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CHAPTER-3

ADVANCES IN MACHINE TOOLS

AND

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY


Advances in machines tools and manufacturing Technology

Machine Tools :

A machine tool is a machine, typically powered other than by human muscle

( e.g. electrically,hydraulically,or via line shaft) used to make manufactured

parts ( components) in various ways that include cutting or certain other kinds

of deformation. All machine tools involve some kind of fundamental

constraining and guiding of movement provided by the parts of the machine,

such that the relative movement between workpiece and cutting tool ( which is

called the toolpath)is controlled or constrained by the machine to atleast some

extent,rather than being entirely “offland” or “freeland”. Machine tools

archetypically perform conventional machining or grinding on metal ( that is,

metal cutting by shear deformation,producing swarf), but the definition can no

longer be limited to those elements, if it ever could, because other processes

than machining may apply, and other workpiece materials than metal are

common. The precise definition of the term varies among users, as detailed in

the “ Nomenclature and key concepts” section.It is safe to say that all machine

tools are “machines that help people to make things”, although not all factory

machines are machine tools. Machine tools are power driven equipment

designed to drill,bore,grind or cut metal or other materials.

Nomenclature and key concepts.

Many historians of technology consider that true machine tools were born

when the toolpath first became guided by the machine itself in some way, at

least to some extent , so that direct human guidance of the toolpath ( with

hands or feet) was no longer the only guidance used in the cutting or forming

or forming process . In this view of the definition, the term, arising

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at a time when all tools up till then had been hand tools, simply provided a

label for “tools that were machines *instead of hand tools+”.

Abstractly programmable toolpath guidance began with mechanical solutions,

such as in musical box cams and Jacquard looms. The convergence of

programmable mechanical control with machine tool toolpath control was

delayed many decades, in part because the programmable control methods of

musical boxes and looms lacked the rigidity for machine tool toolpaths. Later,

electromechanical solutions (such as servos) and soon electronic solutions

( including computers) were added, leading to numerical control and computer

numerical control.

When considering the difference between freehand toolpaths and machine-

constrained toolpaths, the concepts of accuracy and precision, efficiency , and

productivity become important in understanding why the machine-constrained

option adds value.The value addition is in the areas of the areas of rigidity

accuracy and precision, efficiency, and productivity.

History

Machines that a modern perspective might call machine tools have existed for

millennia. For example, bow drills and potter’s wheels existed in ancient Egypt

prior to 2500 BC,and lathes are known to have existed in multiple regions of

Europe since at least 1000 to 500 BC. But it was not until the later Middle Ages

and the Age of Enlightment that the modern concept of a machine tool- a class

of machines used as tools in the making of metal parts,and incorporating

machine-guided toolpath- began to evolve.

However,modern machine tools began to develop only after the development

of the steam engine, which led to the Industrial Revolution.Today, most

machine tools are powered by electricity.

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Soon after the World Wat II, the numerical control ( NC) machine was

developed. NC machines used a series of numbers punched on paper tape or

punched cards to control their motion. In the 1960s, computers were added to

give even more flexibility to the process. Such machines became known as

computerized numerical control (CNC) machines. NC and CNC machines could

precisely repeat sequences over and over, and could produce much more

complex pieces than even the most skilled tool operators.

Example of some of the machine tools are :-

> Broaching Machine

Drill press

Gear shaper

Hobbing machine

Hone

Lathe

Screw machines

Milling machine

Shear ( sheet metal)

Shaper

Saws

Planer

Stewart platform mills

Grinding machines

For Fabricating or shaping parts, several techniques are used to remove

unwanted metal. Among these are :

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Electrical Discharge Machining

Grinding ( abrasive cutting )

Multiple edge cutting tools

Single edge cutting tools

Other techniques are used to add desired material. Devices that fabricate

components by selective addition of material are called rapid prototyping

machines.

Machine Tool Automation

Machine tool builder support

CNC Control and Components

Accessories for machine tools like rotary tables, integrated spindles &

machining heads etc.

Retrofitting CNC Machines

CNC lathes, millturn tables, machining centres, multi-tarring machining

centres, laser processing machines

Semi Conductor Manufacturing related machines.

Advances in Machine Tools

Advances in CNC machines have increased the productivity and increased

the need for better lubrication in order to keep up with the faster spindle

speeds and demands of todays machine tools.

