and s€rve for eachtheme.

ljlustration l: A regular window compositionbased on axes, From bottom to top increaslngsizes of windows culminale in a large-scale topfloor.

llustration 2: Clear scparation into dlree zones:the ground floor with large-scale oPenings: amiddle area wilh windows regularly distributed;and a light skelelal attic storey.

Illustration 3: Here the sizes of the windowsare d'mensioned in a way that the wall surfacesare largely reduced to'Piers' and'beams"However, because the window sizes vary in eachstorey, one cannot call this typ€ a skeleton facade.

I l lustrat ion 4: The old theme of the 'pianonobile . the main floorofa hous€, is emphasisedhere by a closed attic zone.

Illustration 5: The ext€rior flights ofstairs givethe ground floor a public character. The larSestudio windows ofthe top floor indicate a cleardifference in valuation compared wilh the smallwindows of the inlermediate slorey,

IllustratioD 6: A large-scale hall of columns,almost like a'stoa', constitutes a po\rerful olderwhich can also conceal lhe irregular and livelyinterior of the building.

nlustration 7: Elegant, slender window slits arebound togeder by a con$ructional arch. and forma fisure with the circular windows of the atticstoriy. Thus a serial rnotiv€ becomes an image.

Illustration 8: The zoninS of this facaderesembles the'building block' principle. Nith rtsdifferent surfaces and window panitions lt givesthe imp.ession of relatively independent storeysbeing piled up.

nlustration 9i Here we have an i.regular facadestrucNred according to lhe interior organisationof spaces. One should not undereslimale thedifficulry of distributinB *indows this freely,because it requires adherence lo quile prec$eproportions relating the oPenings to one another.Excellent laste can lead to a harmonious yel freedesign, but a 'secret' principle of order is alsothe foundat'on o[ these Unds of composit ion.

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Compl€te composkions are also shown in thisplate. They cannot be applied arbirrarily. bul canreinforce the whole rendenc)' of a buildin8.

Illustration l: The base is clearl) distinguishedfrom the rest of the building by ha\ ing a differenrsurface. Because of the terraces being cut outfrom the anic srore\. lhe building has abattlemenr-like rermination.

Illustration 2t This tacade figure unfolds fromthe botlom to the top like a lree-rop or a goblet.One may also find fiat rhe significance of theindividual storeys diminishes ro\\ards the top-

Illustralion 3: Here a plastic figure. a po(ico.projects from th€ bu;lding $hereb] $e enrranceis clearly emphasised.

I l lunrarion 4: In conl l l isr ro i l lunrar 'on 2. (hefacade figure taper\ offioqards the bp. Oddl)enough, although the order is reversed. we donot perceive a change in meaning. Probably ilis the hierarchical slructure ofthe facade as suchwhich suggests a hierarch) of significance.

Illustration 5: A projeckd arcade is subdividedby a loggia on first floor level. A socially usefulinterspace is created. rhich almosr gi!es rhe ideaof $eatrical sraging.

lllustration 6: The gale motive in fronr of alargely glazed facade clearl) demonstrales theproblematic nature of de figure,Sround relation-ship. The layering of$e facade ranges from $eopening of the gate. to the light background. unljlfinally the surroundinS frame of rhe building rsfeached.

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ERNSI CfREf,ER Student works on rhe rhem€ of Enrrances and ponak

HoRL Chnstei

Entrances and PortalsOn the way from thc slreq ino a buildios oncpasses through diffcrcnt graduarions of whit canbe called 'the public'. Immediatcly. rhe posilion

_ ol the entlancc and thearchitEctonic sicnificanccit is given dcrDooslratc thc role and dnction ofthe building. Thus fte nlain cnrancc of a largcpublic building would nor b€ a tiny hole locatedsontewhere *herc nobody would fud ir. Equally

- il would bc inapprop.iale for a modest house tobc approached by a rcpres€nrarional drive orlarge-scale flights of s(airs.

The ponal rnarks lhe transition from thc public

-exterior to lhc private intcrior. It is an clemenr

of self-reprcs€nlation for the inhabitanb. Theroute from the ponal to d|c venical means ofaccess forms an individual space or scrics ofspaces: this fact is much too seldom taken inlo

-account.Ponals and entrances have nowadays be€n

mostly degradcd to residual spaces. They rDerelysuffi cc the requirements of building regularions.

-Uppennosr in pcrvcrsity is thc combination oflhe

entranca fot vchicles-into a counyaad or

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE Il: FACADES

underyround car park-with ahe entrance inlo thebuilding. For the pedestrian, only a narrow pathalong the *all fu lefi. Thus, by pessing lhe rubbishcontainers, one hurries to the safe apanmentdoor, sw€lring at lhe dirty and devaststedentrancc; and whal else can be expected fromsuch a buih realiry?

olier bad examples are lhe so-called enrancchalls ofthe modem cenlrcs ofpowcr; the ofiicetowcrs and insurancc palaces. We find an oFn8.ound floor, flattened by the load of the ascen-din8 storeys, and awkwardly structured by wallpartitions, greencry, mural pictures andorientation boards. Without all this crap, thcentnnce hall would be just an arra without rrean-ing. One should ask a visitor leavirg one of dles€places whether or nol hc could rcmemb€r thespace. H€ would not even undeKtand thequeslion. For this reason the following cxampleshave been chosen which clearly demonstrate thcspatial qualities of cntmncc arcas.

A notable example is $e solution for the enmnceto the former 'L,Anderbank' by Otlo Wagncr. Theround vestibule, which is non{irectional. acs asa distributor (illustEtion l). Three differcnr areas

Entrancc hall of avicnns. c 1900

(banking hall, enlrancc and main staircase) arelhus held togcther. A richly decomted an nouveauportal is pictured in illustration 2. As the actualdoor into the building is recesscd, an ante-spaceis crcaEd which is madc into a Dorch.

Thc nexl cxample (illustration 5; shows an in-lerestinS sequance of spaces. A round vestibulepreparcs the visitor lor thc follo*iac archrtcc-tural event. A small flight of srairs nirmws Oespace, v/hich thcn opcos into an irrcgularhexagon. After this landing, which is scparaleofiom thc actual stairwell by wall projections, utcroulc terminatcs in a sbircasc which ascends inthrec flights. Thcrc wcre tincs whcn even ihecntrance areas to blockl of council flals receivedOe necessary dcsign anention. This is clcarlyvisible in ihe example of a Vicnncse'Cerneirdchaus' from the yca$ bct$c€n the wars(illustration 4). Thc portal is emphasiscd by afiamc of bricks. A spacious porch o!,cns inlo apropcr vestibulc with iililing bonom stcps of astaircase and two doors; onc giving acccss to thehous€, thc other lcading inlo thc courtyard. Hcrca simplc cntrance has been tumcd into an cn-joyable meering place.

