Design of Urban Space_ an Inquiry Into a Socio-Spatial Process_Ali Mad Ani Pour

8/14/2019 Design of Urban Space_ an Inquiry Into a Socio-Spatial Process_Ali Mad Ani Pour

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Design ofUrban SpaceAn Inquiry intoa Socio-spatialProcess

University of N ewcastle,Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

JOHN WILEY & SONSChichester New York Brisbar)e Toronto Singapore


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Copyr ight 1996 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd ,Baff ins Lane , Chichester ,West Sussex P019 lUD, EnglandNational 01243 779777International (+ 44) 1243 779777e-mail ( for orders and customer service enquir ies) ; [email protected] Visit our Home Page on h t t p : / / w w w . w i l e y . c o . u kor h ttp : / / w w w . w i l e y . c o m

All Rights Reserved . No par t of th is book may be reprodu ced , stored in a re tr ieval system, ortransmitted , inany form or by any means, e lectronic , mechanica l , photocopying, recording, scanning orotherwise , except under the te rms of the Copyr ight , Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the te rms of ahcence issued bythe Copyr ight L icensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Cour t Road , London W IP 9HE , UK,without the permission in writ ing ofthe publisher.Other Wiley Editorial OfficesJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. , 605 Third Avenue ,New York , NY 10158-0012 , USAJacaranda Wiley Ltd , 33 Park Road, Milton ,Queensland 4064 , Austra liaJohn Wiley & Sons (Canada) L td , 22 Worcester Road ,Rexdale , Ontar io M9W ILl , CanadaJohn Wiley & Sons (Asia ) P te L td , 2 Clement! Loop # 02-01 ,J in Xing Distr ipark , S ingapore 1 29809

C o n t e n t s

Library of Congress Cataloging~in-Publication DataM a d a n i p o u r , AliDesign ofUrban Space : an inquiry into a socio-spatia l process /Aii M a d a n i p o u rp, cm.Includes bibliographica l re ferences and index .ISBN 0 -471 -96672-X (cloth) .~ ISBN 0 -471 -96573-8 (pbk) .1. Space (Architecture ) . 2. City planning History20th century.3 . Architecture and socie tyHistory20th century. I.Title.N A 9 0 5 3 . S 6 M 3 3 1996

7ir,4dc20 96-21431CIP

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA ca ta logue record for th is book is ava ilable f rom the Br it ish LibraryISBN 0 -471 -96672-X (cloth)ISBN 0 -471 -96673-8 (paper )Typeset in 10 /12pt Pa la tino f rom the author 's d isks by Mackre th Media Services,Hemel Hempstead , Her tsPr inted and bound in Great Br it ian by Bookcraf t (Bath) L td .This book isprinted on acid-f ree paper responsibly manufactured f rom susta inable foresta tion , for whichat least two trees a rc p lanted for each one used for paper production .

Introduction

PART ON E PERSPEC TIVES INTO URBA N SPACEChapter 1 Unders tandi ng Urban Space

Dilemmas of spaceAbsolute and relational spaceSpace and massPhysical and social spaceMental and real spaceAbstract and differential spaceSpace and timeSpace and place -Space and specializationConclusion

Chapter 2 Structural Framewor ks of Urban SpaceSocio-spatial geometries of urban spaceNatural spaceCreated spaceUrban form and historical processesThe city as a work of artThe city as an embodiment of functionsEcology of urban structureThe internal structure of the cityUrban morphologyPolitical economy of urban structureConclusion

Chapt er 3 People in the CityEnvironmental cognitionA behavioural approach to spaceMapping urban images

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mailto:[email protected]://www.wiley.co.uk/http://www.wiley.com/http://www.wiley.com/http://www.wiley.co.uk/mailto:[email protected]


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Contents Contents v ii

M e a n i n g a n d u r b a n s e m i o t i c s 6 9P e rs p e c t i v e o f e v e ry day l i f e 73O rd e r and d i f f e re n c e i n u rba n s p ac e 75Ci t y o f s t ran ge rs 78F e a r a n d c r i m e i n u r b a n s p a c e 8 0W o m e n i n u r b a n s p a c e 8 3C o n c l u s i o n 8 7P A R T T W O T H E M A K I N G O F U R B A N S P A C EC h a p t e r 4 U r b a n D e s i g n P r o c e s s 9 1

W h at i s u rba n de s i gn ? 91A m b i g u i t i e s o f u r b a n d e s i g n 9 2M a c r o - o r m i c r o - s c a l e u r b a n d e s i g n ? 9 4U r b a n d e s i g n a s v i s u a l o r s p a t i a l m a n a g e m e n t ? 9 7U r b a n d e s i g n a s n i c e i m a g e s 9 7Urb an de s i gn as t he ae s t he t i c s o f t he u rban e nv i ro nme nt 99U r b a n d e s i g n a s s o c i a l o r s p a t i a l m a n a g e m e n t ? 1 0 2P r o c e s s o r p r o d u c t ? 1 0 4P r o f e s s i o n a l d i v i d e 1 0 7A p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e s e c t o r ac t i v i t y ? 109O b j e c t i v e - r a t i o n a l o r s u b j e c t i v e - i r r a t i o n a l ? 1 1 0Urb an de s i g n as a t e c hni c al p ro c e s s 113Urb an de s i g n as a s o c i a l p ro c e s s 113U r b a n d e s i g n a s a c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s 1 1 5C o n c l u s i o n 1 1 7

C h a p t e r 5 P r o d u c t i o n o f t h e B u i l t E n v i r o n m e n t 11 9U r b a n d e s i g n a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s 1 1 9M o d e l s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s 1 2 2S u p p l y - d e m a n d m o d e l s . 1 2 3E q u i l i b r i u m m o d e l s 1 2 3E v e n t - s e q u e n c e m o d e l s 1 2 4A g e n c y m o d e l s 1 2 6P o l i t ic a l e c o n o m y m o d e l s 1 2 7C a p i t a l - l a b o u r m o d e l s 1 2 7S t r u c t u r e - a g e n c y m o d e l s 1 2 8U s e v a l u e a n d e x c h a n g e v a l u e 1 3 0S t r u c t u r e s a n d a g e n c i e s 1 3 2U r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s a n d u r b a n f o r m 1 3 5A m o d e l o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s 1 3 6Imp ac t o f c ha nge in t he de v e l o p m e nt p ro c e s s o n u rban s p ac e 137C o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f s p a c e a n d s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f d e s i g n 1 3 7G l o b a l i z a t i o n o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t i n d u s t r y 1 4 1P r i v at i z at i o n o f p u bl i c s p a c e 144W h at i s p u b hc s p ac e ? 146

P u b l i c s p h e r e t h e o r i e sP u b l i c s p a c e i n a s h o p p i n g m a l l ?C o n c l u s i o nC h a p t e r 6 R e g u l a t i n g U r b a n F o r m

T h e s t a t e , t h e m a r k e t a n d s p a c e p r o d u c t i o nP l a n n i n g a n d d e s i g nD e s i g n c o n t r o lDe s i gn c o nt ro l o r ae s t he t i c c o nt ro l ?D o e s a e s t h e t i c s m a t t e r ?A e s t h e t i c j u d g e m e n t : s u b j e c t i v e o r o b j e c t i v e ?W h o s e t s t h e a e s t h e t i c s t a n d a r d s ?G o o d u r b a n f o r mP l a n n i n g d o c u m e n t s a n d d e s i g nG o v e r n m e n t a d v i c eD e v e l o p m e n t p l a n sD e s i g n g u i d e sD e s i g n b r i e f sO t h e r e x p e r i e n c e s o f d e s i g n c o n t r o lC o n c l u s i o nC h a p t e r 7 I m a g e s o f P e r f e c t i o n

U t o p i aU r b a n c o n t e x tU r b a n i s m o f t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n p a r a d i g mM o d e r n i s t u r b a n d e s i g nP o s t - m o d e r n u r b a n i s mA n t i - u r b a n p a r a d i g mS u b u r b a n i s mP l a n n e d a n t i - u r b a n i s mS o c i a l is t a n t i - u r b a n i s mB r o a d a c r e C i t yM i c r o - u r b a n i s m o f t h e s m a l l t o w n p a r a d i g mG a r d e n c i t i e s. N e i g h b o u r h o o d u n i tR a d b u r nP l a n n e d d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f L o n d o nB r i t i s h n e w t o w n s

N e w U r b a n i s mC o n c l u s i o nC h a p t e r 8B i b l i o g r a p h yI n d e x

D e s i g n o f U r b a n S p a c e

14 815 015 31 5515 515 816 016 116 316 516 716 917 117 217 217 417 517 718 118 318 518 618 818 819 219 619 720 020 020 120 120 220 420 520 620 620 921 32 1522 323 7


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H o w d o w e m a k e s e n s e o f a c i t y w h e n w a l k i n g a l o n g a n y o f i t s s t r e e t s , t h i n k i n ga b o u t t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f w h a t w e s e e b e f o r e o u r e y e s a n d w o n d e r i n g a b o u t t h a tw h i c h l i e s b e h i n d t h e f a c a d e s o f t h e b u i l d i n g s a n d b e y o n d t h e b e n d o f t h e s t r e e t ?H o w d o w e r e a d a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e t a n g l e o f o v e r l a p p i n g a n d i n t e r t w i n e d s t o r i e st h a t t h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f p e o p l e , o b j e c t s a n d e v e n t s o f f e r s ? A s w e w a l k d o w n w h a ts e e m s t o b e a n e n d l e s s l a b y r i n t h , w e m a y w o n d e r a b o u t c h a n g e i n t h i s u r b a n s c e n e .W e m a y b e c o n s c i o u s o f a c o n s t a n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h i s l a n d s c a p e , o r r a t h e rc i t y s c a p e , a r o u n d u s , a m u t a t i o n t h a t w e h a v e c o m e t o a s s o c i a t e w i t h l i v e l i h o o d .W i t h o u t m o v e m e n t a n d c h a n g e , w e h a v e l e a r n t , t h e r e i s n o l i f e .I f t h i s c h a n g e s e e m s s o e s s e n t i a l , h o w d o w e u n d e r s t a n d i t a n d h o w d o w e r e l a t ei t t o t h e u r b a n s o c i e ty a n d u r b a n s p a c e ? W h a t k i n d o f c h a n g e i s i n e v i t a b l e a n dw h a t k i n d o f c h a n g e d o w e w a n t t o h a p p e n ? I f t h e r e a r e c h a n g e s t h a t w e p r e f e r t ot a k e p l a c e , h o w d o w e p r o m o t e a n d a c h i e v e t h e m ? H o w d o w e r e l a t e t o o t h e r s a n d

