DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE IONIC...
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DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE IONIC POLYMER METAL COMPOSITE ACTUATED CONTRACTILE WATER JET THRUSTER by MUHAMMAD FARID BIN SHAARI Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2017
Transcript of DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE IONIC...
DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE IONIC POLYMER
METAL COMPOSITE ACTUATED CONTRACTILE WATER JET
THRUSTER
by
MUHAMMAD FARID BIN SHAARI
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy
February 2017
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all I would like to express my gratefulness to Allah the Almighty which
make me able to finish this project successfully. I would like to dedicate my sincere
gratitude and thankful to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Zahurin bin Samad
who had supervised me along this time. His passions, guidance and continuous support
for this project had led to the accomplishment of my studies. His efforts are muchly
appreciated. Secondly, I would like to thank all the supporting staffs, Mr. Norijas Abd.
Aziz, Mr. Mohd Ali Shabana Mohd Raus, Mr. Mohd Ashamuddin Hashim, Mr.
Hashim Md. Nordin and Mr. Rosnin Saranor who had guided me in dealing with
technical stuffs as well as procurement process as well as to all my colleagues; Dr.
Cham Chin Long, Mr. Muhammad Alif Rosly, Mr. Muhammad Husaini Abu Bakar,
Mr. Lim Chong Hooi and Mr. Ameer Mohamed Abdeel Aziz Mohamed Hanafee who
had spent time together in sharing the knowledge and finding the solutions.
I am also would like to thank and address my appreciation to Malaysian
Government for providing the IPTA Academic Training Scheme (SLAI) scholarship
and Universiti Sains Malaysia for financial support of this project under the
Exploratory Research Grant Scheme (ERGS) 2011 (Grant no.:
203/PMEKANIK/6730008). Finally I would like to thank my beloved wife for her
continuous support and great sacrifices, my children who always inspired me to
complete my studies and also to my family for their supports and prayers.
Alhamdulillah.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xv
ABSTRAK xviii
ABSTRACT xix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 5
1.3 Objectives 7
1.4 Scope of Work 7
1.5 Organization of Thesis 8
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Squid mantle morphology and propulsion system 9
2.2 AUV propulsion system 13
2.3 CWJT 18
2.3.1 Contraction frequency 19
2.3.2 Thrust and drag 20
2.3.3 Dimensionless parameter 24
2.3.4 Previous works on CWJT 26
2.4 Smart material actuators 34
2.5 IPMC actuator 40
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2.5.1 Factors that influence IPMC performance 43
2.5.2 Overview on IPMC actuator fabrication 46
2.5.3 Overview on IPMC actuator characterization 48
2.6 Summary of literature review 50
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 IPMC actuator development 52
3.1.1 IPMC fabrication 52
3.1.2 IPMC actuator characterization 58
3.2 CWJT prototype design 65
3.2.1 Conceptual design 66
3.2.2 CWJT mantle model determination 68
3.2.3 Drag experimental procedure 75
3.2.4 Drag simulation procedure 76
3.2.5 CWJT detail design 81
3.3 CWJT prototype fabrication 83
3.4 Ejected fluid flow simulation 85
3.5 CWJT contraction measurement 88
3.5.1 Volume differentiation measurement procedure 89
3.5.2 Volume contraction calculation 91
3.6 Empirical thrust measurement 94
3.6.1 Experimental setup 94
3.6.2 Experiment procedure 96
3.7 Summary 98
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 IPMC actuator characterization result 100
4.1.1 IPMC actuator force characterization results 100
4.1.2 IPMC actuator’s oscillation characterization results 105
4.2 CWJT Prototype Design 107
4.2.1 CWJT model 107
4.2.2 Drag analysis 109
4.3 Fluid flow simulation analysis 113
4.3.1 Pressure distribution 116
4.3.2 Velocity distribution 120
4.3.3 Generated thrust 125
4.4 CWJT contraction analysis 126
Contraction displacement 127
4.4.2 Contraction volume 132
4.5 Empirical thrust measurement 135
4.5.1 Water jet velocity measurement 135
4.5.2 Water jet thrust 138
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Research conclusion 143
5.2 Research contribution 146
5.3 Recommendation and future works 147
REFERENCES 149
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Nafion specification
Appendix B: Simulation results of mantle model deformation
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Appendix C: AUV orthographic drawing
Appendix D: CWJT Drawings
Appendix E: AUV velocity and shear wall stress simulation
Appendix F: Water jet dynamic pressure and total pressure simulation
Appendix G: Water jet velocity contour simulation
Appendix H: Water jet velocity vector simulation
Appendix I: Arduino programming code
Appendix J: Thrust calculation
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
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LIST OF TABLES
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Table 2.1 Previous research on the CWJT 31
Table 2.2 Classification of smart material actuators 35
Table 2.3 Characteristics of actuators and its definition 38
Table 2.4 The displacement and driving force of IPMC at different DC 44
supply voltages of 1V-3V (Chung et al., 2006)
Table 3.1 LDPE properties (Plasticintl, 2016) 71
Table 3.2 Mesh models for mantle model grid independency test 73
Table 3.3 Mesh models for AUV drag grid independency test 79
Table 3.4 Control Parameters and AUV Dimension 81
Table 3.5 Mechanical Properties for EVA copolymer 84
Table 3.6 Mesh models for fluid velocity grid independency test 86
Table 3.7 Actuation frequency 91
Table 4.1 DOE analysis to verify the most influential factors on the 108
displacement the IPMC actuator during oscillation
Table 4.2 Simulation results for all design models 110
Table 4.3 Averaging the contraction displacement highest (frequency) 128
Table 4.4 Averaging the contraction displacement (lowest frequency) 129
Table 4.5 Compilation of averaged data for every frequency and 129
nozzle aperture diameter
Table 4.6 Angle for every contraction in radian 133
Table 4.7 Contraction volume of for every samples 134
Table 4.8 Water jet velocity 137
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LIST OF FIGURES
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Figure 1.1 Classification of Swimming Mechanism 3
(Colgate and Lynch, 2004)
Figure 2.1 Squid morphology (Krieg and Mohseni, 2010) 10
Figure 2.2 Squid mantle muscles and its structure (Gosline and 10
De Mont, 1985)
Figure 2.3 a) The parallel lines present squid radial muscle and 11
(b) SEM image of complex collagen fibres in squid mantle
Figure 2.4 Contractile phases of the squid mantle (Gosline and 12
De Mont, 1985)
Figure 2.5 Variation of commercial thrusters. From left, open rotary 14
propeller blade on the right is the water jet thruster
Figure 2.6 Some examples of AUV thrusters (Lin and Guo, 2012; 15
Gonzalez, 2004. (a) Centrifugal thrusters with nozzle,
(b) rotary blade propeller
Figure 2.7 Underwater vehicle or robot propulsion system 16
classification.