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bourgeois resid.ntial buildinS. Vcstibule ofa buildinS, vienoa, 1830

69

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE [: FACADF,S

Arcadeswho owns thc arcadcs? Are they relaied to thestrcet or thc building? Or do thcy cven belongto ihe pavement, craating its propcr spscc? Thearcade is detarmined by lhis ambivalence ofapplication, but it is also an intcrmcdiatc spacewhich can bc usad and irtcrpraled in rnanydifferenl ways. It cln fulfill semi-public functionsby bcing projccled in frcnt of a building whercbythe usc. is neithcr outside nor inside the building.But thc space of the arcade is also capable ofassuming an indcpandent public role. It canalmo$ grow into the buildinS bchind, and ther€bybeconE an arcaded building. Finally lher€ arc ex-amples whcrc in thc colrsc of tina, arcades Mvcbc€n fillcd in or wallcd up in o.de. to gain addi-tional spacc. (Whcn old buildings arc in the pm-cess ofbcing restor€d, hidden arcades arc ofrenfound bchind plastcr and brick walls.)

The arcade is a collcctive urban element. Forils construction, it is ncccssary not only to gainthc agrecment of the neighboun in lhe panicularstrecl affccted, but also to gain thc pcrmission,and even the irstruction, of the buildingauthorities. Once the arcade is built it becomesan individual urban clemcnt which is larg.lyunderstood to b€ indcFndent faom lhe buildingbehind. The rcason why therr arc so fcw arcadcsbuih today is probably due to a lack of commotsensc whan it comes to thc dctcnnination ofcommon uaban elements. However, theus€fulncss and effichrnent of thc arcade for urbanlife has b€en proved for ceo$ries.

ELEME\"TS Of ARCHITECTURE trr FACADES

Ground FloorsThc base of a building, its grourd floor zone, iswithoul doubt the most important urtan clenrentofc facade. As it constitutes thc tratrsition to theground, or the pavenrent, it is cxposcd toconsidcrablc strain, and thercforc the matcrialuscd for this zona is usually morc durablc thanthat uscd for thc rcsi of thc building.

The grcund floor has a panicular impodancein urb6n life. Because this arca is most direcdypcrceived by people, it oft€n servcs for theaccommodation of shops and olhcr commcricalenterpriscs. Givcn the nature of business, sucha ground floor zon€ is also subjectcd to frcquentchanre. csDecially in tetr|s of its fittincs. It isto trc rccommcndcd lhc-relorc lhat $c roundfloor be given a robust, neutral srrucurriwhichcan copc lrith 'paBsitical architccnrrc' such asshop fittings. The examples he.c show diff.rcntkinds of bascs. Thcy rangc from ncutralbackgrounds for largc openings to buildings wilhI rcjeltin8, evcn clos€d, charaoer, whosc troutdfloors do nol, for some reason, havc a publicfunction.

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Bay-windows, Balconiesand LoggiasSimilar to arcadcs, bay-windows, balconies andloggias arc !o be s€en as indepadcnt spdtial unils.They sre i'l any ces€ ganuina cdrrgcnE s of thcapanmcnt, providing a scnsc of stepping out ofthe building-out of thc faclde-although stillb€in8 in thc private rcaLn. In addilion to that,lhcs€ elemcnts allow for a bcttcr vicw of uabanlifei they opan up 'ncw prospocls' h thc rucscnsc of thc woad.

To a grcater ext nt than the balcony, bay-

72

windows and loggias also rlpfts.nt a[ cnrich[Entof $c intcrior space which lies bchind, becausethey divide it into spsccs of differcnt value

Ano0rcr important argument in favour of bay-windows and loggias strcsses lheir clirnaticfunction. They form ! bufrer zonc to the cxterior,which is of gtent advantrge in tenns of lhe crFrSyconsumption of thc aprrtmcnt. Expcriric swithwinter gardens and projcctcd conservatories havcrcvealed intrrcsting rcsults which, rlthoughkaown long ago, wcrc largely igno.cd in lhcrccent period of cncrgy wastagc. After the lsstwar, when only a few houscholds wcrc equiPFdwith rcfrigcralors, thcsc Pans ofa building werE

often used for lhe sto€gc of food dutinS thewinter. Evcn the intcrmcdiate spsce belwccndoubL Slazed windows also served for thcsepurposcs.

Two varianb ofbays atr sho*T r in illustrationsI and 2, Th. bay-window in Otto Wagn€r's'schiitzenhaus' in Vienna (illusmtio.r 1) isconceivcd as I little buildinS on its oll[; a Pulpitabov. thc river. Anothcr buildinS in VicDnarevcals a bay elcrncnt which vcnically teachcsover the entire facadc crcating the motive of asrial building which is projectd ftom I large one(illustration 2). Thc r*o balconics shown inillustrations 3 and 4 are renarkable in ielms of

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Bay-windows, balconies and loggias arc alsoi very suieble for thc irnctional strucnrrc of theb facade. However, it goes without saying that

thesc elemcnts should not be distribucd on lhesurfacc at random. I would recornrnend aconcenttation over s€vcfal storcys, !o allow for

\- a firrther differentiation within these clcmcnrs.This *ould also clearly increase the legibility ofthe differcnt storcys.

The loggias shown in illustmtions I and 2 are, exanples of rcprcsentational building projections.

- The loggia in iltustration I measurcs nearly three

square metrcs and tlErcby alrnost rcsembles thcsize of s propcr room. This clca y invites possible use as a room. In contrast to lhat, the archcsdominating thc loggias in illustration 2 constiNtea rcprcsenhtional frame, and morc likely onlyinvite the inhabitants ro hai. a brief glance ar thestreet. Probably here, thc interior space is muchmore important, thc loggia rathcr seding as anadditional filte. of the cxt.rior. Espccially at thctimes whcn thc Frcnch windows arc open wouldit sugSest an optical enlargement of the roomb€hhd.Thc degrec to which thcs€ kinds ofelernents arr

also appropriate for the articulation ofan impor-

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tant patt of thc buildinS is shown in illuslrarions3 and 4. Thc contour of a street conrcr is talenup again by the first two storeys of a comerbuilding (illustation 3), But, as rhe anglcd rcomsdo not seem to bc vcry suitable for apartmenrs,thc comer is inl,errupted by a cyclinder whichprovides space for a terrace and, in addition,monumenlalis€s the comer of the building,especially when viewed from a distance. The big'hole' in the facade of the 'G€meindehaus'(illustration 4) achieves a positive m€aning byway of curved balconies, which have the effectof the building mass being modulaled.