t o c h a n g e s t h e y w a n t t o s e e h a p p e n ? I s i t p o s s i b l e , o r d e s i r a b l e , t o s h a p e a n dr e s h a p e t h i s a p p a r e n t l y a m o r p h o u s c o m p l e x i t y a m i d t h e d i v e r s i t y o f i n t e r e s t s a n dp r e f e r e n c e s ? W h a t d o w e d o t o p r e s c r i b e c h a n g e a n d t o i m p l e m e n t i t ? W h a t k i n d so f p r o c e s s e s c a n t r a n s f o r m t h e u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t ? W h a t a r e t h e n a t u r e a n d s c o p eo f t he de s i gn o f t he bu i l t e nv i ro nme nt ?I n t h i s b o o k , I s e t o u t t o u n d e r s t a n d u r b a n d e s i g n a n d t h e s p a c e i t h e l p s t o s h a p e .As I wi l l s ho w, t he re i s a ne e d t o l o o k at s p ac e , as a c o mbi nat i o n o f p e o p l e ando bj e c t s , f ro m a v ar i e t y o f i n t e rc o nne c t e d p e rs p e c t i v e s . I wi l l argu e t hat t h i s s p ac e i sb e s t u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f i t s c r e a t i o n , a n d t h a t p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c a n ds y m b o l i c f a c t o r s c l o s e l y i n t e r a c t i n s u c h a p r o c e s s . T h e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a c t i v i t y o fu r b a n d e s i g n i s a n i m p o r t a n t c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t o f t h i s c r e a t i o n . T o u n d e r s t a n d u r b a nd e s i g n w e w i l l n e e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e u r b a n s p a c e a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t p r o d u c eit.T h i s b o o k i s a n a t t e m p t t o d e l i n e a t e t h e s u b j e c t a r e a s o f u r b a n d e s i g n i n r e s p o n s et o t h r e e i n t e r l i n k e d d e m a n d s . F i r s t , t h e r e i s a d e g r e e o f a m b i g u i t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y

a b o u t t h e n a t u r e a n d s c o p e o f u r b a n d e s i g n . I t s i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y n a t u r e h a s l e d t o al a c k o f c l a r i t y i n i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o u r b a n p l a n n i n g , a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d l a n d s c a p ed e s i g n , a m o n g a n u m b e r o f d i s c i p l i n e s t h a t a r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e s i g n a n dd e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n s p a c e .S e c o n d , t h e r e i s a g r o w t h o f i n t e r e s t i n u r b a n d e s i g n . A s w i d e l y r e f l e c t e d i np r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s , u r b a n d e s i g n h a s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e e n s e e n b y a r c h i t e c t s ,l a n d s c a p e a r c h i t e c t s , a n d p l a n n e r s a s a n i m p o r t a n t a n d e x c i t i n g a r e a f o r p e r s o n a l


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X Introduction Introduction x i

n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n i n n e w c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e a p p r o a c hc o n c e n t r a t e s o n m o d e l s , a n d o n f i n d i n g t h e m e s o n w h i c h v a r i a t i o n s c a n b e m a d e .O n e d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h i s a p p r o a c h i s t h a t t h e o u t c o m e c a n b e p e r s o n a l a n dd e s c r i p t i v e , r a t h e r t h a n a n a l y t i c a l a n d e x p l o r a t o r y . A n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y i s i t sr e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n u r b a n s p a c e . I t t e n d s t o a s s u m e t h a t m a n ya s p e c t s o f h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d b e h a v i o u r a r e r e l a t i v e l y t i m e l e s s ; t h ee x a m p l e s a r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , a n d f a i l t o a d d r e s s t h e c h a n g e s i ns o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d f o r m s o f b e h a v i o u r a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i c h v a r y w i t h t i m ea n d p l a c e . T h i s p r e s c r i p t i v e c o n c e r n , t h e r e f o r e , n e e d s t o b e s u p p o r t e d b y a na n a l y t i c a l o n e , a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o n t e x t f o r w h i c h n o r m s a r e b e i n gp r o p o s e d , a n d o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p r o c e s s i n w h i c h u r b a n s p a c e i s m a d e a n dt r a n s f o r m e d .A th ir d a l ter n a t ive , w h ich I h ave ad opted in th is b ook , i s to s ee ur b an d es ig n as as oc io- s pat ia l pr oces s . I t i s in th is a r en a , I h ave f oun d , th a t th e n a tur e of ur b and e s i g n c a n b e e x p l o r e d . A s i t i s r o o t e d i n p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e sa n d i n v o l v e s a n u m b e r o f a g e n c i e s i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h s o c i o - s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s , u r b a nd e s i g n c a n o n l y b e u n d e r s t o o d i n i t s s o c i o - s p a t i a l c o n t e x t . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e ,t h e t e c h n i c a l , c r e a t i v e a n d s o c i a l e l e m e n t s o f u r b a n d e s i g n a l l c o m e t o g e t h e r t op r o v i d e i n s i g h t i n t o t h i s c o m p l e x p r o c e s s a n d i t s p r o d u c t s .I n m y a n a l y s i s o f u r b a n d e s i g n a n d s p a c e , I h a v e u s e d t h e t e r m " u r b a n s p a c e " n o tm e r e l y t o r e f e r t o t h e s p a c e s b e t w e e n b u i l d i n g s , i . e . v o i d s a s d i s t i n c t i v e f r o mc o r p o r e a l m a s s : I h a v e u s e d t h e t e r m i n a b r o a d s e n s e , t o e n c o m p a s s a l l t h eb u i l d i n g s , o b j e c t s a n d s p a c e s i n a n u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t , a s w e l l a s t h e p e o p l e , e v e n t sa n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n t h e m . I n t h i s a n a l y s i s , I h a v e f o u n d a n u m b e r o f k e yc o n c e p t s u s e f u l : t h e n e c e ss i t y o f a b r o a d a p p r o a c h t o u r b a n d e s i g n ( L y n c h , 1 9 8 1 ) , o fs ee in g ur b an s pace as th e s pace of ur b an r eg ion s r a th er th an c i ty cen tr es ( C h ar ter ofA t h e n s , 1 9 3 3 , c i t e d in S e r t , 1 9 4 4 ), an d t h r o u g h m a n y a r c h i t e c t u r a l h i s t o r i a n s , s e e i n gu r b a n s p a c e i n a h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . A n a l y s e s o f t h e t r e a t m e n t o f s p a c e a s ac o m m o d i t y , t h e n o t i o n s o f s o c i a l s p a c e a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f s p a c e ( L e f e b v r e , 1 9 9 1 ) , t h er e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y a n a l y s i s a n d e v e r y d a y l i f e p e r s p e c t i v e s( H a b e r m a s , 1 9 8 7 ; L e f e b v r e , 1 9 9 1 ) a n d b e t w e e n s t r u c t u r e s a n d a g e n c i e s i n s o c i a lp r o c e s s e s ( G i d d e n s , 1 9 8 4 ) h a v e p r o v i d e d p o w e r f u l i n s i g h t s i n t o u r b a n s p a c e a n d i t st r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e s a m e i s t r u e o f t h e n o t i o n o f h o w d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f u s e , a n du s e r e x p e c t a t i o n s , c a n c r e a t e c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n , e x c h a n g e a n du s e o f t h e b u i l t e n v i r o n m e n t ( L o g a n & M o l o t c h , 1 9 8 7 ) .I s t a r t b y s t u d y i n g u r b a n s p a c e , a s t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h u r b a n d e s i g n t a k e s p l a c ea n d a s t h e p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t o f t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s . T h i s i s t h e s u b j e c t o f P a r t O n e ,c o m p l e m e n t e d b y P a r t T w o , w h i c h l o o k s a t t h e u r b a n d e s i g n p r o c e s s i t s e l f .P a r t O n e a n a l y s e s t h e w a y s i n w h i c h w e l o o k a t c i t i e s a n d o u r p e r c e p t i o n s a n du n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m . T h e k e y w o r d h e r e i s o u r knowledge o f c i t i e s : o u r d e s c r i p t i v ea n d a n a l y t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e ci t y , w h i c h f o r m t h e b a s i s o f o u r w a y s o f d e s i g n i n gt h e - u r b a n s p a c e . I t i s s u b d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e c h a p t e r s . C h a p t e r 1 l o o k s f o r a m e a n i n go f u r b a n s p a c e , s e a r c h i n g f o r a c o n c e p t t h a t i s n o t c o n f i n e d w i t h i n d i s c i p l i n a r yb o u n d a r i e s . I t e x a m i n e s t h e d i l e m m a s a n d g a p s i n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s p a c e , a n ds u g g e s t s o v e r c o m i n g t h e d i l e m m a s a n d b r i d g i n g t h e g a p s b y c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n t h ep r o c e s s o f c r e a t i n g u r b a n s p a c e . C h a p t e r 2 l o o k s a t h o w u r b a n s p a c e i s s t r u c t u r e d .T w o m a i n a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e g e o m e t r y o f u r b a n s p a c e a r e i d e n t i f i e d : o n e t h a t

1 .

a n d p r o fe s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . D e s p i t e t h e s l o w - d o w n i n p r o p e r t y d e v e l o p m e n t , ii n t e r e s t in u r b a n d e s i g n h a s g r o w n , p a r t l y d u e t o a r i s i n g a w a r e n e s s o f \e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s a n d c o n c e r n f o r t h e q u a l i t y o f u r b a n e x p e r i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y a s jw i d e l y p u b l i c i z e d d e b a t e s a b o u t u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s h a v e a t t r a c t e d p u b l i c |a t t e n t i o n . T h e l a u n c h o f n e w p o s t g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m m e s i n u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d o f n e w ju r b a n d e s i g n j o u r n a l s a r e i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h is g r o w i n g a t t e n t i o n . Y e t t h e r e i s a d e a r t h 'o f p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l o n t h e s u b j e c t . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e n a t u r e o f u r b a n d e s i g n , It h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s i n g a n d u r g e n t d e m a n d f o r m o r e a n a l y s i s a n d d e b a t e .T h i r d , a n d d i r e c t l y l i n k e d t o t h e o t h e r t w o , t h e r e i s a d e m a n d f o r r e s e a r c h i n 'u r b a n d e s i g n . A s a p r a c t i c a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r , w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h r e l a t e d a c a d e m i c |f i e l d s , u r b a n d e s i g n h a s n o t b e e n s u f f i c i e n t l y s u p p o r t e d b y r e s e a r c h . A s a r e - ;e m e r g i n g e n t e r p r i s e , h o w e v e r , i t r e q u i r e s a r e s e a r c h a g e n d a t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d , ;w h i c h w o u l d p r o v i d e i t w i t h t h e m u c h - n e e d e d c o n c e p t u a l s u p p o r t . T h i s s t u d y i sm e a n t t o o f f e r a p l a t f o r m t h a t w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s a g e n d a a n d h e l p t o i d e n t i f y t h e [p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .T h e t a s k i s b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n t o b r i d g e a g a p t h a t e x i s t s i n t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o ;u r b a n d e s i g n . T h e e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e i s m o s t l y w r i t t e n w i t h i n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a lt r a d i t i o n s a n d f r a m e s o f r e f e r e n c e , h e n c e a p p r o a c h i n g n o r m a t i v e l y t h e p h y s i c a ld i m e n s i o n s o f t h e b u i l t e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s h a s c l e a r l y l e d t o a l a c k o f m u t u a l ;u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e t w e e n t h o s e e n g a g e d i n s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n s o f s p a c e , i . e . p l a n n e r s , iu r b a n g e o g r a p h e r s a n d u r b a n s o c i o l o g i s t s a s w e l l a s u r b a n d e s i g n e r s . T h e b o o k ;. ^ n t e n d s t o a d d r e s s b o t h p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e b u i l t e n v i r o n m e n t i n