Figure 2.8 Examples of bio-inspired propulsion system; Robosquid 17
(Krueger et al., 2010) and Vortex ring thruster (Krieg and
Mohseni, 2009)
Figure 2.9 Fundamental concept of the contractile water jet propulsion; 19
(a) Relax phase, (b) Inflation phase and (c) Deflation phase
Figure 2.10 Acting forces for a moving AUV 21
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Figure 2.11 Bollard Pull Test (Muljowidodo et al., 2009); a) Schematic 23
diagram b) Actual test
Figure 2.12 Thrust measurement using gage test (Guo et al., 2010) 24
Figure 2.13 Vortex ring formation based on formation number (Gharib 26
et al., 1998); a) L/D = 2, b) L/D = 3.8 and c) L/D = 14.5
Figure 2.14 Speed per body length performance of several underwater 27
biomimetic propulsion system (Chu et al., 2012)
Figure 2.15 Comparison of CWJT locomotion speed performance with other 29
propulsion systems and its natural counterparts (Chu et al., 2012)
Figure 2.16 Work capacity of smart material actuators according to their 39
weight (Zupan et al., 2002)
Figure 2.17 Basic IPMC actuator structure 41
Figure 2.18 Nafion (perflorinated alkene) monomer 41
Figure 2.19 IPMC actuation phase (Punning et al., 2007); (a) IPMC without 42
voltage supply, (b) IPMC with voltage supply
Figure 2.20 IPMC model (Shahinpoor and Kim, 2001) 43
Figure 2.21 IPMC actuation free body diagram (Ji et al., 2009) 44
Figure 2.22 Designation of every dimension for IPMC actuator (Ji et al., 46
2009)
Figure 2.23 IPMC displacement at different thickness and supply voltage 47
(Kim et al., 2003)
Figure 2.24 IPMC tip force at different thickness and supply voltage 47
(Kim et al., 2003)
Figure 2.25 IPMC actuation induced by AC voltage supply 50
Figure 2.26 Schematic diagram for characterization setup (Vahabi et al., 2011) 50
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Figure 3.1 Primary process to fabricate the IPMC (Yu et al., 2007; 54
Yip et al., 2011)
Figure 3.2 Platinum salt hydrate ([Pt(NH3)4]Cl2) 55
Figure 3.3 Reduction process in water bath 55
Figure 3.4 Flow chart for the secondary process (Yu et al., 2007; 57
Yip et al., 2011)
Figure 3.5 Platinum particles formed on the Nafion surface during 58
reduction process and became grey coloured IPMC
Figure 3.6 Pictorial view of the actuating force characterization 61
Figure 3.7 Schematic of actuation force characterization 61
Figure 3.8 Oscillation characterization with illustrated laser beam for 63
displacement measurement.
Figure 3.9 Schematic of oscillating characterization 64
Figure 3.10 AUV Prototype with CWJT Thruster 66
Figure 3.11 Real squid mantle 67
Figure 3.12 Conceptual design of the proposed CWJT 67
Figure 3.13 Force elements during contraction 69
Figure 3.14 Proposed CWJT mantle designs 70
Figure 3.15 Flow chart for the simulation analysis 72
Figure 3.16 Definition of the fixed support area and the deformable area 74
of the model at specific actuation force magnitude
Figure 3.17 AUV rapid prototype for drag test 75
Figure 3.18 Drag testing experimental setup 76
Figure 3.19 Simulation process flow for ANSYS Fluent software 78
Figure 3.20 The AUV size and fluid domain ratio 79
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Figure 3.21 Meshed domain 80
Figure 3.22 Setting the boundary condition in ANSYS Fluent 81
Figure 3.23 Design of the mould for CWJT mantle 85
Figure 3.24 Geometrical model of the simulation 87
Figure 3.25 Example of calculation and converged solution 88
Figure 3.26 Experimental setup for contraction measurement 90
Figure 3.27 Actual contraction measurement 90
Figure 3.28 3D view of the contraction volume of the CWJT 92
Figure 3.29 Area division to determine the volume by integration 93
Figure 3.30 Experimental setup schematic diagram 95
Figure 3.31 Actual setup test rig 95
Figure 3.32 Ejection time, te calculation 98
Figure 4.1 Supply voltage influence on actuation the force characterization 101
Figure 4.2 Metal plated influence on the actuation force characterization 102
Figure 4.3 IPMC actuator force characterization at different thickness 104
Figure 4.4 IPMC actuator force characterization at different length 105
and orientation of actuation
Figure 4.5 Displacement of IPMC actuator at different length and 107
input frequency
Figure 4.6 Grid independency test for the CWJT mantle model 110
Figure 4.7 Grid independency test for shear wall stress of the AUV 111
Figure 4.8 Drag analysis via simulation and experiment 113
Figure 4.9 Drag contour based on fluid flow velocity 114
Figure 4.10 Grid independency test for fluid flow analysis 115
Figure 4.11 The relation between Total Pressure, Dynamic Pressure and 117
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Static Pressure at various nozzle aperture
Figure 4.12 Dynamic pressure distribution in the nozzle and at the opening 119
Figure 4.13 Total pressure distribution within the nozzle and at the opening 119
Figure 4.14 Dynamic and total pressure for different nozzle aperture 120
diameter at 10 mm water jet trail
Figure 4.15 Fluid velocity analysis using ANSYS FLUENT software 121
Figure 4.16 Vector analysis on fluid flow 122
Figure 4.17 Relation between fluid velocity and the nozzle aperture 125
diameter
Figure 4.18 Thrust at different nozzle aperture size by simulation result 126
Figure 4.19 Acquisition of raw data for the highest actuation frequency, 127
0.5 Hz
Figure 4.20 Acquisition of raw data for the lowest actuation frequency, 128
0.005 Hz
Figure 4.21 The correlation between displacement and actuation 130
frequency at different nozzle apertures
