CONTENTS...examine two important debates. The first section discusses in detail what actually...

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CONTENTS

List of Illustrative Material viii

Preface and Acknowledegments xi

1 What is Africa? 1What is Africa? 3The problem of the ‘grand narrative’ 7Thematic approaches 10

2 Land and People 13The physical setting 14Political geography 21Africa’s natural resources 23Demographic trends 27Societal trends 33

3 History 37Africa before 1850 39The colonial era 50Decolonisation: The road to independence 59

4 Political Systems 72Politics in the post-colonial era (1952–1990) 73Democratisation? 87

5 The Economy 1061960–1970s: An age of optimism? 107The onset of economic collapse 115Structural adjustment 118

Copyrighted material – 9781137500335


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vi

The road to recovery? 125Enter the dragon: China’s role in Africa since the millennium 131A sustainable recovery? 136

6 Political Violence 142Political structures 144The impact of the Cold War 149Ethnicity 154Religious belief 158Resources 162

7 Social Movements and Civil Society 167African nationalism 169Contemporary movements in Africa 172NGOs 175Single-issue movements 179Traditional authority 182Religious movements 184

8 Popular Culture 189Literature 189Film 195Music 199Sport 203

9 Africa Beyond the Nation-State 210Pan-Africanism 211Continental and regional integration 214The African diaspora 225Migration 230

10 The Future of Africa 237Technology 238Climate change 244



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Education 248Final thoughts 252

Bibliography 254

Index 272



1

1 WHAT IS AFRICA?

Africa is probably the most misunderstood region in the world. It is a continent that generates an enormous amount of interest and attention, yet is also subject to significant misrepresentation and generalisation that does little to account for its diversity or complexity. Africa is home to over 1 billion people (UN, 2017) and is the most linguistically varied place on earth with over two thousand languages spoken, but all too fre-quently, it is often viewed as a homogeneous, single entity. Nonetheless, in the west such a perception is commonly encountered and perpetuated. Owing to the sheer size of Africa, it can often be difficult to comprehend the vast differences, hence the resort to oversimplification. Furthermore, at first glance, certain developments that have occurred seem to have little consistency, or are simply regarded as uniquely ‘African’, such as author-itarianism, corruption, and the collapse of states. For those uninitiated in African affairs, trying to understand these trajectories can be over-whelming. In order to provide some coherence to this web of complexity, the stock response is to slip into reductive explanations that do little to explain why things have happened. The consequence is to simply look at the outcome, rather than to understand how and why they have occurred.

This book sets out to challenge and break down such simplistic per-spectives, and to provide different ways of thinking about Africa. It seeks to highlight the diversity and multitude of differences that Africa offers. The continent provides a fascinating canvas from which to study a range of political, historical, economic, societal, and cultural themes. Although this book emphasises Africa’s heterogeneity throughout, it does not posit that effective and intuitive comparisons cannot be made about it. In terms of historical and political trajectories there are a series of remarkable sim-ilarities, which include the experiences of European colonial rule; experi-ments with divergent forms of political and economic systems (often with varying degrees of success); the challenges and inhibitors associated with poor governance and conflict; and more recently, the consolidation of



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democratic structures, and rapid economic growth across the continent. The outcome is a rich tapestry of case studies that will allow the reader to develop a broader knowledge of Africa, and to critically investigate a range of ideas and issues.

The central aims of this book are to challenge easy and reductive assumptions, and to provide a short and clear introduction into contem-porary Africa’s social, economic, political, and cultural composition. It will offer a succinct, overarching assessment of Africa, with the primary purpose of explaining the reasons why the continent is where it is today. It will address broad themes such as modes of governance, economic systems, and culture, which will act as an introduction to the continent. This book makes the assumption of no prior knowledge when examin-ing these topics. The overarching and broader points will be supported by a range of supplementary information in the form of specific boxed case studies, maps, graphs, and images that will add relevant detail to the narrative. This structure allows the reader to dip in and out of this book, quickly highlights some of the key points, and provides clear instruction for further enquiry. This is a relatively short book dealing with a huge subject matter, and it would be almost impossible to offer an all- encompassing assessment of such a large and complex continent. Understandably, not everything can be addressed or discussed, and care-fully selected, pertinent examples that span the continent have been chosen in order to provide the most comprehensive picture. The choice of examples and subject matter in order to achieve this goal has naturally meant that the book has had to be selective. However, the purpose is to develop a broad yet detailed foundational introduction to the continent, rather than becoming embroiled in the finite detail, multiple examples, and the intricacies of the academic debates. The book will offer critical and thought-provoking assessments throughout, as well as the author’s own opinions and judgements. This is not the final word on Africa, merely a starting point.