I a n i n t e g r a t e d w a y . T h e r e f o r e , i t t a r g e t s a l l g r o u p s w h o a r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e! r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s o c i e t y a n d s p a c e . T h e a i m i s t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a n di n s i g h t i n t o t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e d e s i g n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n s p a c e , w i t h o u t 'c l a i m i n g t o o f f e r a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t b u t w i t h a h o p e t o o f f e r :c o h e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d p l a t f o r m s f o r d e b a t e .A b o o k o n u r b a n d e s i g n c a n b e w r i t t e n i n s e v e r a l \vay s . O n e a p p r o a c h i s t o s e e ' ]u r b a n d e s i g n a s a t e c h n i c a l p r o c e s s , b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r t h e s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n ;n e e d e d i n t h i s p r o c e s s . I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t r o a d s t a n d a r d s , o p e n s p a c e r e q u i r e m e n t s , 't r e e s a n d p l a n t s i n t h e u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t , l i g h t i n g , i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , p a t t e r n s o f a c c e s s , m o d e s o f t r a n s p o r t , p e d e s t r i a n i z a t i o n s c h e m e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i s n e e d e d i n t h e ;d e s i g n o f u r b a n a r e a s . A n u r b a n d e s i g n b o o k c o u l d a s s e m b l e t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n o r ;c o n c e n t r a t e o n a n y o n e o f t h e s e a r e a s . T h i s i s a v a l u a b l e a p p r o a c h t h a t h a s g e n e r a t e d a n a b u n d a n c e o f m a t e r i a l , i n t h e f o r m o f d e s i g n m a n u a l s a n d s t a n d a r d s :o r i n t h e f o r m o f e n g i n e e r i n g r e s e a r c h a n d e x p e r t i s e . B y f o l l o w i n g t h i s ro u t e , p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n s f o r s o m e u r b a n p r o b l e m s c a n b e s o u g h t . H o w e v e r , it d o e s n o t ]l e a d t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e a n d s c o p e o f t h e p r o c e s s i n w h i c h t h i st e c h n i c a l k n o w l e d g e i s e m p l o y e d , n o r t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t s p r o d u c t .A n o t h e r a p p r o a c h i s t o s e e u r b a n d e s i g n a s a c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s . T h i s a p p r o a c h , 'w h i c h h a s b e e n w i d e l y u s e d i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l w r i t i n g , b r i n g s t o g e t h e r a c o l l e c t i o n o f\e x a m p l e s o f u r b a n s p a c e , w h e r e d e s i g n h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d s u c c e s s f u l , a n d d r a w s \c o n c l u s i o n s i n th e f o r m o f d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s . T h i s n o r m a t i v e a p p r o a c h h a s a in u m b e r o f a d v a n t a g e s , a s i t t e n d s t o r e c o r d a n d t o p r o v i d e a s t o r e o f g o o d e x a m p l e s ;f o r d e s i g n e r s . T h e s e l e c t i o n o f e x a m p l e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s t a k e s p l a c e o n t h e b a s i s o f 't h e a c c u m u l a t e d w i s d o m o f p r e v i o u s a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y g e n e r a t i o n s , t o b e ;i n t e r p r e t e d t h r o u g h t h e a u t h o r s ' e x p e r i e n c e a n d k n o w l e d g e , a n d p u t f o r w a r d f o r :
http://vays/http://vays/


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x ii Introduction

PART OlUEPerspectivesinto Urban Space

c o nc e nt rat e s o n t he c i t y as an ar t e f ac t and ano t he r t hat s e e s a c i t y as s p at i a lre l at i o ns hi p s . The s e are , ho we v e r , p e rs p e c t i v e s t o s t u dy t he c i t y f ro m abo v e ,de t ac he d and o b j e c t i v e . Chap t e r 3 o f f e rs ano t he r p e rs p e c t i v e , f ro m be l o w, l o o ki ngat e v e ryday l i f e . He re t he i s s u e s o f me ani ng, be hav i o u r and d i f f e re nc e aredi s c u s s e d , as e xe mp l i f i e d by t he e xp e r i e nc e s o f s t range rs and wo me n i n u rbans p ac e . To ge t he r t he s e t hre e c hap t e rs o f f e r an u nde rs t andi ng o f u rban s p ac e as as o c i o - s p at i a l e nt i t y t hat ne e ds t o be s t u di e d bo t h o b j e c t i v e l y and s u b j e c t i v e l y , a t t hei nt e rs e c t i o n o f s p ac e p ro du c t i o n and e v e ryday l i f e .P ar t Two c o nc e nt rat e s o n t he u rban de s i gn p ro c e s s as a c o ns t i t u e nt p ar t o f u rbans p ac e p ro du c t i o n . Fo l l o wi ng t he s t u dy o f o u r kno wl e dge o f u rban s p ac e i n P ar t

O n e , P ar t Two i s de v o t e d t o t he ways i n whi c h u rban s p ac e i s s hap e d andp ro du c e d . The ke y wo rd he re i s t he action t hat i s t ake n i n t he u rban de s i gn p ro c e s s :t he p re s c r i p t i v e ap p ro ac h t o t he c re at i o n o f f u t u re u rban s p ac e .P ar t Two i s s u bdi v i de d i n t o f o u r c hap t e rs . Chap t e r 4 t r i e s t o c o nf ro nt ambi gu i t i e si n t he s c o p e o f u rban de s i gn and t o f i nd a de f i n i t i o n f o r it . Chap t e r 5 l o o ks at t here l at i o ns hi p be t we e n u rban de s i gn and t he u rba n de v e l o p me n t p ro c e s s . A mo de l o ft he de v e l o p m e nt p ro c e s s i s p ro p o s e d , and t he c hangi ng nat u re o f de v e l o p m e ntage nc i e s and t he i r i mp ac t s o n u rban s p ac e are e xami ne d. So me o f t he s e i mp ac t s ,s u c h as t he s t andardi zat i o n o f de s i gn and t he p r i v at i zat i o n o f s p ac e , are t he n br i e f l ydi s c u s s e d . Chap t e r 6 f o c u s e s o n t he re l at i o ns hi p be t we e n u rban de s i gn and t hep l anni ng s ys t e m. I t e v al u at e s t he qu e s t i o n o f de s i gn and ae s t he t i c c o nt ro l , andre v i e ws t he me ans by whi c h t he p l anni ng s ys t e m, mai n l y i n Br i t a i n , de al s wi t hde s i gn . Af t e r e xami ni ng e c o no mi c and p o l i t i c a l c o nt e x t s o f u rban de s i gn , we t u rno u r at t e nt i o n t o t he i mage s and i de as u s e d t o s hap e u rban s p ac e . Chap t e r 7d i s c u s s e s U t o p i a s as a s t ro ng i n f l u e nc e o n u rban de s i gn t h i nki ng. I t i de nt i f i e s t hre emai n t re nds i n t we nt i e t h c e nt u ry u rban de s i gn : u rbani s m, ant i - u rbani s m, andmi c ro - u rbani s m. In u rbani s m, wi t h i t s mo de rni s t o r p o s t - mo de rni s t t e nde nc i e s , t hef o c u s o f at t e nt i o n i s o n s hap i ng and re s hap i ng u rban s p ac e . In ant i - u rbani s m, t hei nt e nt i o n i s t o abando n u rban are as and t o c o l o ni ze t he c o u nt rys i de . Mi c ro -u rbani s m, as e xe mp l i f i e d i n t he Br i t i s h ne w t o wns o r t he Ame r i c an Ne w Urbani s m,has c o nf ro nt e d and c o mbi ne d bo t h u rbani s t and ant i - u rbani s t t e nde nc i e s . Chap t e r 8br i ngs t he v ar i o u s e l e me nt s t o ge t he r and o f f e rs s o me c o nc l u s i o ns .


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CHAPTER 1U n d e r s t a n d i n gU r b a n S p a c eT h e t h r e e c h a p t e r s i n t h i s p a r t c o n c e n t r a t e o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g u r b a n s p a c e a s a na g g l o m e r a t i o n o f p e o p l e , o b j e c t s a n d e v e n t s . I n t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e c o n c e p t s o f s p a c ea n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h u r b a n d e s i g n w i l l b e e x p l o r e d . I n C h a p t e r 2 , w e w i l ll o o k at ho w t h i s u rban s p ac e i s s t ru c t u re d . Chap t e r 3 t he n f o c u s e s o n t he p e o p l ew i t h i n t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s a n d o n h o w u n d e r s t a n d i n g u r b a n s p a c e w i l l n o t b ec o m p l e t e w i t h o u t l o o k i n g a t i t f r o m b e l o w , a s w e l l a s f r o m a b o v e . T o g e t h e r , t h e s et hre e c hap t e rs o f f e r an i ns i ght i n t o u rban s p ac e . P ar t 2 wi l l f o l l o w t h i su n d e r s t a n d i n g b y a n a l y s i n g u r b a n d e s i g n a s o n e o f t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t p r o d u c e t h i su r b a n s p a c e .Thi s c hap t e r wi l l f o c u s o n s p ac e as t he mai n s u b j e c t mat t e r o f u rban de s i gn and anu mbe r o f o t he r d i s c i p l i ne s and p ro f e s s i o ns . I t wi l l e xp l o re s o me o f t he mai na p p r o a c h e s t o , a n d t h e d i l e m m a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h , t h e c o n c e p t o f s p a c e . A t t h e r i s ko f o v e rs i m p l i f y i ng c o m p l e x c o n c e p t s i n t he l i mi t e d s p ac e o f a c hap t e r , 1 wi l l s e arc hf o r a me ani ng o f s p ac e , whi c h c an be u s e d i n u rban de s i gn and c an be s hare d wi t ho t he r s p at i a l ar t s and s c i e nc e s . Thi s c hap t e r wi l l l o o k at t he way v ar i o u s d i s c i p l i ne si nv o l v e d i n t he s t u dy and t rans f o rmat i o n o f s p ac e t e nd t o u nde rs t and i t . Di s c i p l i ne ss u c h a s g e o g r a p h y , p l a n n i n g a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e , w h o s e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n i s w i t hs p a c e , h a v e d e v e l o p e d c o n c e p t s o f s p a c e f r o m d i f f e r e n t , b u t i n e v i t a b l y i n t e r r e l a t e d ,p e rs p e c t i v e s . In t he i r t he o r i zat i o ns , t he y hav e o f t e n be ne f i t e d f ro m de bat e s i np h i l o s o p h y , p s y c h o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y , m a t h e m a t i c s a n d p h y s i c s , t o n a m e a f e w . T h e s ep e r s p e c t i v e s v a r y w i d e l y , i n c l u d i n g s e e i n g s p a c e a s a p h y s i c a l p h e n o m e n o n , ac o n d i t i o n o f m i n d , o r a p r o d u c t o f s o c ia l p r o c e s s ^ A b r i e f re v i e w o f s o m e o f t h e s ec o nc e p t u al i zat i o ns wi l l s e rv e u s i n a v ar i e t y o f ways . I t wi l l o f f e r an aware ne s s o ft h e d i m e n s i o n s o f s p a c e , w i t h k e y s t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d e b a t e s a b o u ts p ac e wi t h i n d i f f e re nt d i s c i p l i ne s . Thi s wi l l he l p u s t o p o s i t i o n o u rs e l v e s and t o f i ndo u r w a y i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n t r i c a t e m a z e o f u r b a n s p a c e a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n sabo u t i t .The s e arc h f o r a me ani ng o f s p ac e i s a ne c e s s ary s t e p t o t ake as i t i s c ru c i a l t hatbe f o re mo v i ng i n t o t he no rmat i v e re al m o f de s i gn , we e xp l o re t he re al m o f t hed e s c r i p t i \ ' e a n d a n a l y t i c a l , i n o t h e r w o r d s , t o u n d e r s t a n d u r b a n s p a c e b e f o r eat t e mp t i ng t o t rans f o rm i t . The h i ghl y p re s c r i p t i v e and p rac t i c al nat u re o f de s i gnre qu i re s a s e t o f i n f o rmat i o n t o be as s e mbl e d , o f t e n t o o qu i c kl y du e t o t i me l i mi t s .