Roof and Attic StorevNowadays onc apparendy only corDes across twotypas of roofs: the llat roof (the developrnent ardasses$De of whbh does not need !o be d€scribedherc in dctail), and the norrnal pitchcd roof,which by now has bccome wide-sprcad as theembodiment of lhe 'alpine style'. Wc should notengagc ours€lves in clich€s, bul rathe. look at thevariety of possibilities and meanings that thisimponant part of thc buildinS has, belring inmind that ir is a building's rerminarion rowardsthe sky. The meanings which languagc attachesto roofs are v€ry instnrctive. For instancc, if wercflect on the term 'roof landscape': it rises fromthe buildings like a skin and, ovcrtoppcd by thehigher silhouenes or public buildhgs, thisartificial lhing becomes a second plane b€tweensky and canh. In Seneral, the roof involvcs anambiguous, undefincd spac€ *hich nowadays ismostly sacrificed to a mdical exploitation ofthebuilding volume. But we should not completelyfoBct this rcs€woir of secrcb and mentoncs.Here the obj€cb of the past, th. hisrory of theinhabitanls, and therefore that of the buildingitselfare prcserved.

For all this $ere is a simple explanation. Thealtic is a frce placc, a residual space, a store-room, a play arca fo.children. It is often full ofcomers, moslly dark and dusty, lhc oppositc ofthc cxtcrior world. The roof is the caown of thebuilding, the evidencc of its meining showing thepride and dignity of the building irself.

The crown is canicd by the building body.Visually it is lhe tcrmination of the facade, oftEnwith 8n attic storcy inscned, by which dcvice theroof is withdmwn fmm people's eyes. Thercforethc top floor zon€, thc anic s|orcy, is much mor€important for the dcsign and composition of thefacade than thc actual rooi

The facade is prota.ted from the weather bya comicc. or by any othcr projecting moulding.On toD of these could be a small balustaade-asif thire was a tcrrsce behind-to hide themysterious roof. At imponant points the anicstorcy is broken through by dornes and towerswhich simply havc the purposc of 'crowns' .

Bu! let us r€Nm to the rttic storcy. Thenccessity of it bcing taEatad in a spccial *ay,in terms of form and firnction, resuks from thcsimple fact dtat a building has a top ard a bonom.The touom is the basc which has to communicateirs pqrticrrlar rclationship wirh the eanh. At lhelop cverybody should know dlat lhe building ends

74

ELEMEMS OF ARCHITECTURE II: FACADES

Srudenr {orks on the theme ol Roofs and Anics

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'Ankerhaui in Crab€n. vienna. by O'wagner. 1895

Caslello Sfoncsco in Milan

Palm Hoos€ in the Burgganen. vienna. F. Ohmann. c 1900

Ground-Plan and Building Form

A Iong-standing error in cootemporary architec-nrre is the belief that therc is a logical connec-tion between the ftrnction and the form of abuildinS; or even that the laiter is a result oftheformer. Bul as this irrevocable cquation of adirect analogy of function and space, or form,is non-€xislent, an anempt was made to crealean auxiliary theory which ended in a diftused,vague definition and vindication of architectu re.Seemingly tbe infinite possibilities which lie inlhe relationship of function and form were notunderstood in a positive way. No ground-plan orbuilding can be lraced back direcdy to a func-tion. Always in architecturc, certain .rypes ofspaces' will be applied. They are ulrimatelyrelarively indeFndent from the initially requiredfunction which existed at the beginning of rheplannng prccess.

Therefore let us asslme thal the design of abuilding develops frorn the interdependence ofthe requirements of thc users-the functions-and the types of spaces which are provided byarchitecture. Requirements alone do no! make abuildinS. tf so, all doors would be opened to'hypenrophic ferociry'and the disruprion ofbuildings.

The rnajority of functions and ground-plans areeasily capable of being rclated to simple typesif the oles and prccedurcs of function arcunderstood. Wilhin its€lf, every type providesenough fteedom ofd€sign. Experience shows thatwith lhe clarity and simplicity of rhe ground-pla.n,and the form of a building, the possibilities ofdiffercnt uses incrcase,

Qlite frequendy, lhe argument is put forwardthat conftnement to prccise building iypes wouldrestrict rhe individuality of architectuml desiSn.But it is exacLly this excessive individuality whichleads to lhe nowadays much lamenl,ed wildnessirt architecture and its lack of conccption.

In contrast, the cxamples which follow showthe possibililies of individual differenriarion ofbuildhgs with similar ground-plans. An addi-donal aid in the design of a building is drc arulysisof rh€ ropoS.aphical and typological situation ofthe surroundings, and lhe tradition of the respec-tive area. In principle, one should alwayspresume lhat every site hrs its own social a|rohistorical rneaning. To discover, and toinvestigate, ils implicltions is a pre-condition forthe cultuml undeNtanding of an architecturaldesign. Every place has irs sFcific conditions andirs hislory. People have given meaning to cvenfte rnost desolate prairie, lhe seeminglyuntouched desen, and the most inaccessiblemounlain are{s. bg€nds and myths do exist, and

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cerlaio places evoke associations for manypeople. No place is a virgin piece of land.

The choicc of rhe building type and the buildingform is deFndent on lhese general specificconditiods, which mean mote than rnasrering therequiremenG of a building's fu$rc inhabitantsand its architectural possibilities. Withour takinginlo account the complex siluationofa panicularsite, a building is merely a trivial th.ow-awayp.oduct; and without the involvemen! of tnecuhural heri taSe, every solut ion remainsindividualistic and idl€ arbilrariness.

The an of architecture, the decision on thebuilding rype and rhe design of the buildinS ilself,begin with de deliberate superirnposition oftheconditions of $e_place#ith rhe requiremenrs ofthe Inhabrtants. If he la}'es these ore-condilionsseriously, every honest architec! will thereforequickly consider a simple, und€rstandable andappropriate building type.