Figure 4.22 Determination of affected zone to measure the maximum 132
contraction volume
Figure 4.23 Contraction volume at different actuation frequency 135
Figure 4.24 Fluid ejection during contraction 136
Figure 4.25 Measurement of the water jet velocity 136
Figure 4.26 Water jet velocity and the nozzle aperture sizes 137
Figure 4.27 Thrust at different nozzle aperture 139
Figure 4.28 Comparison between the experiment and simulation thrust 142
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AC Alternating current
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
BCA-O Body/Caudal Actuation-Oscillatory
BCA-U Body/Caudal Actuation-Undulatory
CAD Computer Aided Design
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamic
CNT Carbon nanotube
CP Conductive polymer
CWJT Contractile water jet thruster
DAQ Data acquisition
DC Direct current
DE Dielectric elastomer
DI Deionized water
DOE Design of Experiment
DOF Degree of Freedom
DPIV Digital Particle Image Velocimetry
EAP Electro active polymer
EVA Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
EW Equivalent weight
FDM Fused Deposition Modelling
FEA Finite Element Analysis
gf Gram force
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IPMC Ionic Polymer Metal Composite
JET Water jet propulsion
MPA-O Median/Paired Actuation-Undulatory
MPA-U Median/Paired Actuation-Oscillatory
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene
ROV Remotely operated vehicle
SEM Scanning electron microscope
SMA Shape memory alloy
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
t
V
Volume changes in time
µ Dynamic viscosity of the fluid
AAUV Fluid-AUV contact area
Ac Contact area of the actuator on the CWJT
An Nozzle aperture
BL/s Speed unit in Body-Length per second
CD Drag coefficient
CT Capacitive ion transduction
Dn Nozzle diameter
E Young Modulus
eq Ion exchange capacity
EW Equivalent weight
Ɛ0 Lever deformation
FB Blocking force
Fb Reaction force from the body of the CWJT
fc Contraction frequency
Fc Contraction/Actuation force
FD Drag force
fi Input frequency
Fwj Reaction force from the contraction
Hz Frequency unit, Hertz
h IPMC thickness
I Second moment inertia
kb Constant of CWJT body
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L IPMC actuator length
L/D Length over diameter ratio
Le Maximum distance of the ejected fluid
Ll Length of the force to the strain gage
Ln Length of the nozzle channel
me Ejected fluid mass
ṁe Mass flow rate of the ejected fluid
mi Initial fluid mass
p Distributed load of the IPMC
Pact Actuation pressure (Applied pressure by IPMC on CWJT)
Pc Contraction pressure (inside CWJT)
Ps Static pressure
PT Total pressure
q Dynamic pressure
Q Fluid volumetric flowrate
Re Reynolds number
Rh Hydrodynamic resistance
Rn Nozzle radius
Rp Resistance across the Nafion
Rs Resistance between electrode and Nafion
Rss Surface resistance of the IPMC
S IPMC actuator bending displacement
Smax Maximum IPMC actuator bending displacement
T Oscillation period
tc Contraction time
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te Time taken to reach the maximum distance of the ejected fluid
Tf Thrust
ub AUV velocity
uj Average jet velocity
Vc Contraction volume or ejected fluid volume (mm3) at certain time
Vs Supply voltage (v)
Vmax Maximum contraction volume (mm3)
V f Contraction volume rate
vAUV AUV velocity
ve Ejected fluid velocity
vi Initial fluid velocity
vk Kinematic viscosity of water
vosc Oscillation speed
W Width of the contraction volume
w Width of IPMC actuator
Z Moment second area
Zw Nafion induction
α IPMC actuator bending angle
β CWJT contraction angle
δ CWJT mantle displacement
ΔP Pressure drop
π pi (3.142)
ρf Fluid density
ρw Water density
ӯ Distance between centroid of affected zone and the axis of rotation
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PEMBANGUNAN DAN PENCIRIAN PENUJAH JET AIR MENGECUT
GERAKAN KOMPOSIT POLIMER – LOGAM BERION
ABSTRAK
Komposit Polimer-Logam Berion (IPMC) merupakan salah satu bahan pintar yang
boleh digunakan sebagai penggerak untuk Penujah Jet Air Mengecut (CWJT) yang
merupakan penujah jet air alternatif untuk kenderaan bawah air berautonomi (AUV).
Kelebihan penggerak IPMC adalah ianya ringan, fleksibel, boleh digunakan dalam air
dan memerlukan voltan yang rendah. Walaubagaimanapun daya gerak IPMC yang
rendah menghadkan penjanaan daya tujah. Oleh demikian, kajian ini dijalankan untuk
menyiasat sifat aliran bendalir yang terhasil daripada gerakan IPMC ke atas CWJT.
Siasatan ini meliputi pemerhatian terhadap hubungkait di antara beberapa faktor yang
mempengaruhi penghasilan daya tujah seperti saiz muncung jet, bekalan tenaga untuk
IPMC dan frekuensi gerakan IPMC. Kajian ini melibatkan kerja-kerja merekabentuk
konsep prototaip penujah, fabrikasi dan mencirikan penggerak IPMC, simulasi
keadaan bendalir pada rekabentuk prototaip dan juga beberapa ujikaji untuk
penentusahan data. Hasil ujikaji dan penentusahan data menunjukkan saiz muncung
jet dan frekuensi penggerak merupakan faktor utama dalam pembangunan penujah jet
air yang digerakkan oleh IPMC. Frekuensi penggerak yang sesuai adalah di bawah 0.1
Hz. Sebarang nilai frekuensi melebihi 0.1 Hz akan mengurangkan keupayaan
pengecutan CWJT. Daya tujahan maksima yang dicapai dalam penyelidikan ini adalah
4.52 mN pada bekalan kuasa sebanyak 6 V. Ini tidak sesuai untuk AUV yang berat
dan mempunyai panjang lebih dari 1 m. Walau bagaimanapun, ia sesuai untuk AUV
kecil atau AUV mikro yang beroperasi dalam air yang berarus rendah.