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4 Design of Urban Space

D i l e m m a s o f s p a c eW e f r e q u e n t l y h e a r a b o u t " s p a c e " , a t e r m t h a t w e u s e e a s i l y a n d i n a v a r i e t y o fc o nt e x t s . W e u s e i t as i f t he me ani ng o f t he t e rm i s f re e f ro m any p ro bl e ms andc o n t r a d i c t i o n s , a s i f w e a l l a g r e e w h a t s p a c e m e a n s . Y e t m o s t w o u l d b e s u r p r i s e d b yt he mu l t i p l i c i t y o f i t s me ani ng i f we mo ni t o re d o u r o wn u s age o f t he t e rm. TheOxford English Dictionary gi v e s no f e we r t han 19 me ani ngs f o r t he t e rm, i nc l u di ng a" c o n t i n u o u s e x p a n s e i n w h i c h t h i n g s e x i st a n d m o v e " , a n " a m o u n t o f t h i s t a k e n b ya p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g o r a v a i l a b l e f o r p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e " , a n d a n " i n t e r v a l b e t w e e np o i n t s o r o b j e c t s " . T h e s e m e a n i n g s r e f l e c t s o m e a s p e c t s o f t h e t e r m ' s c o m m o nu nde rs t andi ng as u s e d i n dai l y l i f e . The y al s o i l l u s t rat e t he c o mp l e x i t y o f t hec o nc e p t and re f e r t o de e p l y ro o t e d de bat e s abo u t i t , whi c h hav e be e n ru nni ng f o r al o n g t i m e .

A b s o l u t e a n d r e l a t i o n a l s p a c eI t may make s e ns e t o s t ar t o u r s e arc h f o r ap p ro ac he s t o s p ac e at t he c o re o f t hes o c i a l s c i e nc e s . Ho we v e r , de s p i t e t he s i gns o f i nc re as i ng at t e nt i o n ( e .g .G i d d e n s , 1 9 8 4 ; G o t t d i c n o r , 1 9 9 4 ) , s o f a r t h e r e h a s h a r d l y b e e n a s t r o n g i n t e r e s t i ns p ac e by s o c i o l o gi s t s . Thi s i s c l e ar l y re f l e c t e d i n t he abs e nc e o f t he t e rm f ro m mo s ts o c i o l o g y r e f e r e n c e b o o k s ( H o u l t , 1 9 6 9 ; F a i r c h i l d , 1 9 7 0 ; M i t c h e l l , 1 9 7 9 ; A b e r c r o m b i e ,H i l l & T u r n e r , 1 9 8 4 ; B o u d o n & B o u r r i c a u d , 1 9 8 9 ; M a r s h a l l , 1 9 9 4 ) . P e r h a p ss o c i o l o g i s t s h a v e s e e n t h e c o n c e r n s a b o u t s p a c e a s m e t a p h y s i c a l , a s p h i l o s o p h e r shav e t e nde d t o do f o r a l o ng t i me . O r p e rhap s i t has be e n c o ns i de re d t o be l o ng t ot he re al m o f nat u ral s c i e nc e s , as s ho wn i n t he t he o r i e s o f s p ac e i n p hys i c s . Y e t t he rei s a s t ro ng l i nk be t we e n t he de bat e s abo u t s p ac e i n p hi l o s o p hy and p hys i c s , whe res p a c e h a s b e e n a l o n g - s t a n d i n g c o n c e r n ( J a m m e r , 1 9 5 4 ) .T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s a b o u t s p a c e i n t h e l a s t t h r e e c e n t u r i e s h a v e b e e nd o m i n a t e d b y a d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n a b s o l u t e v e r s u s r e l a t io n a l t h e o ri e s . T h e t h e o r y

Understanding Urban Space 5

of a b s o l u t e s p a c e w a s d e v e l o p e d b y I s a a c N e w t o n , w h o s a w s p a c e ( a n d t i m e ) a sre al t h i ngs , as "p l ac e s as we l l o f t he ms e l v e s as o f a l l o t he r t h i ngs " ( qu o t e d i nS p e a k e , 1 9 7 9 : 3 0 8 ) . S p a c e a n d t i m e w e r e " c o n t a i n e r s o f i n f i n i t e e x t e n s i o n o rd u r a t i o n " . W i t h i n t h e m , t h e w h o l e s u c c e s s i o n o f n a t u r a l e v e n t s i n t h e w o r l d f i n d ad e f i n i t e p o s i t i o n . T h e m o v e m e n t o r r e p o s e o f t h i n g s , t h e r e f o r e , w a s r e a l l y t a k i n gp l ac e and was no t a mat t e r o f t he i r re l at i o ns t o c hange s o f o t he r o b j e c t s( S p e a k e , 1 9 7 9 ; 3 0 9 ) . B e f o r e N e w t o n , A r i s t o t l e h a d d e s c r i b e d s p a c e a s t h e c o n t a i n e ro f a l l o b j e c t s ( W i e n e r , 1 9 7 5 ; 2 9 7 ) . T h e a n c i e n t G r e e k s , h o w e v e r , d i d n o t c r e a t e as p a c e o f l o g i c a l , o n t o l o g i c a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l p e r c e p t i o n s . N e i t h e r d i d t h e yd e v e l o p a g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i o n o f s p a c e f o r g e o m e t r y a n d g e o m e t r i c a l l y o r i e n t e da n a l y s i s , a s t h e y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n s p a c e i n c o s m o l o g y , p h y s i c s a n d t h e o l o g y( B o c h n e r , 1 9 7 3 ) .The re l at i o ni s t t he o r i e s we re de v e l o p e d as a c r i t i qu e o f t he c o nc e p t o f abs o l u t es p a c e . T h e f i r s t m a j o r o p p o s i t i o n w a s t h a t o f y ? i b n i z , ^ w h o J i e l d J l i a t s p a c e _ m e r e t yc o n s i s j g d i n r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n n o n - s p a t i a l , m e n t a l i t e m s ( S p e a k e , 1 9 7 9 : S m a r t , 1 9 8 8 ) .Le i bni z s aw s p ac e as " t he o rde r o f c o e x i s t i ng t h i ngs , o r t he o rde r o f e x i s t e nc e f o r a l lt h i n g s t h a t a r e c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s " ( q u o t e d i n B o c h n e r , 1 9 7 3 : 2 9 7 ) . A n o t h e r m a j o ro p p o s i t i o n was t hat o f K ant , who s aw s p ac e as be l o ngi ng t o t he s u b j e c t i v ec o n s t i tu t i o n o f t h e m i n d a n d n o t a r T e m p i r i c a l c on ce ^p t d e n v e d T r b m o u t w a r d _ _e x p e r i e n c e s ( 1 9 9 3] 4 8 - - 6 8 ). W e c a n s p e a l T o f s p a c e o n l y f r o m t h e " h u m a n p o i n t o fv i e w . B e y o n d o u r s u b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n , " t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s p a c e h a s n o m e a n i n gwhat s o e v e r " , as i t "do e s no t re p re s e nt any p ro p e r t y o f o b j e c t s as t h i ngs i nt he ms e l v e s , no r do e s i t r e p re s e nt t he m i n t he i r re l at i o ns t o e ac h o t he r " ( 1993: 52) .Sp ac e ( and t i me ) "c anno t e x i s t i n t he ms e l v e s , bu t o nl y i n u s " ( 1993: 61) . Fro m t h i sv i e wp o i nt , t he re f o re , "what we c al l o u t ward o b j e c t s , are no t h i ng e l s e bu t me rer e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f o u r s e n s i b i l i t y , w h o s e f o r m i s s p a c e " ( 1 9 9 3 : 5 4 ) . W h a t e v e r t h enat u re o f o b j e c t s as t h i ngs i n t he ms e l v e s , o u r u nde rs t andi ng i s c o nf i ne d t o o u r o wnmo de o f p e rc e i v i ng t he m, whi c h i s p e c u l i ar t o u s . O t he r re l at i o ni s t s hav e t r i e d t op re s e rv e t he re al i t y o f s p ac e ( and t i me ) by as s e r t i ng t hat t he y are me re l y re l at i o nsbe t we e n p hys i c al o b j e c t s and e v e nt s and t hat , t he re f o re , " t he c o nt ai ne r i s no tl o gi c al l y d i s t i nc t f ro m t he t h i ngs i t i s s a i d t o c o nt ai n" ( Sp e ake ,1979:309) .

The t he o r i e s o f re l at i v i t y and re l at i o ni s t t he o r i e s of s p a c e a r e b o t h o p p o s e d to th eNe wt o ni an c o nc e p t o f abs o l u t e s p ac e , bu t , as Smar t ( 1988) argu e s , i t i s i mp o r t ant t odi s t i ngu i s h t he m f ro m e ac h o t he r . He be l i e v e s t hat s o me hav e be e n mi s l e d i n t ot h i nki ng t hat t he t he o ry o f re l at i v i t y s u p p o r t s a re l at i o nal t he o ry , as t he s p e c i a lt he o ry o f re l at i v i t y mai nt ai ns t hat l e ngt hs and p e r i o ds o f t i me are re l at i v e t o f rame so f re f e re nc e . O n t he c o nt rary , bo t h s p e c i a l and ge ne ral t he o r i e s o f re l at i v i t y ap p e art o be p e r f e c t l y c o mp at i b l e wi t h an abs o l u t e t he o ry o f s p ac e - t i me . Y e t Al be r tE i ns t e i n ( 1954: x i i i - xv ) g i v e s u s ano t he r i mp re s s i o n . Ho c o nt ras t s t he t wo c o nc e p t so f re l at i o nal and abs o l u t e s p ac e as , " s p ac e as p o s i t i o nal qu al i t y o f t he wo r l d o fmat e r i a l o b j e c t s " v e rs u s "s p ac e as c o nt ai ne r o f a l l mat e r i a l o b j e c t s " ( F i gu re 1 .1) . Thef o r m e r m e a n i n g , h e m a i n t a i n s , i s r o o t e d i n t h e c o n c e p t o f p l a c e , w h i c h w a s o l d e rand e as i e r t o gras p : mat e r i a l o b j e c t s hav e a p l ac e i n t he wo r l d , i . e . a s mal l p o r t i o n o fthe e ar t h ' s s u r f ac e o r a gro u p o f o b j e c t s . The l at t e r i s a mo re abs t rac t me ani ng,s e e i ng s p ac e as "u nl i mi t e d i n e x t e nt " , f rami ng and c o nt ai n i ng a l l mat e r i a l o b j e c t s , ac o nc e p t t hat E i ns t e i n re j e c t e d o n t he bas i s o f f i e l d t he o ry and t he c o nc e p t o f f o u r -d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e - t i m e .

a n d b e e m p l o y e d i n a s o l u t i o n - f i n d i n g e x e r c i s e . F a r t o o m a n y s u c h e x e r c i s e s t a k ep l ac e o n t he bas i s o f as s u mp t i o ns t hat are i n ne e d o f a c r i t i c a l e v al u at i o n and a mo rei nf o rme d ap p ro ac h t o t he e x i s t i ng u rban s p ac e . Thi s i s t he re f o re an u rge nt t as k ,de s p i t e t he o re t i c al and p rac t i c al p ro bl e ms i nhe re nt i n t he re l at i o ns hi p be t we e nk n o w l e d g e a n d a c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n a n a r e n a a s c o m p l e x a s u r b a n s p a c e , i n ap ro c e s s as s o o f t e n mys t i f i e d and p o t e nt i a l l y c o nt ro v e rs i a l as de s i gn .As we qu i c kl y f i nd o u t by a br i e f l o o k at s o me o f t he s e c o nc e p t u al i zat i o ns o fs p ac e , t he re i s a mu l t i p l i c i t y o f gap s and f ragme nt at i o ns i n u nde rs t andi ng s p ac e .T h e s e c o n c e p t s a r e d o m i n a t e d b y d i l e m m a s a n d c o n f l i c t o f p e r s p e c t i v e s , c o n v e y i n gt he i mp re s s i o n t hat s p ac e i s c o nt e s t e d i n a l mo s t e v e ry s e ns e . A f rame wo rk wi t hwhi c h t o c o nf ro nt t he s e d i v i de s and t o br i dge s o me o f t he s e gap s wi l l be p u tf o r w a r d , w i t h t h e a i m o f m o v i n g t o w a r d s a m o r e c o h e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s p a c e .I t i s o n l y wi t h s u c h u nde rs t andi ng t hat u rban de s i gn as an i n t e rd i s c i p l i nary ac t i v i t yc a n p r o m o t e a c o m m o n d i s c o u r s e b e t w e e n f r a g m e n t e d c i r c l e s o f p r o f e s s i o n s a n dd i s c i p l i n e s ( M a d a n i p o u r , 1 9 9 6 ) .