D€velopment and CompositionEvery ground-plan should be conceived anddeveloped in relation to space. Here, very oftenfrom the clien!'s sidc, the first obstacles tounderstanding occur, bccause he is normally notexperienced in sparial imaginarion. But lhere isa usetul rule of thumb which might help in thissituation: at the beSinning of a building process,the architect should nev€rconfrrse or overwhelmthe client. Simple gcometrical basic forms alsoprovide sufficient possibilities for sparial surpris€.This kidd of discipl ine excludes muchunnecessary eslmngement, trecause it involvesconcrele experience and understanding,fien the work on the form of the building canbe sta ed. Once its rough contours are lisible,the rcquirernents of refining b€corne ihe next step.Openings are brought into a rhythm, and arecombined to form a motive; exterior spaces, suchas terraces, balconies or loggias are added, notas missing pieces, but as a kind ofsecond layerto lhe building.

Thc most imponant problem when designinga building is probablj the detcrmination of theline which has to be drawo between interior andexterior space. At this point, the whole range ofpossibilities of how to create an appropriatetransilion from the private sphere to the publicrealm comes into question. A change in concep-tion occurs whereby these iwo different spaceshave to be taken inlo considemtion. In contrastto a much ch€rished ideology of architects advo-cating the unlimited transition of interior andexteriot, the user in geneml knows very wellwhere to draw the line between thes€ sDaces.

ELEITIENTS OF ARCHITECTLIRE III: GROUND-PLAN AND BUILDI\G FOR,\T

Square Buildings

For the sNdy of simple geometrics .elated to theconception ofresidential buildings, t would likeftrst ofall io talk about the squarc. The followingthree plates will deal with fiis basic form and willshow how it allows for the manipulation of lhespacc within. Thc most decisive question whichadses when dcsigning square rooms is probablywhat to do wiih the centre; whelher !o fill ir inor to keep it void. Thc square Roman house hasits fircplace exactly in lhe cenlre, whereas the en-trance was oI minor imponance. and thereforesiuated in a comer of the building.

As a geometrical objecl, the cube mosr clearlycommunicates lhc notion of enclosure and alsothe symbol of stability. The cube therefore,among the Platonic solids, symbolizes the earth.

The subdivisions and fragmeniations shownin lhe following plaes should firs! of all beunderstood indcpendendy of function and use.They simply state principal fonnal possibilitieswhich give rise to definable rules ofhow to solvethe conflict of enclosure and division, and, byway ofinterior structure, how spatial effecls arechanSed.To cofrmence the sequence we can consider theall-round enclosure, which is orienuted owardsthe centrc, where de similarity ofdivision is em-phasised by a pier (illuslralions I and 2). Spatralfocus is mainly dclermined by the position of thestaircase. This is the case in the building shownin illustration 3 despite the livrng areas runningthrough. IUustialion 4 demonstrates the superrm-position ofa circulation axis with a central stalr-case, by which devicc the centre ofthe buildingis clearly det€rmined. lilustration 5 concems adirectional division, by which lhe building is sub-divided into two, or several. zoncs representingdifferent spatial valuatiolrs. A common pacticeis to sub{ivide lhe buildint into a main zone andtwo subsidiary zones (illustration 6), whereby themain space can have its own Seometry toemphasise its particular position. The interiorfragmentation of a solid appears in illust.ation?. The square rcmains by way of its bordcringlines. but in terms of irs iDterior. it allows forcomplete frecdom of spatral arrangcmant. Thusthe square is left recognisable only when viewedfrom the oulside.

nlustrations E and 9 show cxamples of one-dircclional space. One side of the squarc isaccennrated by a large opening and &usconstitutes the main side, thc facade, of thebuilding.

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The centralized vcnical arraogement wirhin acubc is dividcd into quarler scgmenls, each ofwhich sbns at a diffe.cnt hcighr (illusrration l).The shape of the squarc is repcatcd in the gapbetwecn thc stairs in the cenE"a! well. This methodis also applied in principle in the nexr example(illustration 2), where the ccntre is constitutedby an atrium.

As wih rll other simple geometrical forms, thesquarc can also be superimpos€d on other f;ornls.Dlustration 3 sho*s 6 cube beirg cut through yethavinS a ccntral hall. The conu'ast ber\r'een solidand amorphous basic forms, lhat is betweeo hardand soft, r€sult! in cxciting spaces (illustsation 4).

Differcnt forms within a composition appcarto b€ punched out (illuttralion 5), whereby rheresidual spaccs-wlA walls of dif fercntthickness-disregard the olerall shape of theenclosurc,

The disintcgration ofthe square, laking placeslep by stcp, is shown in illuslEtions 6 and 9.Only pien rentain oflhc basic Beometrical form.Thus a sccond sparirl layer devclops, \ hich isuscful forlhc mediation ofinkrior and exterior.

The squaE in general, b€ing a ncutral and non-direcrional basic form, asks for dialecticalcontsasls, lik€ a fmme which surrounds changinginagcs. So thc inncr spaces lhemsclvcs can becreated as SconElrical forms, or lhey can followthe lines of movcment within a building.

'79

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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTLJRE trI: GROUND.PLAN AtiD BUILDI\G FOR\r

A sp€cial form ofthe squarc is consdnrted by theloosening of its sides and by the accenn8don ofits four comers. Massive comer towers definea U:nspat€nt interior space (illustration l), or arereduced to bay-like projections from a solid cor€(illustration 2). The co+xistence of two differcnrbuilding forms is achieved by rhe surroundingcube being frrgrnen@d. whcreby the solid formIyingb.hind becomes visible (illusrralions 3 anq4). A variation of this type is shown in illusrra-tion 5. A central cylinder serves as lhe matnspace and at the same time as a distribulor, givingaccess to llte comcr towers each of which havedifferenr spatial geometries.

k Corbusieralso concemed hims€lf with m€square, llluslmtion 6 shows a snrdio buildinewhich reveals a poetic structure. The next exarn:ple (illustration 7) suggests a centEl core fromwhich very different spadal divisions are possi-ble without destroyirg thc overall form of tnebuilding.

The sketches ir| illustrations 8 and 9 areanempts at strucuring a square facade. Asalready mentioned in thc section on facades, meSeorretrical rcality of a facadc can, by way ofv6ual manipulations. develop into one with adiffer€nt effecr.