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DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE IONIC POLYMER
METAL COMPOSITE ACTUATED CONTRACTILE WATER JET
THRUSTER
ABSTRACT
Ionic Polymer Metal Composite (IPMC) is a type of smart material that can be utilized
as the actuator for contractile water jet thruster (CWJT) which is an alternative thruster
for autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). The advantages of IPMC actuator are
light, flexible, able to be utilized underwater and consuming low voltage. However,
IPMC low actuation force has limited the thrust generation. Hence, this research had
been conducted to investigate the character of the fluid flow generated by the IPMC
actuation on the CWJT. This investigation includes the observation on the relation of
few factors that influence the thrust generation such as the nozzle aperture size, supply
voltage for IPMC actuation and actuation frequency. This research consists of
designing the conceptual prototype thruster, fabricating and characterizing the IPMC
actuator, simulating the fluid flow of the prototype design and few experiments for
data validation. The results and validation from the experiments showed that nozzle
aperture size and actuation frequency of the IPMC actuator were influential factors in
the development of IPMC actuated CWJT. The feasible actuation frequency was 0.1
Hz. Any higher frequency than 0.1 Hz would decline the CWJT contraction
performance. The maximum thrust achieved in this research was 4.52 mN at 6 V
supply. It is not feasible for heavy and more than 1 m long AUV. However, it suits for
small or micro AUV that works in low current waters.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background
The development of autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) is simply driven by
three major lines of motivation; the underwater biodiversity exploration,
environmental ecology concern and the current fast growing sub-ocean industry (Yuh,
2000b; Roper et al., 2010). The related task that requires AUV service regarding these
domain of activities including underwater research, oil and gas exploration,
underwater construction, water quality monitoring, military activities, sub-ocean
mining and eco-tourism. The working environment and nature of the task has
determined the design of the AUV. For instance, a linear motion seabed topography
scanning requires a torpedo shape AUV design for minimal drag influence. On the
other hand, three dimensional seabed pipeline monitoring would utilize a 6 Degree of
Freedom (DOF) box shaped AUV design because it has more manoeuvrability and
linear speed locomotion is not a priority (Guo et al., 2010; Shi et al., 2013). Meanwhile,
Yue et al. (2015) and Guo et al. (2016) had designed and developed a spherical AUV
which has the advantage in manoeuvrability, flexibility and outstanding shock
resistance.
One of the current trend in the AUV development and has become great
attention from many researchers is the small scale AUV that is able to do sensing and
observation tasks in various dimension and complex structure (Curtin et al., 2005; Lin
and Guo, 2012). In addition, by applying swarm AUV sensing technique, 3D data
could be recorded and thus would give a better comprehension on the ongoing
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investigation (Vasilescu et al., 2005; Campos and Codina, 2015). However, though the
AUV technology had been developed since 1960’s, researchers and engineers are still
struggling to achieve the ultimate swimming performance under the conventional
design AUV which is trading off the speed and manoeuvrability of the AUV (Roper
et al., 2010). Furthermore, for a small scale sensing AUV which has limited space for
energy supply means shortage of operation time. Another concern is the noise from
the conventional electric motor is unnecessary. All these constraints had shifted the
researchers to the out-of-the-box solution; by getting the inspiration from the nature
for design outcome and promoting new actuation techniques (Shi et al., 2013).
Naturally, aquatic animals such as fish, squid and eels are excellent swimmers
with high propulsion efficiency in term of both speed and manoeuvrability (Yu et al.,
2005). Without rotating propeller, fish for instance manages to move at fast speed (up
to 65mph for sailfish) and able to accelerate at difficult angle either to catching its prey
or escaping away from its predators (Hingham, 2007). Besides, those aquatic animals
manage to move in near silent motion. Ability to move stealthily is a vital characteristic
for predator fish. In order to achieve the optimum propulsion efficiency at high
manoeuvrability degree and lower drag, researchers had imitated these aquatic animal
swimming principles in their AUV design (Chu et al., 2012). This non conventional
AUV is known as bio-inspired or biomimetic AUV. In general, there are three main
classifications for aquatic animal swimming mechanism which are;
i. Oscillating
ii. Undulatory
iii. Jet propulsion
There are few subcategories between the oscillating and undulatory swimming
mechanism or propulsion system as depicted in Figure 1.1 (Colgate and Lynch, 2004).
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Almost all aquatic vertebrates such as fish, eels and quite large number of reptile
species such as snake, crocodile and iguana utilize oscillating and undulatory
swimming mechanics. Only few invertebrates such as squid, jellyfish, octopus and
nautilus apply the water jet locomotion. Unlike the oscillating and undulatory
swimming mechanism, the water jet propulsion is based on impulse.
Figure 1.1: Classification of Swimming Mechanism (Colgate and Lynch, 2004)
This impulse is generated from pressurized fluid. Currently, most of the small
scale water jet propulsion system is driven by electric motor. The obvious difference
between the squid water jet mechanism and the motor powered water jet mechanism
is the fluid compression technique. The squid generates water jet pressure using body
contraction while the motor powered water jet applies rotary blade compression
without body deformation. The utilization of rotary blade compression in commercial
thrusters generates noise while the blade propeller induces cavitation in most of the
condition and would be harmful for underwater creatures (Wang et al., 2011). The
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electric motor itself, contribute unnecessary load. Body contraction water jet which is
applied by the squid, compresses the fluid by reducing the mantle volume. This
contraction is not a continuous process but it is an intermittent process. Thus, the
contraction frequency has significant influence on the thrust efficiency. There are few
option of actuators that can be utilized to perform the intermittent contraction. In
addition to the contraction frequency, contraction force, water inlet and water outlet
opening are another few parameters that must be considered to achieve the optimum
thrust efficiency.