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F i g u r e 1. 1. Is space the container of all the objects we see or is it the positional quality ofthese objects? {Cannes, France)

T h e d i s t i n c t i o n s i n p h i l o s o p h y a n d p h y s i c s b e t w e e n a b s o l u t e a n d r e l a t i o n i s tt he o r i e s c an a l s o be f o u nd i n ge o grap hy, e v e n i f no t a l ways s p e c i f i c a l l y re f e r re d t o( C l a r k , 1 9 8 5 ; S m a l l & W i t h e r i c k , 1 9 8 6 ) . I n g e o g r a p h y , h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y t ou s e t h e t e r m r e l a t i v e s p a c e f o r w h a t p h i l o s o p h y c a l l s r e l a t i o n a l s p a c e , p e r h a p s d u et o t he i n f l u e nc e o f t he t he o ry o f re l at i v i t y . Ac c o rdi ng t o J . B l au t ( 1961) , t he abs o l u t ec o nc e p t i o ns o f s p ac e re f e r t o "a d i s t i nc t , p hys i c al and e mi ne nt l y re al o r e mp i r i c ale nt i t y i n i t s e l f " . A ge ne rat i o n l at e r , t he s e me ani ngs are s t i l l e c ho e d i n t he de f i n i t i o no f t he c o nc e p t . Fo r e xamp l e , abs o l u t e s p ac e has be e n de f i ne d as "c l e ar l y d i s t i nc t ,r e a l , a n d o b j e c t i v e s p a c e " ( M a y h e w & P e n n y , 1 9 9 2 ) . A b s o l u t e s p a c e , o r " c o n t e x t u a ls p ac e " i s "a d i me ns i o n whi c h f o c u s e s o n t he c harac t e r i s t i c s o f t h i ngs i n t e rms o ft he i r c o nc e nt rat i o n and d i s p e rs i o n" . I t i s t h i s as p e c t o f s p ac e t hat c an be t rac e d bac kt o t h e e a r l y m a p ~ i n a k e r s a n d t h e i r c o n c e r n w i t h p r e c i s e m e a s u r e m e n t o f l o c a t i o n a lr e l a t i o n s h i p s , c o n t i n u e d i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y g e o g r a p h e r ' s i n t e r e s t i n s p a t i a la n a l y s i s ( G o o d a l l , 1 9 8 7 ) . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e r e l a t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s r e f e r t o s p a c e a s"me re l y a re l at i o n be t we e n e v e nt s o r an as p e c t o f e v e nt s , and t hu s bo u nd t o t i mea n d p r o c e s s " ( B I a u t , 1 9 6 1 ) . I t i s " p e r c e i v e d b y a p e r s o n o r s o c i e t y " ( M a y h e w &P e n n y , 1 9 9 2 ) . R e l a t i v e , o r " c r e a t e d " s p a c e i s p e r c e p t u a l a n d s o c i a l l y p r o d u c e d , a

Understanding Urban Space 7

Space and massT h e a b s e n c e o f t h e t e r m s p a c e f r o m t h e s o c i o l o g y r e f e r e n c e b o o k s m a y s e e mu n d e r s t a n d a b l e , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a b s e n c e o f i n t e r e s t i n s p a c e o n t h e p a r t o f t h es o c i o l o g i s t s . B u t i t s a b s e n c e f r o m a r c h i t e c t u r a l r e f e r e n c e b o o k s ( H a t ] ' e , 1 9 6 3 ; H a r r i sa n d L ev e r , 19 6 6 , 1 9 9 3 ; Y a r w o o d , 1 9 8 5 ; P e v s n e r , F l e m i n g & H o n o u r , 1 9 9 1 ; S h a r p , 1 9 9 1 ;Cu r l ,1992) i s qu i t e no t i c e abl e . The o nl y e xc e p t i o n I c o u l d f i nd was an o l d t e x t ,w h i c h d e f i n e d s p a c e a s " t h e a r e a a t t h e c o r n e r o f a t u r n i n g s t a i r " ( S t u r g i s , 1 9 8 9 ,o r i g i n a ll y p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 0 1 - 2 ) . T h i s s e e m s t o b e s u r p r i s i n g i n a d i s c i p l i n e w h e r es p a c e i s c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y o f i t s d i s t i n g u i s h e d m e m b e r s a s i t s e s s e n c e ( Z e v i , 1 9 5 7 ;G i e d i o n , 1 9 6 7 ; T s c h u m i , 1 9 9 0 ) . O n e o b v i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n f o r s u c h a d r a m a t i c a b s e n c ec o u l d be t hat arc h i t e c t s ' c o nc e p t i o n and u s e o f t he t e rm s p ac e are s o c l e ar andu n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d a m o n g t h e m t h a t n o n e e d h a s b e e n f e l t t o e x p l a i n a t a k e n - f o r -g r a n t e d t e r m . T h i s s i m p l e e x p l a n a t i o n , h o w e v e r , f a d e s a w a y w h e n we l e arn t hat t het e rm i s re l at i v e l y ne w, i n t he c o nt e x t o f t he l o ng h i s t o ry o f arc h i t e c t u re , and t hat i th a s b e c o m e a c o n t r o v e r s i a l c o n c e p t i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s . P e r h a p s i t i s n o t i n t h ed i c t i o n a r i e s a n d e n c y c l o p a e d i a s t h a t w e s h o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d a d e f i n i t i o n o f t h ec o nc e p t o f s p ac e i n arc h i t e c t u re .T s c h u m i ( 1 9 9 0 : 1 3 ) r e m i n d s u s t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o a p p r o a c h e s t o d e f i n i n g s p a c e : t h ef i r s t i s " t o make s p ac e d i s t i nc t " , a no rmat i v e d i me ns i o n i n whi c h ar t and arc h i t e c t u reare c o nc e rne d ; t he s e c o nd i s " t o s t at e t he p re c i s e nat u re o f s p ac e " , a de s c r i p t i v edi me ns i o n t hat i s t he c o nc e rn o f p hi l o s o p hy, mat he mat i c s and p hys i c s . I t i s , o fc o u rs e , t he e nc l o s u re o f s p ac e , rat he r t han s p ac e i t s e l f , whi c h i s t he f o c u s o f at t e nt i o n .B r u n o Z e v i ( 1 9 5 7 ) s e es s p a c e a s t h e e s s e n c e o f a r c h i t e c t u r e : " T h e f a c a d e s a n d w a l l s o fa ho u s e , c hu rc h o r p al ac e , no mat t e r ho w b e au t i f u l t he y ma y be , are o nl y t hec o nt ai ne r , t he bo x f o rme d by t he wal l s ; t he c o nt e nt i s t he i n t e rnal s p ac e " ( 1957: 24) .Thi s i s a c o nc e p t t hat i s s t i l l wi de l y ac c e p t e d . Ac c o rdi ng t o V an de r Laan ( 1983) , f o re x a m p l e , a r c h i t e c tu r a l s p a c e c o m e s i n t o b e i n g b y t h e e r e c t i o n o f t w o w a l l s , c r e a t i n g an e w s p a c e i n b e t w e e n t h e m , w h i c h i s s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e n a t u r a l s p a c e a r o u n d t h e m .Z e v i ( 1 9 5 7 ) f o l l o w s t h e s a m e d e f i n i t i o n f o r u r b a n s p a c e , w h e r e s t r e e t s , s q u a r e s ,p a r k s , p l a y g r o u n d s a n d g a r d e n s a r e a l l " v o i d s " t h a t h a v e b e e n l i m i t e d o r d e f i n e d t o

c o nt e x t t hat f o c u s e s o n t he c harac t e r i s t i c s o f p l ac e s , as i n t he e ar l y t rav e l l e rs 'd e s c r i p t i o n s o f u n f a m i l i a r a r e a s ( G o o d a l l , 1 9 8 7 ) .W e m i g h t a s k o u r s e l v e s w h e t h e r t h e d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n a b s o l u t e a n d r e l a t i o n a lo r r e l a t i v e s p a c e i s a m e r e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e w a y w e s e e t h i n g s , a d i f f e r e n c e w h i c h a tb e s t c a n b e t r e a t e d a s v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f a p l u r a l i s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r l d , o ra t w o r s t b e le f t a s id e a s a s c h o l a s t i c , m e t a p h y s i c a l d e b a t e o n l y g o o d f o r a r m c h a i rt h e o r is t s . W e m i g h t c o m p a r e t h e d e b a t e t o t w o w a y s o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e s a m ep h e n o m e n o n : a h a l f -f i l l e d g la s s o r a h a l f - e m p t y o n e . A f t e r a l l , it w a s A l b e r t E i n s t e i n( 1 9 5 4 ) h i m s e l f w h o s a i d t h a t b o t h c o n c e p t s o f s p a c e , " a r e f r e e c r e a t i o n s o f t h eh u m a n i m a g i n a t i o n , m e a n s d e v i s e d f o r e a s i e r c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f o u r s e n s ee x p e r i e n c e s " . B u t w e a r e q u i c k l y r e m i n d e d t h a t m a j o r b a t t l e s h a v e b e e n f o u g h t i nn a t u r a l s c i e n c e s o v e r t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e s e t w o c o n c e p t s o f s p a c e . T h i s d e b a t e c a n b et r a c e d t o s e e h o w i t h a s b e e n p o w e r f u l e n o u g h t o i n s p i r e a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f o u rb u i lt e n v i r o n m e n t s .