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Rectangular BuildingsRectanSular ground-plans are clearly directionar:the exlen.ion of le rectangle lherEfore has cenaineffects on ihe division of rhe ground-plan. Also.the building has a clear direclion of movemen!which influences thc way ir is us€d, unless disdirection of movement is terminated by sub,divisions and-above all by the position ofthe

Anolher aspect of recrangular ground-plansaffects the design of the building irself. Thedifferent valuatioo Siven to the facades on rhelong and the short sides can hardly be changedby means ofcomposition- That means that heret ie possibi l i t ies of del iqn are l imi ted.

O;e po\ibiliry olthitypological strucrurrngot a rectangul . r r bui ld ing is to s i ruate the { ta i r -case in paral le l wi th a long side ( i l lusrrat ions tlo 3). By so doing, a longitudinal zone is createdwhich separates main and subsidiary spaces fromeach other,

I f the long side\ have a cenlre. rhe bui ld ing i .autorralically divided into two halves (illustra-tions 4 to 6), Thus a slaircase in the centre makespossible the division ofthe whole into two spacesof equal value (illustration 4). These can betunher sub-div ided ( i l lustrat ion 5). With a cen-rral hr l l running through venical ly ( i l lustrat ion6), th is k ind of d iv is ion is even more dist inct .

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The exarnples of this plate shovr' superimposilionsof solid and skclebl building parts. Colunns arcnever only constructional eleftents, as theyalways create an indcp€nden! spatial layer or anadditional ordcring factor to the structure of aspace. Therefore thc rhyrhm of pieN has to bewell-considercd.

In illustration I wc have an interior structurewhich is consriotcd by piers and pilasters. Thissub{ivision almost direcdy prcvokes a certainvaluation and use of the spaces creat€d: main addsubsidiary spaces become obvious.

The examples in illustrations 2 and4 sho\s thefi-agnEntation of rcchngllar solids by way of pro-jected loggias. In illustiation 5 the middle panof a building is loos€ned to become a central hall,the two rernaininS comer towers forming promi-nent terminations to the building.

A lively combination of solid and skeletonbuilding pans eosucs if they are superimposed(illustration 6). The rcsllr of this method is thattwo differen! rectangular struc$rcs seem to beinteSraled with one another.

In illustrations 7 aod 8 these two principles ofdefining a space simply co-€xist. The firstexample (illustration 7) shows a solid pan juxta-posed with a hall ofpiers, whereas in the secondexamplc (illustration t) the constructionalpossibilities of solid ad skeleton are deliberatelyoppos€d.

Finally, the rectangular solid can also beunderstood as a container which accommodalesa free form (illustration 9).

T-shaped Ground-PlansThis type offers manifold possibilities of inter-pretation. It can be a centralised building withIhree ext€nsions, a longirudinal building with anaccenruated centre, or even the codbination offour centralised buildings foming a T-shape.

One realises that it is the projecting part of thebuildiDg which constitutcs lhe rcal challcnge forthe design of thb buildhg typei is it a triumphantportico projecting fiom the facade; is it simplyan axtension on the back; or are the two sidelrings mercly cxtcnsions of a centralisedbuilding? Il is clear that the panicular buildingparts have to bc treated vcry carcfully accordingto their valuation. Otherwise the intendedmeaning can easily tum into its opposite.

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The projecring pan of the building in illustrationI s€erns to rcsult ftom a need for addidonal space.The lonS side acconunodates all subsidiary roornsand lhe entrance; and the staircasc pushes the'middle' part out towards the front. Thc nextexarnple (illustration 2) consists of four individualsolids. whereby the ccntral dark onc funclionsas the elenreni of access to the building. Ii is alsothe central pan ir illustration 3 which gives accessto lhe building- The side wings are distinguishedfrom it by way of transparcnt joinls.

The building in illusrration 4 is divided intransverse dircction duc to thc arranSement of thesubsidiary rooms. The centnl pan is clearly themain space. This kind ofdivision is also appliedin rhe following examnbs (illustrations 5 and 6).HOWeVet. llle rutn so.gce nere ts even moreanrculate.

The simple method of superimposing ahe T-shape with a square polentially allows one to getrid of the dark zones constituted by (he innercomers (illustration 7). The exterior piers oftheloggias determine thc form of the square; thewalls the T-shape, If the exte.ior space is filledwith pergolas (illustration 8), the whole complexis supplemenled io become a rectangle on plan.This shows that through archilecNral treatmentof residtlal spaces it is possible to gain completcbuitding forms. In conrrast to 6at. we see inillustration 9 one building part being almostsepamted, as the longitudinal Principal pan isespecially emphasised. B€cause of thb entmnccby way oflhe rower-likc building pan, it receivesa cent.e.

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ELENIENTS OF ARCHITECTURX III: GROUND-PLAIi ,{\D BUILDING FORM

T-shaped Ground-PlansWithin lhe main space, a row of picrs creates ahlter in front ofa bwer which is a kind ofannexe(illustration l). A ransvcrse main space isemphasiscd by the dissolurion ofrhe side wings(illustration 2). The massive comers of thelonSitudinal parts of a building (illusrrarion 3),give the space in rhe middle its direction. Thisis brokcn by a light loggia p.ojecting from thebuilding . This ryp€ has been built as a four roommaisonene apartnent in my ploject for Riaer-strasse in Berlin. The dircclion of the main sDaceof fie buitding shown in illuslmtion 4 is clearlyvisible.

The cnclosed rectrangle can have a projectedpcrgola. In illustrations 5 and 6 we see the solidparts of two buildings being shrunk into a corc.ln bo|h examples the T-shape is only consti$tedby piers.

A building with an opposite development isshown in illustration 7. The core is enlirclydissolved by a transparent staircas€ towea, andby isolation from the o(her thrce towers.

If fte T-shape is superimposed wirh a circularor semi{ircular cylinder (illustrarions I and 9),which can also b€ designed as monumental lnainspaces, |he projecdons recede to becomc merelycmohasised entrances.