Laser cutting tools are flexible machine tools used to cut a wide range of

materials from metals, plastics and composists to paper, ceramics and

wood

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Geometric’s : (Geometric is a specialist in the domain of engineering solutions,

services and Technologies) services enable machine tool OEMs to introduce

advanced capabilities through software solutions that complement their

hardware systems. Geometric offers full lifecycle services starting from the

concept through development to technical support and maintenance of the

software. We deliver value on existing software applications through our re-

platforming services like portion applications to 64 bit environments, migrating

to the latest GUI technologies, standardization of multiple software products to

a single scalable platform, as well as ensuring interoperability with leading

CAD,CAM and quality management applications.

Geometric has a set of re-usable technology components that can be leveraged

to meet the software challenges faced by machine tool OEMs and reduce the

software development lifecycle time.

Machine tools industry has evolved significantly over the years, with

developments in both hardware technologies and related software

applications. Machines have become faster, more intelligent and versatile with

individual machines moving from being single purpose to multifunctional ,

capable of executing wide range of tasks within a single set up. The adoption of

CAD-CAM integration technologies has enabled increased accuracy and brought

in automation in the machining process.

Going ahead, as the development in software applications are poised to

outpace developments in hardware performance; machine tool OEMs are

turning to software solutions to gain a competitive advantage. Also, with

manufacturing turning increasingly global, there is a need to integrate and

standardize platforms and systems to bring in operational efficiencies.

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Software can enable advanced features in machining systems like higher

precision machining to handle growing miniaturization, ability to handle

different materials that include glass and ceramics and for niche segments like

medical devices. Software can also bring in differentiation through

programming productivity, ease-of-use, and a future ready sustainable product

architecture that draws on the latest advances in information and

communications technology.

Increased emphasis on reliability and speed through software controls

Standardization of multiple software products to a single scalable

platform

Advanced CAM technology for multi-axis, multi-spindle and multi-turret

machines

Automation of the manufacturing engineering process

Development of total manufacturing solutions rather than simply

supplying equipment alone

Standarization and interoperability with CAD platforms

Simulation of all aspects of complex machines and validation of programs

before execution

Direct integration with enterprise PLM, MES, process planning and ERP

systems to provide an integrated view for operation.

3. Safety Rules for Machine Tools

Since different cutting tools and machining procedures are used on various

machine tools, the safety precautions for each may vary. The following are

general safety rules for any machine tool:

Gears, pulleys, belts, couplings, ends of shafts having keyways, and other

revolving or reciprocating parts should be guarded to a height of 6 feet

above the floor. The guards should be removed only for repairing or

adjusting the machine and must be replaced before operating it.

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Do not operate any machine tool without proper lighting.

Never attempt to operate any machine tool until you fully understand

how it works and know how to stop it quickly.

Never wear loose or torn clothing and secure long hair, since these items

can become caught in revolving machine parts. Ties should be removed

and shirt sleeves should be rolled up above the elbow.

Gloves should never be worn when operating machinery except when

absolutely necessary.

Always stop the machine before cleaning it or taking measurement of the

workpiece.

Do not lubricate a machine while it is in motion. Injury to the operator

and damage to the machine may result from this practice.

Never remove metal chips, turning, or shavings with your hands; they

may cause a serious cut. Never wipe away chips when the machine is

operating.

Always wear safety glasses or goggles while operating machine tools.

Also, wear respiratory protection if operation creates hazardous dust. All

persons in the area where power tools are being operated should also

wear safety eye protection and respirators as needed.

Know where fire extinguishers are located in the shop area and how to

use them.

Never wear jewellery while working around machine tools. Rings,

watches or bracelets may be caught in a revolving part which could result

in the hand being pulled into the machine.

Never use compressed air without safety nozzle to clean machines or

clothing. It will blow sharp, dangerous metal chips a long distance.

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Keep the floor around machines free of tools, stock , oil, grease and

metal chips.Tripping over metal on the floor, especially round bars, can

cause dangerous falls. Wipe up all oil,grease, and cutting fluid spills on

the floor as soon as possible to prevent a fall. Metal chips are very sharp

and can easily becore embedded in the soles of shoes, making them very

slippery,especially when waling on a concrete floor.

Never place tools or other materials on the machine table.Cluttering up a

machine with tools or materials creates unsafe working conditions. Use a

bench or table near the machine for this purpose.

Always use a rag when handling sharp cutters such as milling cutters and

end mills.

Do not expose power tools to rain or use in damp or wet locations.

Always secure the workpiece. Use clamps or a vise. It is safer than using

your hands, and it frees both hands to opeate the tool.

Do not abuse electrical cords. Never carry a tool by its cord or yank it to

disconnect it from a receptacle.Keep electrical cords away from heat,oil,

and sharp edges. Have damaged or worn power cords and strain

relievers repaired or replaced immediately.