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F i g u r e 1.2. "Since every arcl i i tectural volume, every structure of wal ls, consti tutes abounda ry, a pause in the continu i ty of spa ce, i t is clear that eve ry bui lding functions in thecreation of two kinds of space: i ts internal spac e, complete ly define d by the bui lding i tself , andi ts external or urban space, defined by that bui lding and the othe rs around i t . " (Zevi , 1957 : 30).(Turin, Italy)

U n d er s tan d i n g U r b an Sp ace 9

c r e a t e a n _ e n c l o s e d j p a c e . _ "S i n c e e v e r y a r c h i t e c t u r a l v o l u m e , e v e r y s t r u c tu r e o fw a l l s , c o n s t i t u t e s a b o u n d a r y , a p a u s e i n t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f s p a c e , i t i s c l e a r t h a te v e r y b u i l d i n g f u n c t i o n s i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f t w o k i n d s o f s p a c e : i t s i n t e r n a l s p a c e ,c o m p l e t e l y d e f i n e d b y t h e b u i l d i n g i t s e l f , a n d i t s e x t e r n a l o r u r b a n s p a c e , d e f i n e db y t h a t b u i l d i n g a n d t h e o t h e r s a r o u n d i t " ( Z e v i , 1 9 5 7 : 3 0 ) ( F i g u r e 1 . 2 ) . I n t h ec r e a t i o n o f u r b a n s p a c e , h o w e v e r , o t h e r o b j e c t s a r e i n v o l v e d ; o b j e c t s t h a t a r e n o to f t e n i d e n t i f i e d a s a r c h i t e c t u r e , s u c h a s b r i d g e s , o b e l i s k s , f o u n t a i n s , t r i u m p h a la r c h e s , g r o u p s o f f r e e s , a n d t h e f a c a d e s o f b u i l d i n g s . T h e c e n t r a l r o l e t h a t t h e s eo b j e c t s p l a y i s t h e w a y t h e y e n c l o s e ^ s p a c e a n d d e f i n e i t i n n e w w a y s . F o r Z e v i ,t h e r e f o r e , t h e e s s e n c e o f a r c h i t e c t u r e " d o e s n o t l i e i n t h e m a t e r i a l l i m i t a t i o n p l a c e do n s p a t i a l f r e e d o m , b u t i n t h e w a y s p a c e i s o r g a n i z e d i n t o m e a n i n g f u l f o r m t h r o u g ht h i s p r o c e s s o f l i m i t a t i o n " ( q u o t e d i n S c r u t o n , 1 9 7 9 : 4 3 ) . T o d e f i n e s p a c e i na r c h i t e c t u r e , t h e r e f o r e , m e a n s " t o d e t e r m i n e b o u n d a r i e s " w i t h i n " a u n i f o r m l ye x t e n d e d m a t e r i a l t o b e m o d e l l e d i n v a r i o u s w a y s " ( T s c h u m i , 1 9 9 0 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) .

T h e c o n c e p t o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l s p a c e , a s " s o m e t h i n g p r e x i s t e n t a n d u n l i m i t e d " , " apos i t ive en t i ty within ivhich t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s o f t e c t o n i c f o r m a n d s u r f a c eoccurred" ( C o l q u h o u n , 1 9 8 9 : 22 5 ) w a s p r o b a b l y f i rs t f o r m u l a t e d b y A u g u s tS c h m a r s o w a t t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . E v e r s i n c e t h i s i n f l u e n t i a ld e f i n i t i o n , w h i c h i s s t r i c t l y p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l , t h e i d e a s o fc o n t i n u i t y , t r a n s p a r e n c y a n d i n d e t e r m i n a c y h a v e b e e n g i v e n n e w v a l u e s( C o l q u h o u n , 1 9 8 9 : 2 2 5 ) .

T h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e i d e a o f s p a c e c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e f i r s t m o v e m e n t o fm o d e r n i s t a r c h i t e c t u r e , a r t n o u v e a u ( V a n d e V e n , 1 9 9 3 ) . T o t h e m o d e r n i s t s , t h ec o n c e p t o f s p a c e , t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n i n t e r l o c k i n g s p a c e s , b e c a m e a c c e p t e d a s t h ee s s e n c e o f a r c h i t e c t u r e . S i g f r i e d G i e d i o n ( 1 9 6 7 ) w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a la d v o c a t e s o f m o d e r n i s m a n d o f t h e c o n c e p t o f s p a c e a s t h e e s s e n c e o f a r c h i t e c t u r e .H e i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e s t a g e s i n t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f s p a c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o far ch i tec tur e . I n th e f i r s t s tag e , as ex empl i f ied in an c ien t E g y pt , S umer an d Gr eece ,a r c h i t ec t u r a l s p a c e w a s c r e a t e d b y t h e i n t e r p l a y o f v o l u m e s , p a y i n g l e s s a t t e n t i o n t ot h e i n t e r i o r s p a c e . I n t h e s e c o n d s t a g e , w h i c h b e g a n i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e R o m a np e r i o d , a r c h i t e c t u r a l s p a c e w a s s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e h o l l o w e d - o u t s p a c e o f t h ein ter ior . T h e th ir d s tag e s ta r ted a t th e b eg in n in g of th e tw en t ie th cen tur y w ith th ea b o l i t i o n o f t h e s i n g l e v i e w o f p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i c h b r o u g h t a b o u t a n o p t i c a lr e v o l u t i o n . T h e p r o f o u n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t o n o u r p e r c e p t i o n o ft h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l a n d u r b a n s p a c e w e r e t he a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e " s p a c e - e m a n a t i n gq ua l i t ies of f r ee- s tan d in g b ui ld in g s " , an d f in d in g an a f f in i ty w ith th e f i r s t , an c ien ts t a g e o f s p a c e c o n c e p t i o n ( G i e d i o n , 1 9 6 7 : I v - l v i ) .T h i s n o t i o n o f " a n a b s t r a c t u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s p a c e " , h o w e v e r , c a m e u n d e r a t t a c kb y t h e p o s t - m o d e r n u r b a n c r i t i c i s m ( C o l q u h o u n , 1 9 8 9 : 2 2 5 ) . S e e i n g s p a c e a s " au n i f o r m l y e x t e n d e d ' m a t e r i a l ' t h a t c a n b e ' m o d e l l e d ' i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s " w a sc r i t ic i z e d a s " n a i v e l y r e a l i s t i c " ( N o r b e r g - S c h u l z , 1 9 7 1 : 1 2 ) . C r i ti c s s a w t h e l i m i t l e s s ,ab s tr ac t s pace as a main f ea tur e of th e mod er n is t c i ty w ith i ts ten d en cy to b lowa p a r t t h e p e r c e p t i b l e u r b a n s p a c e . I t h a d b e c o m e a h a b i t o f t h o u g h t i n t h e m o d e r nc i ty t o c o n c e i v e b u i l d i n g s a s " s i m p l e - s h a p e d v o l u m e s , f l o a t i n g i n a s e a o f i l l - f o r m e ds p a c e " ( A l e x a n d e r e t a l . , 1 9 87 ; 6 7 ) .T h e c o n c e p t o f s p a c e h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d s i n c e t h e 1 9 7 0 s b y p o s t - m o d e r n i s t s ,w h o h a v e s h o w n a r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t i n c o r p o r e a l m a s s a n d i t s m e a n i n g s ( V a n d eV e n , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h i s r e f l e c t s t h e l o n g - l a s t i n g d i l e m m a b e t w e e n m a s s a n d v o i d , b e t w e e ne m p i r i c a l a n d c o n c e p t u a l , b e t w e e n r e a l a n d a b s t r a c t . I t i s a d i l e m m a b e t w e e np h y s i c a l s p a c e , w h i c h c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d i m m e d i a t e l y b y t h e s e n s e s , a n d m e n t a ls p a c e , w h i c h n e e d s t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y . A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s c h a l l e n g e t o

a b s t r a c t i o n i s S c r u t o n ( 1 9 7 9 : 4 3 - 5 2 ) , w h o c r i t i c i z e s t h e c o n c e p t o f a r c h i t e c t u r a ls pace on th e g r oun d s th a t i t f a i l s to g ive an accoun t of a l l th a t i s in ter es t in g inb u i l d i n g s . I n S t P a u l ' s , f o r e x a m p l e , w e c a n s p e a k a b o u t t h e " s p a t i a l " g r a n d e u r ,b u t t h e r e a r e a l s o " d e l i b e r a t e a n d i m p r e s s i v e e f f e c t s o f l i g h t a n d s h a d e , o fo r n a m e n t , t e x t u r e a n d m o u l d i n g " . S c r u t o n b e h e y e s t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e _ o fa r c h i t e c t u r e a n d i t s " s p a t i a l " e i e c t s d e p e n d s o n s i g n i f i c a n t d e t a i l s a r i d a r g u e s t h a tt h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s t o s p a c e i s a m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e n a t u r e o fo u r e x p e r i e n c e . H e g o e s a s f a r a s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f s p a c e " c a n b ee l i m i n a t e d f r o m m o s t c r i t i c a l w r i t i n g s w h i c h m a k e u s e o f it w i t h o u t a n y r e a ld e t r i m e n t t o t h e i r m e a n i n g " ( S c r u t o n , 1 9 7 9 : 4 8 ^ 9 ) . D e s p i t e t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s , t h e


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10 Design of Urban Space Understanding Urban Space 11

F i g u r e 1 . 3 . The changing function of the buildings over time shows the complexity of therelationship between social and physical space. Designed and built for Fiat car production,Lingotto is now used for exhibitions and cultural events. {Turin, Italy)

c o n c e p t o f s p a c e a s t h e e s s e n c e o f a r c h i t e c t u r e r e m a i n s p o w e r f u l , a n d t h e q u e s t i o no f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c o n t a i n e r a n d c o n t a i n e d , b e t w e e n m a s s a n d s p a c e , a no p e n o n e .B u t w h a t a r e w e t o t h i n k o f t h i s d i l e m m a b e t w e e n m a s s a n d v o i d i n d e a l i n g w i t hu r b a n s p a c e ? I s i t n o t a n e x a g g e r a t e d d i c h o t o m y i n w h i c h n o o n e w i n s ? A s w e w a l k ^i n t h e s t r e e t s , d o w e m e r e l y s e e t h e p e o p l e , b u i l d i n g s , p a v e m e n t s , b r i d g e s , t r a f f i cl ig h ts , s ig n s , e tc . , an d th eir r e la t ion s h ips ? Or ar e w e w alk in g in a s pace th a t ex is tsi n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s ? D o e s i t n o t m a k e s e n s e t o s a y t h a t i n o u rw a l k i n g i n t h e s t r e e t w e h a v e b o t h a s p a t i a l e x p e r i e n c e , i n w h i c h e n c l o s u r e s a r ed i f f er en t f r om open s paces an d s tr eets a r e d i f f er en t f r om s q uar es , an d an ex per ien ceo f t h e m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s w h i c h s h a p e o r c o n d i t i o n t h i s s p a c e ? W e c o u l d a r g u e , t h e n ,t h a t m a s s a n d v o i d a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d a n d , i n o u r e x p e r i e n c e , i n t e r d e p e n d e n t . A f t e ra l l , o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o u r e n v i r o n m e n t d r a w s u p o n o u r s e n s o r y i m p r e s s i o n s a sw el l a s our mor e f or mal ab s tr ac t ion s . B ut i s th is ex per ien ce s uf f ic ien t to ex pla in th ec o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n b e i n g s , w h o a r e a g e n t s o f t r a n s f o r m i n g s p a c e ,a n d s p a c e a n d t h e m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s w i t h i n it , i . e . t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s o c i a l a n dp h y s i c a l s p a c e ?