Hence, in this research the main goal is to developed contractile water jet
thruster (CWJT) and conduct parametrical studies to investigate its performance as a
thruster for small AUV. A suitable actuator which is more silent, light and compatible
to the sensing measurement condition will be adapted. Based on preliminary studies,
there are few options of actuators that could be utilized to substitute the fluid
compression techniques which is driven by blade – motor integration. The potential
actuators would be pneumatic based actuators and smart material actuators. Though
the air is compressible and the actuators could be miniaturized, a complete pneumatic
system require air reservoir, compressor and control valve which are too bulky for
small scale AUV (Nishioka et al., 2011). Smart material actuators seems likely to fit
in the actuation system. However, there are numbers of smart materials with various
actuation characteristics and input requirements (Mikhrafai et al., 2007).
Basically, smart material is a man-made material that has one or more
properties that is being changed due to external inputs such as electric, electromagnetic
fields and light (Chopra, 2002). This characteristics had made smart material as an
option to fabricate actuators and artificial muscle. Though there is no specific category
for this smart material actuators yet, this actuators could be recognized by its based
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materials, which are metal based, ceramic based and polymer based. Shape Memory
Alloys (SMA) is one example for metal based smart material and piezoelectric material
is a kind of ceramic based smart material. Dielectric elastomer (DE), Conducting
Polymers and Ionic Polymer Metal Composite (IPMC) are few examples for polymer
based smart materials. Based on the requirement, IPMC had been selected as the
potential actuator for the CWJT. IPMC requires low driving voltage, flexible and able
to work underwater (Shahinpoor and Kim, 2001). However, the main challenge for
this research is mainly comes from the limitation of IPMC whereby the actuation force
is between 1.0 gf and 8.0 gf per actuator, depending on the dimensional geometry
(Shahinpoor and Kim, 2001). The research works would involve the design and
development of CWJT using smart material actuator and investigating the water jet
generation performance at different inputs.
Problem Statement
Currently most of the commercial thruster available in the market for AUV is
developed based on electric motor powered rotary blade. The combination of electric
motor and the rotary blade along with batteries requires a rigid and stiff AUV body
structure to support those items. Basically, rotary thruster produces thrust in one
straight direction which represents one axis of motion. Generally, there are three axis
of motions for AUV locomotion which are forward – backward motion or surge,
upward – downward motion or heave and right – left motion or sway (Benetazzo et al.
2015). Therefore, to perform these motions AUV will be equipped with at least three
thrusters. Rotational motion at every axis which are the roll, pitch and yaw requires
another three thrusters. Though this thrusters increases the manoeuvrability degree of
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the AUV, it limits the flexibility and locomotion speed of the AUV. The flexibility
features is vital for AUV in challenging task such as monitoring and logging data in a
complex underwater structure (Xu and Mohseni, 2012). Too much thrusters attached
to the AUV make it rigid and bulky. Hence, it difficult to pass through narrow passage
or staggered corners. This bulky shape AUV will also decreasing its locomotion speed
by increasing the drag.
Another problem with the existing rotary blade thruster is the noise that being
created by the blade and electric motor vibration. As water is denser than air, then any
vibration that caused by the thruster and electric motor will be propagated in all
direction from the AUV. The noise from this vibration must be avoided for certain
underwater mission especially that require highly sensitive sensing measurement.
Those noise will interrupt the data logging process as well as giving effect to the
surrounding objects. Besides, there is another problem with rotary blade thruster which
is getting entangled with debris or long rope – like objects such as drifted wires,
plastics, net, ropes or even long kelps. Marine and river pollution had increased
drastically over last few decades especially involving with plastics (Ivar do Sul and
Costa, 2014; Cole et al., 2011; Desforges et al., 2014). Hence, based on these problems,
a novel design of underwater thruster without using rotary blade propeller will be
developed. Fluid displacement that produces thrust from the rotary blade propeller will
be performed using another technique. In this research, the feasibility studies of the
new technique will be conducted.
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Objectives
The main objective of this research is to investigate the performance of the IPMC
actuated CWJT thruster. This main objective consists of few specific objectives which
are to;
1. Characterize the IPMC actuation force and bending displacement over few
input elements such as voltage, frequency, IPMC length and IPMC thickness.
2. Utilize the IPMC actuation force and bending displacement for generating
CWJT prototype.
3. Investigate the influence of nozzle aperture size, input frequency and supply
voltage on the thrust force generation.
Scope of Work
The scope of this research covers the fabrication and characterization of the
IPMC actuator and the CWJT prototype. As this research focuses more on the
feasibility studies and characterization on the CWJT, only one specification of the
IPMC actuator will be used in this research. Platinum plated IPMC actuator which is
enhanced with Li+ will be utilized. The thickness of the IPMC actuator is fixed at
0.5 mm. Thinner IPMC actuator has lower actuation force (Lee et al., 2006a). In
contrast, thicker IPMC actuator has higher actuation force but has lower displacement
(Kim and Shahinpoor, 2002). The only varied input parameters for the IPMC actuator
are the supplied voltage, current magnitude and actuation frequency. The consequence
of these input variation will be also observe on the generated thrust, body deformation
rate, internal built-up pressure and jet velocity of the CWJT. In this studies, single
8
viscosity of non-Newtonian fluid will be used. The ambient pressure of the working
environment will be fixed at the atmospheric pressure which is approximately
101.39 kPa. This is because the developed AUV will be applied in shallow water where
there is no extreme depth working dimension.
Organization of Thesis
This thesis is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 gives the background of
the research including the main goal and motivation of this research. The problem
statement, objectives and scope of the studies are also described in this chapter. The
content in Chapter 2 provides reader with the review on the current researches on
biomimetic underwater robot propulsion systems. This review covers the various
design and types of the contractile water jet thrusters, the selection of actuators and the
introduction of IPMC smart actuator as well as brief review on the structure of real
squid mantle.