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L-TypesL-shaped ground-plans are esperially suitablc forarrangements of buildings bccause of the p.o-tected free space which is c.eatcd b€tween them.The examples shown hcre arc geomet.ical typesd€velop€d ftom a square, a quanerofwhich hasbeen left void. They differ from thc functionalistL-type, where thc living area is sioated in lheshoner wing and the bedrooms arc joinedtogether in the longer one. The disadvantage ofL-shaped building ryFs lies in lhe possibility ofdark comers at $e junction. It is advisable to uselhis space for subsidiary rooms or shircases.

nlustration I shows an elample where the stair.case is located in thejof, the space in the wingshaving loggias io from. The superimposition ofL-form and the square gives rise to ftc erteriorspace being fixed (illustrarions 2 and 3). In thenexl example the edge consists ofmassive walls(iUustration 4), whereas the oFn sides arerelieved by piers. Illusration 5 represents anassernblage of independenl building elements. Atmnsparent tower accommodating the siaircaseis flaoked by rwo solid towers. Thc next exam-ple shows an L-form being superimpos€d witha cylind€r, which trccomcs the dominatinS figureof the building. The t\r'o wings are buih asverandas.

U-TypesThcse building fonnr still incvitably havc arnasterly character. The distinct symlnery wilhits defincd centre is so dominant that a mitiga-lion by way of fragmentadon or similar techni-qucs is difficuh to achiev€. Illustration 7 showsthis classic rype.

ll5 retacted courtyard is closcd by a pcrgola.The opposite cffect is Sained if a pergolaconstitutes the long side of a building (illustra-tion E). By this. the transverse ruin spacc isclcarly dcfin.d, thc two lrings bcing lcft toaccommodale &e subsidiary rooms. In ilhlslra-tion 9 the long side of the building is terminatedby a buffer zone witb subsidiary spaces. Theccntre is dominated by a staircase, and thc sidewings accdmmodate rwo nuin spaccs.

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Building Corners

The comer of a building is one of the mostimponant zones and is rnainly concemad with thenEdiation of t',r'o facadcs. During the past decadeslhis subject in architecorc has been largclynegl€ct€d. Nowadays, as a resuh of simply lininSup buildings, rhe comer as a particular part ofthe building has not receivcd the nccessaryacknowledgement and treatnent.

In comrast to this, the following sketchesshould demonstmte some possibililies for specialcomer lreatment. The first examplc shows(illustration I ) that the comer has also been dealtwith in modem archit€cture. Guisepp€ TerraSniand the Russian constructivist Golosov achievedsimiiar results by emphasising the comer of abuilding by way of a glass cylindet..This solidcarics the architrave ofthe top storey like a huge,deriatcflalised round column. Thc tuming of thecorncr is cspccially emphasised by a projectingframe which marks the actual termination of lhebuilding (illusrration 2). In illustralion 3 lhepsychological shearing off tha corncr iscounteracted by way of an insened pyramid, as€nsitive but perhaps too Frowerful a protectionof the comer. Thc rounded, retracted comer

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show[ in illustration 4 is emphasised by asimilarly shaped row of colurns crearing a fiherand reducing lhe dark zone ofun associated witha deep comer. In illusrration 5 the comer isformed as a building in its own right-a tower.Thc problem of connecting the tower with lhesteel facades is solved by lhc employment ofIoggias. Illustrations 6 and 7 also presenl comertowers which in terms of lheir proponions areto be regarded as classical solulions,

The curve, the circleandthe umingofacomerare, in formal terms, logical means ofprolectinga comer. Parls and elements of the facade,without being broken, can thereby be 'woundround' from one facade to the next. The towerallows for a proDer lermiradon of fie side facadesand creates an additionlh accentuation.

The emptying ofa comer or, in other words.a comer being opened up is shown in illustra-tion 8. The small monumenr $ith iG outwardedges lakes up the alignment ofthe rwo adjacentfacades. The example presenhd in illusrration 9is a useful solution borh in conslruclional andfunctional terms: the stepped form and thedissolution into perSolas allos for a positi!er€sponse to the otherwise larSe dark zone of acomer. By opening the comer rowards the topsuch Daoblems are removcd-

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Illustralion l: A rnasterly lchieve|trcnt in lermsof the most subtlc and yet accentuatcd develop-menl of a comcr is rcaliscd in Otto Wagncr's PostOIfice Savings Bank in Vicnna. The surfaces ofthc last vertical window axis of tha sida facadcsare drawn forward and sland oul almost like aframe, terminated by lhe bevcllcd comars abovc.Tle setback also accommodltes a venical

88

Student worts on th€ thcm. of Comcr BuildinSs

window axis and signals the developrFnt of adiagonal prospect from lhe building. ThrccelenEnts, the two vcrtrcal pojls oflhc 'frarne' andth. comcr ilself are held togelher by a projcc-ting comice, the consoles of which constihrte rhepoint of transition of the different parts. All thisprepar€s finally for the comer to bc crowncd by

Illustlalion 2: A ground-plan levcl pavilion infront of a building comcr completes the align-men! of tha two facadcs which approach eachother at an acuta an8le. The actlal comer facadc,which is slighdy concavc and tcnaced towatdsthc !op, reccdes, Thc serbacks of thc storcys cndal lop floor levcl which is cmphasised by awtdow si&ated in the venical axiJ, aDd is cro*n-

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plasterjoints at the cnd of thc sidc tacades rDarktheir termination, The logSia! finally allow dlebcv.lled comcr !o widcn towards fic rop wherEbya planc is created. This is flankcd by two flag-staffs, which hclp cvince thc comcr as trcing acomplete form.

Illustration 4: This cxample shows the penetra-tion of a comer. One side penetntes the othcr

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and davclop6 inlo 8n cxprcssivc gateway struc-turc. The srnall tralconies at the comcr do notrepresent thc prolongation of the facadc, but theDenetation of the comcr.

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community concemed. Thcy can also trc pan ofrn informal routc nctwork of passages andthoroughfares which give access to various partsof th. city (illustrations I lnd 3). A large roofedcourtyard, a hall so to spcak, is cspecially uscfulin public buildings as a dcvice oforicntrtion. Italso rcmoves the tightness ofan officc complcxald allows for additionrl venti.lalion aid illumina_tion (illustration 2). As a rcsidential courtyardwirhin sn urban developmcnt (illustration 4), thecourtyard is a conlrDn space uscd by thc in'habitants of thc adjacetl buildings. Especially

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trcausc of cxcessive lraffic, the sucets andtherefore public life are ofien rcstricted in cities;lhe courtyard has thus gaincd a new significance.Today one should strive to locate apanmentsoricntaLd towards a quict courtyard la$cr thantowards the street. This is a developmeot whichis only beginning but which will rcsult in greatersuppon for, and considcration of, cdsting andnew intcrior courtyards. Thc rcquired changesto traditional building typ€s must, however, bemade sensc of.