Remove adjusting keys and wrenches. Form a habit of checking to see

that keys and wrenches are removed from tools before turning them on.

Do not operate any machine tool while under the influence of drugs,

alcohol, or any medication that could cause drowsiness.

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MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND ITS TECHNOLOGY

Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing is a field of engineering that generally deals with different

practices of manufacturing and researches and development of processes,

machines and equipments. It also deals with the integration of different

facilities and the systems of producing quality products ( with optimal

expenditure) by applying the principles of physics and the study of

manufacturing systems such as mass production, computer integrated

manufacturing, computer aided technologies in manufacturing, just in time

manufacturing, mass customization , flexible manufacturing etc.

Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to produce goods for use

or sale. The term may refere to a range of human acticity, from handicraft to

high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw

materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale.

Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for the

production and integration of a product’s components. Some industries, such

as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead.

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List of some of the manufacturing processes are

Casting

Molding

Forming

Machining

Joining

Rapid manufacturing etc

Manufacturing engineers work on the development and creation of physical

artifacts, production processes, and technology. The manufacturing

engineering discipline has very strong overlaps with mechanical engineering,

industrial engineering, electrical engineering ,electronic engineering, computer

science, materials management, and operations management. Manufacturing

engineers’ success or failure directly impacts the advancement of technology

and the spread of innovation. It is a very broad area which includes the design

and development of products.

Non-Traditional Manufacturing Techniques

Modern Development in manufacturing techniques are as follows:-

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING ( EDM)

The EDM process involves a controlled erosion of electrically conductive

materials by the initiation of rapid and repetitive spark discharge between the

electrode tool ( usually cathode) and workpiece (anode), separated by a small

gap of about 0.01 – 0.50 mm known as the spark gap.

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Application

EDM is by far the most widely used machining process among the non-

traditional machining methods. Its chief applications are in the

manufacture and reconditioning of press tool and forging dies as well as

moulds for injecting moulding. It is also successfully employed for producing

intricate and irregular shaped profiles common in tool rooms.

ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)

Electrochemical machining ( ECM) is the controlled removal of metal by anodic

dissolution in an electrolytic medium in which the workpiece is the anode and

the tool is the cathode.

Application

One of the main applications of ECM is in the aerospace industry to machine

difficult-to-machine materials and complex-shaped parts.

CHEMICAL MACHINING ( CHM)

Chemical machining (CHM) is the stock removal process for the production of

desired shapes and dimensions through selective or overall removal of

material by controlled chemical attack with acids or alkalis. Areas from where

material is not to be removed are protected from attack by masking. Nearly all

the materials from metals to ceramics can be chemically machined.

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Application

Chemical milling is primarily used to machine performed aerospace parts to

obtain a maximum strength-to-weight ratio.Chemical etching is used for

engraving highly intricate details on nearly any metal and to produce printed

circuit boards.

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

Ultrasonic Machining ( USM) is a process in which a cutting tool oscillates at

high frequency ( about 20000 cps) in an abrasive slurry. The tool has the same

shape as the cavity to be machined. The high speed oscillations of the tool drive

the abrasive grain across a small gap of about 0.02-0.10 mm against the

workpiece. The impact of the abrasive is uniquely responsible for the material

removal. The method is chiefly employed to machine hard and brittle materials

which are either electrically conducting or non-conducting.

Application :

USM is particularly suited to :

1. Round holes and holes of any shape for which a tool can be made. The

range of obtainable shapes can be increased by moving the workpiece

during cutting.

2. Coining operation for materials such as glass, ceramics etc.

3. Threading by appropriately rotating and translating the workpiece/tool.

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USM is particularly useful in micro-drilling holes of upto 0.1mm.

Other promising areas of application of ultrasonics are the welding and sealing

of plastics, staking or inserting metal to plastics etc.

ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)

Abrasive jet machining ( AJM) is the removal of material from a workpiece by

the application of a high-speed stream of abrasive particles carried in a gas

medium from a nozzle.

Applications :

The major field of application of the AJM process is in the machining of

essentially brittle and heat-sensitive materials like glass, quartz, sapphire,

semiconductor materials, mica and ceramics. The AJM process is used in drilling

holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, cutting fine lines, deburring,

scribing, grooving, polishing and radiusing. Delicate cleaning, such as removal of

smudges from antique documents is also possible with AJM.