Chapter 3 discusses the methodology of this research which consists of design
and modelling stage, simulation of the model, fabrication and characterization of the
IPMC actuator and the CWJT. Chapter 4 contains the discussion of the gained results
from the experiments. Comparative analysis between the simulation and experiment
results are reported in this chapter. Finally, Chapter 5 exhibits the conclusion and
further works of this research.
9
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews the squid mantle morphology and its locomotion system, the
autonomous underwater propulsion systems, the CWJT, water jet mechanics and the
IPMC actuator. The overview of the autonomous underwater propulsion system covers
the design aspects, working principle, types of actuators and the future trend of the
propulsion system.
2.1 Squid Mantle Morphology and Propulsion System
Cephalopods such as squid and cuttlefish have unique locomotion methods
which are the water jet propulsion and undulatory lateral fin (Colgate and Lynch,
2004). The water jet propulsion is utilized for long range and acceleration locomotion
while the undulatory lateral fin is applied during short range locomotion. In average,
an adult squid manage to achieve average locomotion speed at 0.3 m or 0.9 Body
Length per second (BL/s) using its water jet propulsion to travel as far as 2000 km for
migration (Gosline and De Mont, 1985). The water jet propulsion is obtained by the
contractile mantle (Figure 2.1). The water is ejected from the mantle via a controlled
nozzle aperture named the funnel. As the focus of this research is more on imitating
the water jet propulsion system, the function of undulatory fin was excluded in the
biomimetic squid AUV design. Typically the morphological geometry of the mantle
is a bullet shape tapered at one end of its edge. The tapered angle of the mantle is
depending on the species of the cephalopods family.
10
Figure 2.1: Squid morphology (Krieg and Mohseni, 2010)
For instance, octopus and cuttlefish have more rounded shape edge. There are
two types of muscles that form the squid mantle. They are the radial muscle and
circular muscle (Gosline and De Mont, 1985). The structure of these muscles is
depicted as in Figure 2.2. Between these muscles, lies another two types of collagen
fibres that help actuation of every muscle in every contractile phase. Figure 2.3 a) and
b) show the real muscles of squid mantle, viewed using Alicona 3D profile microscope
and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).
Figure 2.2: Squid mantle muscles and its structure (Gosline and De Mont, 1985)
11
(a) (b)
Figure 2.3: a) The parallel lines present squid radial muscle and (b) SEM image of
complex collagen fibres in squid mantle
Each of these muscles has its own function which is related to the contractile
function. Basically the squid move in two modes of jet swimming locomotion which
is the slow swimming mode and escape or fast mode. During slow swimming mode
there are two phases of mantle deformation; the inflation and deflation-relaxed phases.
On the other hand, there are three phases of mantle deformation during escape jetting
that produce higher acceleration. The respective phases for escape jetting are the
relaxed phase, hyper-inflation phase and deflation phase (Gosline et al., 1983). During
the relaxed phase, all the squid muscles are in rest state and there is no deformation
process occurred. The second phase is the hyper-inflation phase where the external
diameter of the mantle increases by about 5 to 10 % over the relaxed state. During this
state, the radial muscle contracts while the circular muscle relaxes. The mantle
thickness become thinner and mantle internal volume increases to create vacuum in
the mantle. This vacuum allows water to be drawn into the mantle cavity (Gosline and
De Mont, 1985). The inflation stage is followed by deflation stage whereby the water
is ejected during the contraction process.
12
At this stage, the circular muscle contracts while the radial muscle relaxes to
increase the mantle thickness and reducing the internal volume. The internal diameter
reduced to 40 % from its initial value. Research had recorded that the contraction
pressure in the mantle would reach up to 25 kPa, 36 % higher than normal human
systolic blood pressure (Gosline and De Mont, 1985). The sudden volume reduction
ejects the fluid out via muscle controlled nozzle area. Then, the mantle returns to its
inflation stage. Figure 2.4 exhibits the cycle of this contractile phase. This process
cycles continuously for nonstop locomotion. The speed of the locomotion is controlled
by the contraction force and the nozzle opening area. Understanding the basic principle
of this squid mantle working behaviour is more less would benefit to preliminary
concept to design the CWJT AUV.
Figure 2.4: Contractile phases of the squid mantle (Gosline and De Mont, 1985)
13
2.2 AUV Propulsion System
Propulsion system refers to a mechanism that converts mechanical power to
generate the driving force that could move a body. In the case of underwater robot or
vehicle, propulsion system is an essential element and becomes an indispensable factor
in designing any underwater vehicle (Alotta et al., 2014). Lin et al. (2012) in his
research revealed that the propulsion system is the basis of the control layers of the
whole system for the autonomous underwater vehicle. In addition, the propulsion
system is also the main energy consumer compared to other system in underwater
robot (Aras et al., 2009). Besides, for autonomous underwater vehicle where the
energy capacity is limited, the applied propulsion system must be efficient to cover
wider and last long operation range (Roper et al., 2011).
Thus, propulsion efficiency is the key matter that initiates further studies such
as blade design, propulsion mechanism design, body hydrodynamic analysis, material
flexibility and navigation control system development. In those studies, scientists and
engineers had worked out a lot of simulations and experiments that blending new
material, design structure, control algorithm, manufacturing technique and
hydrodynamic knowledge to achieve optimize propulsion efficiency (Zhang et al.,
2009). Those studies however were depending on the working environment and the
nature of the task that must be carried out by the underwater vehicle. As generally
understood, based on its definition, a propulsion system is consists of few main
elements which are the power source, actuator and propulsion mechanism. Almost all
the commercial AUVs use battery as the source of energy. Another option for energy
source is the solar energy and fuel cell (Cordova and Gonzalez, 2013; Yuh, 2000a).
The type of actuator for propulsion system is depending on the propulsion mechanism.
14
Most AUV applies rotary blade propeller which is driven by electric motor as the
actuator.