Interior Courtyards

Intcrior counyards arc not indeFndent elements,but thc outcomc of a certain kind of building. Wcshould not concem ours€lves hcre *ith originelhistoricsl and rural forms of lhis tyF, so thc'atdum' and other similar types of counyardbuildings will not be at issue. wlat will be dealtwitb in this context are e,(amples of counyardsas thcy are found in cities. Courtyards are semi-public spac6 which are for the us€ of thc

90

Inlerior countaid bctween Wollzeile and Biicte.slrass€, vienna visu berween Lf,rchenfeldersrrarse and Neubaugasse in vienna. ninctecnth cenluR

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ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE III: GROIIIiD-PLAN A.\D BUILDING FORM

Outside StaircasesAs lhe term already explains, outside sBircasesform part of the exterior space. They are hlmanstrucores of landscape. They also act as markeGin naful"al and urban environments, and cotrFrnnni;ae dteir Fblic use. We can tbink for exanpleof a larSe Baroqle outside stair which, ahhough.elated to an axis, also lcads away from i! andlhereforc cngendem moments of contemplation,Anothe. axatrple is a footpath in the coun!ryside.Ifsimply rude steps emerge in hilly terrain thenwe know that this path is often used by people,and lhat it facilitates walking.

Beyond lhis, outside staircases also crcate theirown space, bccome points ofcncounter, meetingplaces, oa simply points from which beautiftllviews can bc enjoyed. I think i! is not necessarylo enlarSe ulron the fact thal these characteristicshave largely b€en lost, and have been substitutedby thc simplistic idea ofthe 'shortest connectionbetween two points'.

lllustratioo I shows a simple straight staircas€ cu!into the upp€r level ofa building. Alr€dy ar theboBom level, one comes under the influence ofthe upper level because of the slair. One can thenslowly ascend it. However, the degree to whicha slaircasc is projecEd fiDm its upward t€rmination(illustrations 2 and 3) determines the differentpossiblc rclationships between the two levels. Ifour sens€ of spatiality was still intact, we wouldrealise the difference.

What we nowadays cxperience instead issomebody rushing up the stairs and getting con-fused because, as is shown in illustration 4, onestaircasc often tums st right angles into two.

SlaLcases which run parallel to one another(illustration 5) Sive every level an indcpenoem,yet equal significancc. This arrangementresemblcs Ernces. Illustradon 6 shows an almostsemi<ircular staircase running up in three lightssuggesting a slopc. Stairs which scpamte andcome together again luve a special characterbecause of the way they are us€d by the public(illustration 7). Peoplc meet and separate again:they can timc theia walking slrccd cither to cn-counter others or !o avoid them. One could aLnosrcall this an example of'frcedom ofuse'. Illustra-tion 8 shows an int€rcsting though special form.A slair rises like a spiml and a! the same timeit narrows. From the beginning, the us€r b€conEsaware that the stair is going to end at a certainpoint. The crample presented in illustration 9again shows a cut-in staircase which is nowcu cd and runs parallel to the upFEr levet.

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTI.RE trI: GROUN}PLAN AND BTJILDING FOR}I

IllusEation I rcprcsents thc opposite cffcct ofthatgained in illustration 9 on thc former plata. Hercthe curved form ofthe stair givcs the impressionthat the uppcr level has a graaLr significarce thanin the example before.

The semi-circular statcasc sho\,n in illustra-lion 2 cmerges from a garticular lcvel to lead upto the next one. Inilially one moves away fromit to comc back to it again on arcther level. Thenext example considcrs 6 staicasa which is againcut inlo thc ground (illusiration 3). Only afterhaving movcd on to the bosom stcp has onc rcallyleft the area coocemed. A bold variation ofopposite staircas€s is sho*n in illustration 4. Thedivision into main levels and inlararcdirtelandings is striking. Thdollowing staircase (i!lusrrattn 5; alsJ poSsscs an- inrermedilclanding. From half way up ooe has al.eadyenrcred the sphere of lhc uppcr lcvcl. This cffectofan 'extErior' and 'interior' to a staircase is cvenmore explicii in thc simple, yct in anothcr waysophisticated, aarangemcnl shown in illustration6. One halfof rhe slair is 'hcaped up', the otherhalf'cut iD'. Apan from the variety of possiblelincs of movcmcnt and conncction, thc circularintermediate landing clearly manifests a mcan-ingfulccntrc. Eramplcs of rcprcsentational frontslaircascs arE prescntrd in illustration 7. Herc theupFr level clerrly hrs the prominent me3rling.A rarc erample for an €xterior slair is a spitalstaircase (illusu"ation t). As a 'functioral*inding' h is a pre-rulner---or rnaybe a rcsult---ofthe Towcr of Babel, even more rcminiscent inthe last cxampl. (illustrarion 9).

93

ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE trI: GROTJNIIPLAN AND BTJILDING FORM

Prospect

Wirh the issue of the prospect, altbough ir isclosely related toarchitccturc, we leave lhe suo-jefl 'building' as an independent subi:ct ofdesignand s€l out to thint rbout public spacc. It hasalr.ady bccn hint€d at that lhe obligalion ofeverybuilding is ro be integrated inro its spccific ur-ban tissuc. A spctial problem in this context ispresented by the 'prospecf.

kl us lake the cornmon case lhat a sfeet oaa squarc is io be lerminated by a building-ourbuilding. This termination is not tb be treated asan accidcnt; tbc facade of lhe buildinS conc€m€dhas ro reacr to this specific situation. Whilc thcstrcct as such is a symbol of innniry, its l,ermina-tion communicstes the fact that a dcstination hasbcan reachad. This destination, thc facade of ourbuilding, must rcspond to this event, must catchthc eyc: only then will lhe building make senseand be intagrated inlo the urban context. If weare committcd to our responsibility for urbanspace, we have to respcct its laws. That we haveregard to thc affcct of prospects has nolhing todo with a delibcrate monumcntalization ofbuildings, but with rendering rcsp.ct to $c llrtantexNre. A prospect at the end of a stleet makesthe eye rcsl, givcs il a larSet, and lhcrcby sym-bolically shofiens thc way to the desdnation.