LASER BEAM MACHINING ( LBM)

Laser Bearm Machining (LBM) is a machining process in which the work

material is melted and vaporized by menas of an intense, monochromatic beam

of light called the laser. The heat produced in the small area where the beam

strikes can melt almost any of the known materials. This property of laser is

now being made use in machining difficult-to-machine materials in engineering

industries. Laser is an electromagnetic radiation. It produces monochromatic

light which is in the form of a collimated beam. The word ‘laser’ is an acronym

for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

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Application

LBM at present is found to be suitable only in exceptional cases like machining

very small holes and cutting complex profiles in thin,hard materials like

ceramics. It is also used in partial cutting or engraving. Other applications

include sheet metal trimming, blanking and resistor trimming.

In addition to cutting and drilling, the laser beam is effectively used in welding

and heat treatment of materials.

ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING ( EBM)

Electron Beam Machinaing ( EBM) is a metal removal process in which a

pulsating stream of high speed electrons produced by a generator is focussed

by electrostatic and electromagnetic fields to concentrate the energy on a very

small area of work. As the electrons impinge on the work with velocites

exceeding one half the speed of light, their kinetic energy is transformed into

thermal energy and they vaporize the material locally. The process takes place

in a vacuum chamber ( 10-5-10-6mm of mercury) to prevent scattering of the

electrons by collision with gas modules.

Application

While electron beams are beginning to be extensively used for welding, their

machining application are still rate . EBM is generally limited to drilling

extremely small holes and cutting narrow solts or contours in thin materials to

close tolerances.

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PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)

Plasma arc machining ( PAM) is a material removal process in which the

material is removed by directing a high velocity jet of high temperature ( 11000

– 30000 OC) ionized gas on the workpiece. The relatively narrow plasma jet

melts the workpiece material in its path. Because of the high temperature

involved, the process can be used on almost all materials including those which

are resistant to oxy-fuel gas cutting.

APPLICATIONS

PAM is chiefly used to cut stainless steel and aluminium alloys.Other metals cut

by plasma are method are magnesium,titanium,copper,nickel and alloys of

copper, and nickel. PAM has also been considered for lathe turning,milling and

planning.

ION BEAM MACHINING ( IBM)

Ion beam machining ( IBM) or etching is generally classified among

thermoelectric processes along with electron beam, laser beam, plasma arc and

electric discharge machining. Unlike most of these techniques, this process

does not depend on heating of the material to the point of evaporation.

Instead it removes material by the sputtering of ions. This sputter etching

mechanism is basically simple. A steam of ions bombards the surface of the

target material.

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APPLICATION

The use of IBM to remove material has found only limited application. It is

applied mostly in micro machining ( etching) of electronic components like

computer memories, figuring optical surfaces and for the precision fabrication

of fine wire dies in refractory materials.

Modern development

Modern manufacturing engineering studies include all intermediate processes

required for the production and integration of a product’s components.

Automation is used in different processes of manufacturing such as machining

and welding. Automated manufacturing refers to the application of automation

to produce goods in the factory. Most of the advantages of automation

technology have their influence in the manufacturing processes. The main

advantages of automated manufacturing are realized with effective

implementation of automation.These include: higher consistency and quality;

reduction of lead time

simplification of production; reduced handling; improved work flow; and

improved morale of workers.

Robotics is the application of mechatronics and automation to create robots,

which are often used in manurfacturing to perform tasks that are dangerous,

unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are

preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an

engineer typically employs kinematics ( to determine the robot’s range of

motion)

and mechanics ( to determine the stresses within the robot). Robots are used

extensively in manufacturing engineering.

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Robots allow businesses to save money on labor, performs tasks that are either

too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform economically, and to

insure better quality. Many companies employ assembly lines of robots, and

some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves. Outside the

factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and

many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications.

Advance Manufacturing :

“ The Advanced Manufacturing entity makes extensive use of computer, high

precision, and information technologies integrated with a high performance

workforce in a production system capable of furnishing a heterogeneous mix of

products in small or large volumes with both the efficiency of mass production

and the flexibility of custom manufacturing in order to respond quickly to

customers demands.

Use of Technology to Improve Products and Processess

One of the most widely used definitions of advanced manufacturing involves

the use of technology to improve products and/or processes, with the relevant

technology being described as “advanced”, “innovative,” or “cutting edge”.

“The rate of technology adoption and the ability to use that technology to

remain competitive and add value define the advanced manufacturing sector”.

“Advanced manufacturing centers upon improving the performance of industry

through the innovative application of technologies, processes and methods to

product design and production”. “A concise definition of advanced

manufacturing offered by some is manufacturing that entails rapid transfer of

science and technology ( S&T) into manufacturing products and processes.”