Ironically, the existing commercial rotary blade thrusters applies the water jet
principles but in different fluid compression technique. Starting at lower than 200mm
blade diameter, the thrust efficiency of the rotary blade propeller declines significantly
(Schultz, 2009). Thus, engineers had designed the rotary blade thruster with hole-
through cylindrical shape enclosure to increase the thrust efficiency. The enclosure
varies in term of radial convergence degree, enclosure length and inlet-outlet diameter
ratio. As concluded in Figure 2.5, this variation has led the ‘open’ rotary blade
propeller to the design of commercial water jet thruster. Generally, once a smaller size
of underwater vehicle is being developed, then the water jet thruster has the tendency
to be applied. There are many variations of rotary blade propeller design. Some of
them work with nozzle, some without nozzle and another type is using centrifugal
wheel mechanism with nozzle (Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.5: Variation of commercial thrusters. From left, open rotary blade propeller.
On the right is the water jet thruster
15
(a) (b)
Figure 2.6: Some examples of AUV thrusters (Lin and Guo, 2012; Gonzalez, 2004);
(a) Centrifugal thrusters with nozzle, (b) rotary blade propeller
Apart from the conventional propulsion system, it could be concluded that
there is also non-conventional propulsion system that had been applied for AUV. This
type of propulsion system has two sub categories which are the biomimetic propulsion
system and bio-inspired propulsion system. Figure 2.7 shows the classification of these
propulsion systems. Though through definition biomimetics can be considered as the
subcategory of bioinspiration, in term of propulsion systems technique the two
concepts could be clearly separated (Lepora et al., 2013). The difference between
biomimetics and bioinspiration is the latter implies taking nature as a source of
inspiration in developing the man-made system while the biomimetics imitates the
nature’s system in term of function, motion character and morphology (Roper et al.,
2011). The examples of bio-inspired underwater propulsion systems are such as the
ultrasonic wave as developed by Tan and Hover (2012), Tan and Hover (2010) and Yu
and Kim (2004), Robosquid which was developed by Krueger et al. (2008) and vortex
ring thrusters by Krieg and Mohseni (2010). Figure 2.8 presents some examples of
these bio-inspired propulsion system.
16
The biomimetic propulsion examples are such as the oscillating caudal fin and
jellyfish water jet propulsion (Xu et al., 2008; Yeom and Oh, 2009). These biomimetic
propulsion systems had been applied for AUV locomotion, especially in a small scale
prototype as an alternative option of the common rotary blade propeller. The reasons
why biomimetic propulsion had been adapted are to increase the propulsion efficiency,
to save energy, to improve manoeuvrability, to operate in shallow water, to operate
silently and to be robust against messy water (Xu et al., 2007).
Figure 2.7: Underwater vehicle or robot propulsion system classification
AUV propulsion
systems
Fixed nozzle
Bio-inspired
propulsion
Non-conventional
propulsion
Biomimetic
propulsion
Conventional
propulsion
Open rotary
blade
Rotary blade
with nozzle
Jellyfish-like umbrella Squid/Cuttlefish
Mantle
Non-uniform nozzle
Contractile water jet
thruster (CWJT)
Oscillating
propulsion
Undulatory
propulsion
17
(a) (b)
Figure 2.8: Examples of bio-inspired propulsion system; (a) Robosquid (Krueger et
al., 2010) and Vortex ring thruster (Krieg and Mohseni, 2009)
In the context of AUV propulsion system, currently there are three biomimetic
propulsion systems had been developed by researchers (Ye et al., 2008). They are the
oscillating propulsion, undulatory or cilia propulsion and water jet propulsion. The
best way to describe oscillating propulsion is by looking at the fish tail mechanism
where the biomimetic tail oscillates continuously to generate thrust (Sharma and
Yendluri, 2013; Neveln et al., 2013). Undulatory propulsion requires the whole body
movement to create sine wave-like motion such as snake, lamprey and eel (Ha et al.,
2011; Maxey, 2011). There are also fishes that utilize this kind of propulsion such as
manta ray and catfish. Paramecium which is in the minute protozoan family use its
undulatory cilia to swim. Biomimetic water jet propulsion is a propulsion system that
based on fluid impulse. It is also recognized as CWJT. By nature, this type of
propulsion is referring to the cephalopods and hydromedusan propulsion system such
as nautilus, squid and octopus. Besides, there is other marine creature that swims using
water jet application which is the bivalve mollusks family such as the scallops and
clam (Tremblay et al., 2015). The detail of biomimetic water jet propulsion system is
described in Section 2.3.
18
2.3 CWJT
As discussed in the final part of Section 2.2, biomimetic water jet propulsion
is inspired by mimicking the squid and jellyfish jet propulsion system. Contractile
function of the pressure chamber is the notably character to show the biomimetic
propulsion system. Currently there are two categories of CWJT which are the non
uniform nozzle size or aperture and uniform or fixed nozzle size CWJT. Biomimetic
jellyfish is an example for CWJT that has non uniform nozzle (Marut et al., 2013;
Barber et al., 2011) while the biomimetic cuttlefish is an example of uniform nozzle
CWJT (Wang et al., 2011). CWJT which is developed in this research falls under the
uniform nozzle CWJT category. It is well understood that the fundamental water jet
thruster design consists of pressure chamber, actuator, water inlet and nozzle as the
water outlet (Figure 2.9). Each of these components has big influence on the
performance of the generated pulsed water jet. In fact, all these components are
interrelated each other. For instance, the volume of the pressure chamber determines
the amount of fluid to produce the thrust. Pressure chamber volume differentiation
depends on the speed and force of the actuator. On the other hand, nozzle opening area
and the actuator would determine the velocity of the ejected fluid.
Basically there are three phases that commit to the contractile propulsion
process. Firstly is the rest or initial phase where there is no actuator’s motion at all. As
the actuator is being activated, it increases the volume of the pressure chamber thus
reducing the internal pressure and become vacuum. The relatively low pressure in the
pressure chamber compared to the ambient pressure cause the fluid enters the pressure
chamber. This process is also known as inflation process. The next stage is the actuator
moves into the opposite direction to decrease the volume and increase the pressure.
19
This process is recognized as deflation process. The compressed fluid will be ejected
via the nozzle (Figure 2.9). This process repeats in several cycles for continuous
motion. The continuous cycles are one of the vital observation in developing a CWJT.
It is measured in term of the contraction frequency.