Physical and socia l spaceC o l q u h o u n ( 1 9 8 9 : 2 2 3 ) d e f i n e s t h e t e r m u r b a n s p a c e i n t w o s e n s e s : s o c i a l s p a c ea n d ^ b i u l t s p a c e . T h e s o c i a l s p a c e i s " t h e s p a t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s "a n d i s s t u d i e d b y s o c i o l o g i s t s a n d g e o g r a p h e r s . T h i s i s a v i e w p o i n t t h a t t e n d s t os e e t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e b u i l t e n v i r o n m e n t a s " e p i p h e n o m e n a l " . T h eb u i l t s p a c e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f o c u s e s o n t h e p h y s i c a l s p a c e , " i t s m o r p h o l o g y , t h ew a y i t a f f e c t s o u r p e r c e p t i o n s , t h e w a y i t i s u s e d , a n d t h e m e a n i n g s i t c a n e l i c i t " ,w h i c h i s t h e c o n c e r n o f a r c h i t e c t s . " T h i s v i e w " , C o l q u h o u n m a i n t a i n s , " i s s u b j e c tt o t w o a p p r o a c h e s t h a t w h i c h s e e s f o r m s a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f f u n c t i o n s , a n d t h a tw h i c h . s e e s f u n c t i o n s a s d e t e r m i n i n g f o r m s " . I t i s i n t h i s i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n o ff u n c t i o n a n d f o r m t h a t t h e l a t t e r p e r s p e c t i v e t e n d s t o a p p r o a c h t h a t o f t h eg e o g r a p h e r a n d s o c i o l o g i s t . U n l i k e t h e m , h o w e v e r , " t h e a r c h i t e c t i s a l w a y s f i n a l l yi n t e r e s t e d i n t h e f o r m s , h o w e v e r t h e s e m a y b e t h o u g h t t o b e g e n e r a t e d "( C o l q u h o u n , 1 9 8 9 : 2 2 4 ) .A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s i n t e r e s t i n f o r m i s t h e w o r k o f R o b K r i e r ( 1 9 7 9 a ) , w h o b e g i n sw ith an a t tempt n ot to in tr od uce n ew d ef in i t ion s of s pace b ut " to b r in g i ts or ig in a lm e a n i n g b a c k i n t o c u r r e n c y " ( 1 9 7 9 a : 1 5 ), a m e a n i n g o n w h i c h , t o a v o i d v a l u ej u d g e m e n t , n o a e s t h e t i c c r i t e r i a a r e i m p o s e d . H e t h e r e f o r e i d e n t i f i e s u r b a n s p a c e a st h e " e x t e r n a l s p a c e " , " a l l t y p e s o f s p a c e b e t w e e n b u i l d i n g s i n t o w n s a n d o t h e rl o c a l i t i e s " . T h i s i s a p u r e l y p h y s i c a l s p a c e , w h i c h i s " g e o m e t r i c a l l y b o u n d e d b y avar ie ty of e leva t ion s " . H is an a ly s is of ur b an s pace i s th er ef or e con f in ed to am o r p h o l o g y , e n u m e r a t i n g t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f u r b a n s p a c e , s t r e e t a n d s q u a r e , a n di ts b as ic f or ms , s q uar e , c i r c le an d tr ian g le , w i th a n umb er of pos s ib le var ia t ion s an dc o m b i n a t i o n s .C o l q u h o u n r e a s s e r t s t he c o n v e n t i o n a l d i st i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a ls pace b y r e l ian ce on th e r ole of s oc ia l f un ct ion s . H e cr i t i c izes th e mod er n is tten d en cy " to tak e a h is tor ic is t an d r e la t iv is t v iew of a r ch i tec tur e an d to r eg ar d th e

c i t y a s a n e p i p h e n o m e n o n o f s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s , r e s u l t i n g i n a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f u r b a ns p a c e " . I n d o i n g s o , h e t a k e s s i d e w i t h t h e p o s t - m o d e r n c r i t i c s w h o t e n d t od i s s o c i a t e t h e p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l s p a c e , b y c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n t h e f o r m e r a s " a na u t o n o m o u s f o r m a l s y s t e m " ( C o l q u h o u n , 1 9 8 9 : 2 2 4 ) .T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l s p a c e , i . e . b e t w e e n f o r m a n df u n c t i o n i n m o d e r n i s t a r c h i t e c t u r a l l a n g u a g e , h a s b e e n o n e o f t h e k e y t h e m e s o f t h ep o s t - m o d e r n c h a l l e n g e t o m o d e r n i s m . T h e m o d e r n i s t f o r m u l a , " f o r m f o l l o w sf u n c t i o n " , r e l a t e d t h e s o c i a l a n d p h y s i c a l s p a c e i n a r a t i e r _ _ s i m p l i s t i c _ a n dd e t e r m i n i i t i c ' w a y ( F i g u r e 1 . 3 ) . T h e p o s t - m o d e r n ' c h a l l e n g e , i n c o n t r a s t , h a sa t t e m p t e d to d i s e n g a g e t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e p h y s i c a l s p a c e .H o w e v e r , n e i t h e r t h e n a r r o w l i n e a r w a y t h a t s o c i a l a n d p h y s i c a l s p a c e s w e r ec o m b i n e d in m o d e r n i s t a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d p l a n n i n g , n o r t h e p o l i t i c a l e s c a p i s ma s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p o s t - m o d e r n i s t d i s r e g a r d o f s o c i a l s p a c e , c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d i n as o c i a l l y c o n c e r n e d a p p r o a c h t o u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t . I n t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e d i v o r c eb e t w e e n p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l s p a c e h a s w i d e n e d t h e g a p b e t w e e n a r c h i t e c t u r e a n ds o c ia l s c ie nc e s with the ir dif fe re nt c o nc e ptio ns o f s pa c e .


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Menta l and rea l spaceA n o t h e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e d e b a t e b e t w e e n a b s o k i t e a n d r e l a t i o n a l s p a c e i s t h eo n e b e t w e e n m e n t a l a n d r e a l s p a c e c o n c e p t s . I n t h i s d e b a t e , r e a l s p a c e , a su n d e r s t o o d t h r o u g h t h e s e n s e s , i s d i ff e r e n t i a t e d f ro m h u m a n b e i n g s ' i n t e l l e c t u a li n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e w o r l d , w h i c h c r e a t e a m e n t a l c o n s t r u c t .A r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d i l e m m a o f m e n t a l v e r s u s r e a l s p a c e i s m a d e b y B e r n a r d

T s c h u m i ( 1 9 9 0 ) . F o l l o w i n g t h e S u r r e a l i s t a u t h o r G e o r g e s B a t a i l l e , T s c h u m ic o nc e nt rat e s o n t he re l at i o ns hi p o f c o nc e p t s and e xp e r i e nc e i n t he no rmat i v e re al mo f arc h i t e c t u ral t he o ry . He i de nt i f i e s t h i s re l at i o ns hi p as t he ma i n p ara do x o fa r c h i t e c t u r e . T h e c o n c e p t u a l a p p r o a c h i s v i su a l iz e d b y a p y r a m i d , " t h i s u l t i m a t emo d e l o f re as o n " ( F i g u re 1 .4) . In o rde r t o s t at e t he nat u re o f s p ac e , arc h i t e c t u reb e c o m e s d e m a t c r i a l i z e d , a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e r n , i n w h i c h t h e m o d e r n i s t a v a n t - g a r d ef e l t f re e t o ac t . In t h i s way, t he "do mi nat i o n o f i de a o v e r mat t e r " i s e i i s u re d by ar a t i o n a l, t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g s p a c e .

F i g u r e 1 . 4 . A pyramid is an "ultimate model of reason", transforming space through atheoretical approach and a rational geometry. {Louvre Museum, Paris, Fran ce)

F i g u r e 1 . 5 . Inside the labyrinth, our understanding of space is through immediateexperience. We cannot have an overview of the space beyond. {Isfahan, Iran)

Ag ai ns t t h i s t he o re t i c al ap p ro ac h , t he re i s a s e ns o ry ap p ro ac h t o s p ac e . Fro m t h i sp e r s p e c t i v e , o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f s p a c e i s " a s e n s u o u s e v e n t " . T h i s i n v o l v e sm o v e m e n t , a m o v e m e n t t h a t c r e a t e s " a k a l e i d o s c o p e o f c h a n g i n g i m p r e s s i o n s , o ft r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n o n e s p a t i a l s e n s a t i o n a n d a n o t h e r " ( P o r t e r & G o o d m a n , 1 9 8 8 : 6 ) .


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Ts c hu mi u s e s t he i mage o f a l abyr i nt h t o re p re s e nt t h i s e xp e r i e nc e o f s p ac e f ro mwi t h i n ( F i gu re 1 .5) . Fro m t h i s v i e wp o i nt , " s p ac e i s re al , f o r i t s e e ms t o af f e c t mys e n s e s l on g b e f o r e m y r e a s o n " ( T s c h u m i , 1 9 9 0 : 2 0 ) . T h i s v i e w , t h a t " s e e i n g c o m e sb e f o r e w o r d s " , h a d b e e n k n o w n b y S u r r e a l i s t s : " T h e c h i l d l o o k s a n d r e c o g n i z e sbe f o re i t can s p e a k" ( Be rge r ,1972 : 7) . Thi s g ap c an be t rac e d i n ano t he r s e ns e i n t hat ," I t i s s e e i ng whi c h e s t abl i s he s o u r p l ac e i n t he s u rro u ndi ng wo r l d" . Y e t t he re i s anu n s e t t l e d r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w h a t w e s e e a n d w h a t w e k n o w : " E a c h e v e n i n g w esee t he s u n s e t . W e know t hat t he e ar t h i s t u rn i ng away f ro m i t . Y e t t he kno wl e dge ,t he e xp l anat i o Tv , ne v e r qu i t e f i t s t he s i ght " ( Be rge r , 1972) . Thi s gap be t we e n wo rdsand s e e i ng, be t we e n re as o n and s e ns e s , was v i v i d l y p o r t raye d by t he Su rre al i s tp ai nt e r Magr i t e i n h i s p ai nt i ngs s u c h as The Key of Dreams.W i t hi n Ts c hu mi ' s l abyr i nt h , wi t h i t s ambi gu i t i e s and dark c o rne rs , we c anno thav e an o v e rv i e w o f t he s p ac e aro u nd u s . The o nl y way t o re l at e t o i t i s t hro u ghi mme di at e e xp e r i e nc e o f s p ac e wi t h t he he l p o f o u r s e ns e s , an e mp i r i c alu n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e a l s p a c e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p a r a d o x o f a r c h i t e c t u r e , a c c o r d i n g t oTs c hu mi , i s t he " i mp o s s i b i l i t y o f qu e s t i o ni ng t he nat u re o f s p ac e and at t he s amet i me maki ng o r e xp e r i e nc i ng a re al s p ac e " . I t i s a p arado x be t we e n rat i o nal i s t ande mp i r i c i s t ap p ro ac he s t o s p ac e . As he p u t s i t , "W e c anno t e xp e r i e nc e and t h i nk t hatwe e xp e r i e nc e " ; i t t he n f o l l o ws t hat , " t he c o nc e p t o f s p ac e i s no t i n s p ac e " ( Ts c hu mi ,1 9 9 0 : 27) . The o nl y w ay o u t o f t h i s d i l e mm a, he mai nt ai ns , i s t o s h i f t t he c o nc e p t o fa r c h i t e c t u r e t o w a r d s t h e b u i l d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s , a s e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e w o r ko f He nr i Le f e bv re . In t h i s way, t he p hi l o s o p hi c al gap be t we e n i de al s p ac e , whi c h i san o u t c o me o f me nt al p ro c e s s e s , and re al s p ac e , whi c h i s p ro du c e d by s o c i a l p rax i s ,c an be br i dge d . Sp ac e i s c re at e d i n a h i s t o r i c al p ro c e s s t hat p ro du c e s and c o ndi t i o nsbo t h i de al and re al as p e c t s o f s p ac e . Y e t Ts c hu mi he s i t at e s t o go a l o ng t h i s ro u t e t obr i dge t he gap . Ins t e ad , he p re f e rs t o t re at p hys i c al s p ac e and t he e v e nt s andf u nc t i o ns wi t h i n i t s e p arat e l y . The re i s a d i s j i mc t i o n be t we e n t he s e t wo , be t we e np hys i c al and s o c i a l s p ac e , whi c h he s e e ms e age r t o re t a i n .A n i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m e n t a l a n d r e a l s p a c e c a nb e f o u n d i n a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d f i l m , t w o s p a t i a l a r t s w h o s e o f t e n a s y m m e t r i c a lr e l a t i o n s h i p ( D e a r , 1 9 9 4 ) h a s b e e n w i d e l y d i s c u s s e d ( V i d l e r , 1 9 9 3 ; T o y , 1 9 9 4 ) . W h a t:5 ge ne ral l y he l d t o l i nk t he m i s t hat , "The ac t u al e xp e r i e nc e o f arc h i t e c t u ral s p ac eb y a n o b s e r v e r w i t h i n t h a t s p a c e h a s m a n y s i m i l a r i t i e s t o t h e v i e w e r ' s p e r c e p t i o no f a c h o s e n s e q u e n c e w i t h i n a f i l m " ( T o y , ! 9 9 4 : 7 ) . W h e r e a s t h e f o r m e r i n v i te s t h eo bs e rv e r t o p ar t i c i p at e i n i t s s p at i a l narrat i o n , t he l at t e r ' s narrat o r t e l l s " s p at i a ls t o r i e s " ( 0 ' H e r l i h y , 1 9 9 4 : 9 0 ) . I t i s i n t h i s t r a n s i t i o n , f r o m m o v e m e n t i n r e a l s p a c et o m o v e m e n t i n i m a g i n a r y s p a c e , t h a t E i s e n s t e i n , w r i t i n g i n t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 s ,i d e n t i f i e d a r c h i t e c t u r e a s t h e f i l m ' s a n c e s t o r . H e m a p p e d t h e t w o c o n t r a s t i n gp a t h s o f t h e " s p a t i a l e y e " : t h e " c i n e m a t i c " , w h e r e t h e r e a r e " d i v e r s e i m p r e s s i o n sp a s s i n g i n f r o n t o f a n i m m o b i l e s p e c t a t o r " ; a n d t h e " a r c h i t e c t u r a l " , w h e r e " t h es p e c t a t o r m o v e d t h r o u g h a s e r i e s o f c a r e f u l l y d i s p o s e d p h e n o m e n a w h i c h h eabs o rbe d i n o rde r wi t h h i s v i s u al s e ns e " ( qu o t e d i n V i d l e r ,1993: 56) . I t i s t h i sp r o x i m i t y t h a t h a s i n s p i r e d d e s i g n e r s s u c h a s J e a n N o u v e l , f o r w h o m" A r c h i t e c t u r e e x i s t s , l i k e c i n e m a , i n t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t i m e a n d m o v e m e n t . O n ec o n c e i v e s a n d r e a d s a b u i l d i n g i n t e r m s o f s e q u e n c e s . T o e r e c t a b u i l d i n g i s t op r e d i c t a n d s e e k e f f e c t s o f c o n t r a s t a n d l i n k a g e t h r o u g h w h i c h o n e p a s s e s "( q u o t e d i n R a t t e n b u r y , 1 9 9 4 : 3 5 ) .