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Products

Any organization characterizes advanced manufacturing products as follows:

Products with high levels of design

Technologically complex products

Innovative products

Reliable,affordable,and available products

Newer,better,more exciting products

Products that solve a variety of society’s problems.

Process Technologies

The manufacturing process technologies described in definitions of advanced

manufacturing include:

Computer technologies ( e.g. CAD,CAE,CAM)

High Performance Computing ( HPC) for modeling,simulation and analysis

High Precision technologies

Information technologies

Advanced robotics and other intelligent production systems

Automation

Control systems to monitor processes

Sustainable and green processes and technologies

New industrial platform technologies ( eg composite materials)

Ability to custom manufacture

Ability to manufacture high or low volume ( scalability)

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Use of Business/Management Methodologies

A number of organizations also included business or management

methodologies in their definition of advanced manufacturing . For example ,

one organization

Defines “advanced manufacturing as the insertion of new technology,

improved processes, and management methods to improve the manufacturing

of products.” Another organization lists advanced manufacturing as

“encompassing lean production techniques, enhanced supply chain integration

, and technology assimilation.” In fact , definition of “advanced

manufacturing” is “advanced

planning and scheduling” described as “a manufacturing management process

by which raw materials and production capacity are optimally allocated to meet

demand.”Overall, the following business or management methodologies were

listed as being a part of advanced manufacturing:

Quality Control

Lean production technologies

Supply chain integration

Advanced Planning and Scheduling

ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY

Technology plays a key role in creating and maintaining competitiveness in the

global arena. Technology may be defined as all the knowledge, products,

processess, tools, methods and systems employed in the creation of goods or in

providing services. It consists of three important interdependent, co-

determining and dynamic components.

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Hardware – the physical and logical equipment that is used to carry out

the required tasks.

Software - the knowledge of how to use the hardware in order to carry

out the required tasks.

Brainware - the reasons for using the technology in a particular way.

Core technology competence can be assessed by importance given to advanced

manufacturing technology (AMT) and its deployment. AMT is an enabler of

popular manufacturing objectives such as quality, delivery, flexibility and cost.

Advanced manufacturing technologies have been heralded as new way for

manufacturing companies to gain a competitive advantage. AMT can impact

not just manufacturing, but the whole business operations, giving new

challenges to a firm’s ability to manage both manufacturing and information

technologies.

BENEFITS OF ADVANCE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY (AMT)

The tangible benefits, which are easily quantifiable , include: inventory

savings,less floor space, improved return on equity (ROE) and reduced unit cost

of

production . The intangible benefits, which are difficult to quantify, include an

enhanced competitive advantage, increased flexibility, improved product

quality and quick response to customer demand. The potential benefits which

can accrue from investments in advanced manufacturing technologies, have

become increasingly evident with gowing global competition. Advanced

Manufacturing Technology plays a major role in quality and flexibility

improvements in process sector companies.

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More specifically, AMT can be described as a group of computer-based

technologies, including computer-aided design (CAD), computer numerical

control (CNC) machines, direct numerical control ( DNC) machines, robotics (

RO), flexible manufacturing systems (FMS), automated storage and retrieval

system (AS/RS) automated material handling systems (AMHS), automated

guided vehicles (AGV), bar coding (BC), rapid prototyping (RP), material

requirement planning (MRP), statistical process control (SPC), manufacturing

resource planning (MRP II), enterprise resource planning (ERP), activity based

costing (ABC) and office automation (OA).

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVANCE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY(AMT)

These advanced manufacturing technologies are classified into Direct AMT,

Indirect AMT, and Administrative AMT. These terms correspond to the

hardware ( Direct AMT), software ( Indirect AMT), and brain ware (

Administrative AMT).

Direct AMT: Technology used on the factory floor to cut, join, reshape,

transport, store or modify materials e.g. CNC, DNC, robotics, FMS,AS/RS,

AMHS, AGV, RP etc.

Indirect AMT : Technology used to design products and schedule

production e.g. CAD, MRP,SPC,BC, MRP II etc.

Administrative AMT : Technology used to give administrative support to

the factory and integrate its operations with the rest of the organization

e.g. ERP,ABC, OA etc.

Manufacturing objectives have been referred as measures of

competitiveness .

Manufacturing objectives capture how capabilities-based competition will

evolve. Manufacturing objectives represent a holistic set of tasks, which

should be performed by the manufacturing function in order to support the

business strategy.

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