By taking into considcration thc cffect ourhcade has on adjacent street ali8nnents, we conFmunicatc our conccm for thc oles of thc placcwhere we build. We should dot rt|akc poople $inkabolt our building in rhe sense that a spacc shiphas landcd in their town by accident. What weshould carc about is givinS evidence that we arcgoingtocontinuetobuild moreforthis specific,for our. olace.

Towers and MonumentsBuildint is always about thc occupation of aplace. Architecture is about setting nark. In thefree cou rysidc we comc across a tower. Itdirlc6 our *ay. Lighthouses, chirnneys, sleeples,ciry gates, defencc towe$ e!c. belong to the arch-eqpa.l symbols of uprighEEss. Towers symtJolizethe eristence of hurnan achievern€nt, thc lriumphover eanhly Inatlers. Without doubt cvery towerhas a monumcnlal charact€r as it rises above theanvionment. Having said that I can see b€fore

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my inncr eye cenain modem architects shakinga waming finger at me. llonumenlality? lfonedares to talk about this last taboo of the Modeme,one is too easily accus€d ofhaving a lonSing fora totalitarian state ofaffairs. What a stlpid andshon-sighted fallacy! A monument is of coursefirst and forcmosl a sign of power. Only themighty pot€ntate could afford to rise above hissubjecls by way of architectlaal manifestations.8ut he is mortal. whereas his monument willoutlast him and will b€ celebrated by funrregenerations as a cuhrrEl lestirnony. Witholt thes€'signs of power' tlerc would be no such thingas architecore: we would dwell in a desolalesteppe.

Monumenis always Vere. and still are. cultobiecb \r hich havc nF4ing and value for a com-munity. Because of their symbolism, they expressa common will or confession, Monurncnls do notne€d to b€ towers or high-rise buildings. A srnalwayside shrine at the forking ofa routc sufficesasasignof humancxislence, Bul let us try agaitand find out what the term 'monunEntality' reallymeans. It cenair y implies a lasdng piece ofarch-itecutre; it also conveys the beauty of destnrction.

On the l6rh of May lt7l, the Vend6meColumn with the statue of Napolcon I wasdestroyed by fiShters ofthe Paris Commune. Thisact of overthro'*-in8 po\rcr is documented tnnumcrous photographs. Many groups of fiShterspose ill front of the dcstloycd monument. w]atdo \re leam from such an cx@ple, to whichmany others could be addcd? We leam lhal lhedesruction ofa monurrFnt i5 a symbol; a symbolfor the will ofa socicty. We, however, preserveand carc for the monumcnts of thc past.sometimes it appcars that thc rcscuad statuc ofq past sovcrcign comp€nsarcs for tha destluclionof entire historical urban quartcrs. While oursociety destmys valt,abl€ testimonies of the past,it clings !o nice linlc monumcnts but is unablcto crc{e ncw on€s. Historical worship of heroesis ccrtainly not in accordancc with our undc$ian-dinS ofdemocracy. But is rhere norhing left wecan believe in? Arc wc no lonScr in thc posidonto sct signs which, olthough not uscful, cand@urlEnt common s€ns€? Democracy obvious-ly does not stand in need of crectinSmonumcnts-but i t lcgit imiscs i tsclf bytesdmonics of monarchic and autocratic powcr.From (hc rnonuments which havc not b€€n built,we can lcam abour thc self.valuation ofa socie-ty and *hat position archirccture has in il. ,,1societt A'hich doet iot beli.v. in its sunirol i5incapable of the tynrbolic reprcsentation of itsaim, and thereforc incapabh of btiAinS.

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Rob Krier is a unique voice in toddy's archi l .ctural discoursethrough his commitment to developing a relevxnt and pragmariclheory of architecture based on his own experience and observa_tions of architectural practice, and opposed to lhe eas\.. abstracltheorising so common in contemporar! architectural writ ins.Together wilh his brorher Leon. he hts perfeired a form oip.esentation in which the potency of his thinking f inds i ts perfectcounterpoinl in detai led drawings and sketches !rhich argue rhisvisual ly through the power of example. Fol lowing the success ofhis widefy acclaimed Urban Spare, a work which looked at lheproblems of our cit ies from an historical. theoretical and Dracticalsl i |ndpoinr. Krier now applies his ptrt icular. highl) jnf luenrir lmode of didactic criticism to contemporary architecture in acontinuing search for fundamental architectural truths.

Architectural Composiaio, is both a theoreticaland visual analvsisclearly i l lustral ing lhe creal ive process which inform. Krier.svision and praxis. Separate chapters derail the i.undamentals ofarchitectural composition, beginning with funcljon, constructionand architectural form; the elements of architecture, includingtypologies for plans, facades and interior spaces. proportionalstudies of Gothic cathedrals, the human body, planrs, animals andsculpture, demonstrat ing their rcl iance on lhe Golden Secrion; anda series of cr i t ical and discursive essays on the pl ight of architec_ture and architects practising today. In addir ion to his own didactic

i l lustrat ions. Krier also drarvs on siudenr {orks.Lnd pholographicexrmples to support his argument, manv of which r lere commis_sioned especial ly for this book. The culminal ion of years ofterching and practical experience by one of Europe.s best knownarchitecturaf lheorists , Arc.hitet tural Conposifio, is without doubta major achievement, deslined to become a standard work ofreference for both students and practising archirects.

Rob Krier is an architect. educator and inf luential theorist onarchitecture and urbanism. He was born in Luxembourg andsub\equentl ] emigrated to Au.rr ia $hefe he has l i red ever.since.Krier has produced urban schemes forcit ies as diverse as Stutrsart.Vienna and Ber l in. His bui l r *ork. include ertensive sJcialhouJing schemes in Berl in and more recently projects in Amiensand Vienna- Krier 's sculptural work includes six bronzes for theponside of Barcelona ( l986). f ive bronzes for a castle in Luxem_bourg (1987). a bronze of the phi losopher Reuchlin for pforzheimin Germany (1987), and a pair of f igures for rhe Camil lo SirrePiazza in Vienna (1988) of uhich he is also the architect. Hispre\ ious books include Urba Spa(e,Academy Edit ions I979,andOn At chitecuu.e, A,cademy Edir ions ( l9g:). He has been professorat Ihe Technicrl Unjver\ i ly o[ Vienna since 1975.

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ROB KRIER

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ACADEMY EDITIONS42 Leinster Gardens. London W2 3AN