Figure 2.9: Fundamental concept of the contractile water jet propulsion; (a) Relax
phase, (b) Inflation phase and (c) Deflation phase
2.3.1 Contraction frequency
Repeating and continuous contraction creates sine wave data for physical
properties of the CWJT such as the volume and pressure differentiation, contraction
force, ejected fluid velocity as well as thrust for every pulse. As described in Section
2.3, fluid manipulation at certain rate determines the performance of the CWJT. Thus,
fluid volume and contractile frequency are among the significant factors that influence
the performance of the CWJT. The relation between the fluid volume and the
contraction frequency can be represented as a sine function and described in equation
2.1 (Stemme and Stemme, 1993):
)2sin()( max ccc tfVtV (2.1)
Pressure
chamber Nozzle
Inlet
Fluid in
Water
jet
Actuator’s
motion (a) (c) (b)
20
where Vc is the volume of the ejected fluid at specific time, tc. Vmax is the maximum
ejected fluid volume which is depending on the maximum expansion of the pressure
chamber. The maximum ejected fluid volume could be translated as the amplitude in
the typical sine function. fc is the contraction frequency. Due to the above relation, the
sine function gives the positive and negative fluid volume. However, it is impossible
to have negative volume. Thus, shifted sine function had been used to model the
contractile pressure chamber volume as shown in Equation 2.2;
cccc VtfVtV )2sin()( max (2.2)
During inflation phase, the amount of the ingested fluid should be equal to Vmax
ideally. During total deflation, Vmax is equal to zero. This condition however, depends
on the contraction frequency and speed of actuation. In this research, Vc variation will
be observed by varying the fc values. Conclusion on the hypothesis will be obtained to
show how far the contraction frequency could influence the manipulated fluid. This
study is vital for this research because Vc determines the value of the generated thrust.
2.3.2 Thrust and Drag
Thrust which is the prime goal in designing any thruster could be achieved by
determining the vector of the accelerated fluid. It is a mechanical force that generated
by the propulsion system (Guo et al., 2009). Thrust can be measured in N or kgms-2
and as a vector it includes the direction. Locomotion could only be achieved if thrust
overwhelms the drag (Figure 2.10). Contradict to thrust, drag is a force that resists the
thrust in the opposite direction. Every time there is motion then drag is occurred. There
21
are two types of drag which are the pressure drag or form drag and skin friction drag
(Nesteruk et al., 2014). The pressure drag occurs from the hydrostatic pressure and the
value of the drag coefficient which depends on the shape of the AUV. Skin friction
drag occurs from the interaction between the fluid and the body of the AUV. This kind
of drag has the effect of the shear stress of the vehicle body (Husaini et al., 2009).
Figure 2.10: Acting forces for a moving AUV.
Generally, thrust could be defined as the changes of the momentum of the fluid
that obeys 2nd and 3rd Newton law. This relation can be represented as Equation 2.3;
c
iieef
t
vmvmT
(2.3)
where Tf is the thrust, me is the ejected fluid mass, ve is the ejected fluid velocity, mi is
the initial fluid mass and vi is the initial fluid velocity. tc is the contraction time. This
equation could be simplified as in Equation 2.4, because in water jet mechanism, the
fluid mass is not constant and varies according to time. Thus,
eeef vmvdt
dmT (2.4)
22
where ṁe is mass flow rate of the jetted fluid. Since mass flow rate is intricate to
measure, the mass flow rate could be substituted with ejected fluid volume, V f and
density of the fluid, ρf. Now, Equation 2.4 becomes;
efff vVT (2.5)
Using continuity flow relation, Equation 2.5 could be simplified as (Li et al., 2015);
2
enff vAT (2.6)
An is the nozzle opening area. An and ρf are constants in the thrust and velocity relation.
Based on this relation, it is obvious that the thrust will increase exponentially as the
ejected fluid velocity are increased.
Currently, the thrust of the AUV thruster can be measured in two methods
which are the “Gage” or “Pull” technique. Pull technique is the conventional method
to measure the thrust of any watercraft at any size. This technique is also known as
Bollard Pull Test. During implementing this technique, the fluid condition must be at
near zero velocity and the thruster is freely moveable in the thrust direction. The
measurement could be taken using manual force scale or digital force scale depending
on the thruster specification (Li et al., 2015). Figure 2.11a and 2.11b show the example
of Bollard Pull test done by Muljowidodo et al. (2009). The other method to measure
the thrust is by using the load cell (Wen et al., 2012). This method is suitable for small
scale thrusters or AUV thrust measurement. In this method, the thrusters or AUV will
be attached at a beam which has predetermined its young modulus and the moment
23
inertia. The load cell will be attached at the beam. Once the thruster operates, small
displacement could be read by the load cell and the data will be converted into thrust
force. Figure 2.12 depicted the example of gage thrust measurement technique done
by Guo et al. (2010). The thrust force, Tf could be determined using Equation 2.10;
0l
fL
ZET (2.10)
where Z is the second moment area, E is the Young Modulus of the beam, Ll is the
length of the force point to the strain gage and ε0 is the lever deformation. ε0 value can
be obtained using the strain gage.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.11: Bollard Pull Test (Muljowidodo et al., 2009); (a) Schematic diagram
and (b) Actual test
Thruster
Reverse force Gage
Thrust Jet
24
Figure 2.12: Thrust measurement using gage test (Guo et al., 2010)
Generally, drag can be measured using the drag formula (Shi et al., 2015;
Zakrisson et al., 2015);
AUVbfDD AuCF
2
2
1 (2.11)
where FD is the drag force, CD is the drag coefficient, ρf is water density, ub and AAUV
are both AUV velocity and contacting area of the AUV during the motion. Drag
coefficient could be measured during experiment or simulation (Karim et al., 2008;
Joung et al., 2009). Based on Equation 2.11, it is obvious that drag depends on the
fluid density, speed of the object and shape of the object.
2.3.3 Dimensionless parameter
The analytical works on CWJT includes the influence of the input parameters
on the resulting thrust, the fluid flow formation to determine the propulsion efficiency
and the design of a control system to sustain desired output from disturbance.
According to Krieg and Mohseni (2008), there are two dimensionless parameters that
149
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