I t ap p e ars t hat t h i s p e rs p e c t i v e re du c e s bo t h arc h i t e c t u ral and c i ne mat i ce x p e r i e n c e s t o v i s u a l e x p e r i e n c e s , a b a n d o n i n g , i n R a t t e n b u r y ' s w o r d s , " t h e l a s tl i nge r i ng at t e mp t t o e xp l o re t he o b j e c t i v e e x i s t e nt i a l i s m o f t he bu i l d i ng" ( 1994: 36) .As Mal l e t - S t e v e ns p u t i t , "R e al l i f e i s e nt i re l y d i f f e re nt , t he ho u s e i s made t o l i v e[ in] , i t s ho u l d f i r s t re s p o nd t o o u r ne e ds " ( qu o t e d i n V i d l e r ,1993: 56) . I t i si mp o r t ant t o p re s e rv e t he d i s t anc e be t we e n t he i magi nary wo r l d o f f i l m ( and bye x t e n s i o n v i d e o a n d t h e c y b e r s p a c e o f c o m p u t e r i m a g e s ) , a n d t h e r e a l s p a c e o farc h i t e c t u re . Thi s i s i n t he f ac e o f t he t re nd i n whi c h "bu i l d i ngs and t he i r s p at i a ls e q u e n c e s a r e d e s i g n e d m o r e a s i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f i m p l i e d m o v e m e n t s , o r w o r s e , a sl i t e r a l f a b r i c a t i o n s o f t h e c o m p u t e r ' s e y e v i e w " ( V i d l e r , 1 9 9 3 : 5 6 ) . H o w e v e r t h e g a pbe t we e n t he s e t wo s p at i a l ar t s , as De ar ( 1994) argu e s , c an be br i dge d t hro u gh t hes o c i o - s p at i a l d i a l e c t i c t hat t he s p at i a l s c i e nc e o f ge o grap hy o f f e rs . Thi s c an beac hi e v e d by u nde rs t andi ng t he s hare d p u rp o s e o f arc h i t e c t u re and f i l m, i . e . " t of o r g e n e w t i m e - s p a c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s " , a n d t h a t t h e y s h a r e i n " d i s t a n c i n g " , i . e . t h ed i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e o b s e r v e r a n d t h e o b s e r v e d a n d b e t w e e n t h e a u t h o r a n d t h er e p r e s e n t a t io n , a l l o w i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e t o b e e x p l o r e d a n d r e c o g n i z e d ( D e a r , 1 9 9 4 :1 3 - 1 4 ) .Sac k ( 1980) argu e d, wi t h i n a ge o grap hi c al f rame o f re f e re nc e , t hat d i s c u s s i o nsabo u t t he du al i t y be t we e n i de al and re al s p ac e s ho u l d be bro ade ne d t o e nc o mp as st he d i f f e re nc e s i n o u r u nde rs t andi ng o f s p ac e . The me ani ngs o f s p ac e are d i f f e re n j ^b e c a us e o u r p e r c e p t i o n ^ a n d ^ s c r i p i i o n i a i i h e ] ^ ! ^ a m o n g t h i ng sare ~ ai f f e re nt i n d i f f e re n t s i t u at i c o nc e p t s o f s p ac e , he s e e sbo t h t he abs o l u t e and re l at i o nal as p e c t s o f s p ac e as i t s o b j e ( r t Tv e ~ me anl ngs ,d i s t i nc t i v e f ro m s u b j e c t i v e ap p ro ac he s t o s p ac e . Hi s bro ade ne d o u t l o o k i nc l u de s t heae s t he t i c , t he c h i l d ' s v i e w, t he p rac t i c al , t he myt hi c al - magi c al , and t he s o c i e t a lv i e ws o f s p ac e . To e xp l o re t he i n t e r re l at i o ns hi p o f t he s e c o nc e p t i o ns , he re l i e s o nt wo s e t s o f d i s t i nc t i o ns t o bu i l d u p a ge ne ral f rame wo rk: d i s t i nc t i o n be t we e no bj e c t i v e and s u b j e c t i v e and be t we e n s u bs t anc e and s p ac e . He t he n i de nt i f i e s t wob r o a d p a t t e r n s : o n e i n w h i c h t h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s o c c u r ( s o p h i s t i c a t e d - f r a g m e n t e d )and o ne i n whi c h t he y are abs e nt ( u ns o p hi s t i c at e d- f u s e d) , s i gni f y i ng t he i rd i f f e re nc e s i n t he i r d i f f e re nt u s e o f s ymbo l s .So j a ( 1989:123) i s no t c o nv i nc e d by Sac k ' s ap p ro ac h t o s p ac e , whi c h he c l as s i f i e sas ne o - K ant i an , and c r i t i c i ze s i t as d i v o rc e d f ro m mat e r i a l i ze d s o c i a l re al i t i e s . So j ai de nt i f i e s t wo c o nc e p t s o f s p ac e : t he f i r s t i s t he p hys i c al s p ac e o f mat e r i a l nat u re ,u nde r whi c h he ( wro ngl y) c l as s i f i e s t he c l as s i c al de bat e s abo u t abs o l u t e v e rs u sre l at i v e t he o r i e s ( So j a , 1989: 120) . The s e c o nd c o nc e p t ( whi c h i s i nde e d t here l at i o nal c o nc e p t ) i s t he me nt al s p ac e o f c o gni t i o n and re p re s e nt at i o n , whi c hi n c l u d e s t h e a t t e m p t s t o e x p l o r e t h e p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g a n d s y m b o U c c o n t e n t s o fm e n t a l m a p s a n d l a n d s c a p e i m a g e r y . H e t h e n , f o l l o w i n g L e f e b v r e , i n t r o d u c e s at h i rd c o nc e p t o f s o c i a l s p ac e and argu e s t hat o ne o f t he mo s t f o rmi dabl e c hal l e nge st o c o nt e mp o rar y s o c i a l t he o ry i s t o de f i ne t he i n t e rc o nne c t i o n s o f t he s e t hre es p a c e s .So j a ' s anal ys i s , s i mi l ar t o Ts c hu mi ' s ( 1990) and p ar t l y De ar ' s ( 1994) , draws u p o nt he p o we r f u l anal ys i s o f s o c i a l s p ac e by t he p hi l o s o p he r He nr i Le f e bv re , who s ewo rk, as o u t l i ne d i n h i s maj o r wo rk The Production of Space ( 1991) , has i n f l u e nc e dbo t h mo de rni s t and p o s t - mo de rni s t i n t e rp re t at i o ns . W hi l e Le f e bv re o f f e rs u s wayso f br i dgi ng t he gap be t we e n me nt al and re al s p ac e , ho we v e r , he i n t ro du c e s ano t he r


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1 6 Design of Urban Space Understanding Urban Space 17

c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h is f u n d a m e n t a l to the a n a l y s i s of c ap i t a l i s t o rde r , ise x t e n d e d to s p a c e to e n t a n g l e the p h y s i c a l m i l i e u in the p r o d u c t i v e s y s t e m ofc ap i t a l i s m as a w h o l e . He f u r t h e r a r g u e d t h a t the o r g a n i z a t i o n of e n v i r o n m e n t ands o c i e t y , and th e l a y o u t j 3 f J a w r L S_ a n d . r e g i o n s , . a r , e J l l d j p e r ^ the p r o d u c t i o n ofs p a c e and its r o l e in the r e p r o d u c t i o n of the s o c i o - e c o n o m i c f o r r r u i t i o n . D a v i dH a r v e y ( 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 5 a ^ b ) ~ F o I I o w s L e f e b v r e By e l a b o r a t i n g on t h i s c o m m o d i f i c a t i o np ro c e s s , o u t l i n i ng th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w i t h i n the p r i m a r y c i r c u i t of c a p i t a l , w h e r e thec a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s t a k e s p l a c e . H e r e the d r i v e to c r e a t e s u r p l u s v a l u e byc o m p e t i n g c a p i t a l i s t s l e a d s to o v e r - a c c u m u l a t i o n . T h i s b e c o m e s m a n i f e s t in theo v e r - p r o d u c t i o n of c o m m o d i t i e s , w i t h f a l l i n g p r i c e s and s u r p l u s e s of l a b o u r andc ap i t a l . Tryi ng to o v e r c o m e the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , t h e s e e x t r a r e s o u r c e s are s w i t c h e dinto a s e c o n d a r y c i r c u i t of c a p i t a l , w h e r e i n v e s t m e n t is m a d e in the bu i l te n v i r o n m e n t , c r e a t i n g a w h o l e p h y s i c a l l a n d s c a p e for the p u r p o s e s of p r o d u c t i o n ,c i r c u l a t i o n , e x c

Design of Urban Space_ an Inquiry Into a Socio-Spatial Process_Ali Mad Ani Pour

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Transcript of Design of Urban Space_ an Inquiry Into a Socio-Spatial Process_Ali Mad Ani Pour