Before progressing on to the substantive topics of this book, which are outlined at the end of the chapter, the rest of this introduction will examine two important debates. The first section discusses in detail what actually constitutes Africa, traversing some of the ideas about the compo-sition of the continent. This is a crucial starting point, as it provides a clear impression of what is meant by ‘Africa’ in this book, while highlighting the contested nature of the term. The second section will focus on the notion of the ‘grand narrative’ in the context of Africa. This section will seek to explain why labels such as ‘Afro-pessimism’ and ‘Africa Rising’ are so unhelpful and demonstrate why they do little to establish a more rounded understanding of Africa.



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What is Africa?This may seem like an unusual question to begin a book devoted to this continent, and one which at first glance has a fairly straightforward answer. Yet, depending on context, historical time frame, and personal perspec-tive, the picture that emerges is far more complex than it might appear. In truth, there is no consensus to this question, and certainly no simple response. Ask different people from across the world and you will be given a variety of answers. A fundamental point to make is that ‘Africa’ does not necessarily mean, constitute, or represent the same thing for all people, including its inhabitants. Where does this confusion stem from, when the defined land mass of Africa is easily identifiable, stretching from the shores of the Mediterranean in the north, through to the convergence of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans in the south? In brief, the competing visions of Africa revolve around geographic, political, cultural, and academic inter-pretations. Importantly, it must be recognised that what is regarded as Africa has been a continually changing entity over time, but one which was irrevocably altered by the intervention of European colonialism. The cur-rent political map of Africa was, with a few exceptions, externally imposed upon the continent in the late nineteenth century, which bore little resem-blance to the cultural, ethnic, linguistic, or even geographic realties on the ground. Ali Mazrui (2005, 70) has emphasised the newness of modern Africa, arguing that it took ‘European conceptualization and cartography to turn Africa into a continent … it was Europe that continentalized the African identity’. This artificial construction of nations and nationalities has profoundly affected the continent. It must be remembered that the political map of Africa in its current form is still a relatively recent phenom-enon, and as such is still evolving and debated; for example, South Sudan became the most recent independent nation in 2011.

How should we try to conceptualise Africa? Before reaching a conclusion there are a number of problems that must be explored. The first dilemma is whether all the nations on the continent should be considered part of Africa. The North African states of Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, and Egypt are quite clearly on the continental land mass, yet for many, including its citizens, these countries are regarded as distinct and separate from the rest of Africa. The received wisdom is that the North’s affinities lie predominantly with the Arabic world, due to the prevalence of Islamic and Arabic influences. The Sahara is thus seen to mark the delineation between two very different worlds. The vast majority of aca-demic studies of the continent adopt such an approach by solely focusing upon sub-Saharan Africa; there are many good reasons for doing so, par-ticularly when seeking to draw direct comparisons. However, this book will argue that all these nations must be included in any analysis, and



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although they will not be the primary focus for attention, they certainly form a part of Africa.

Why should North Africa be included when so many choose to exclude it? First of all, despite the apparent differences, there are many historic and contemporary links between the north and south, including the spread of religion, the migration of peoples, and the interconnected economic systems, which criss-cross the Sahara Desert. There is also a direct contemporary relevance for incorporating North Africa into our considerations. By including the North African states in our framework it helps build a greater understanding and interpretation of distinctly mod-ern issues such as rising religious conflict, the emergence of transnational terror groups such as al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, the collapse of state institutions in Libya, and the mounting numbers of sub-Saharan African migrants arriving in the region, seeking to depart for Europe. These developments have not occurred in isolation, and have a profound effect on the nations either side of the Sahara. Secondly, the European powers conceptualised the continent as a whole, and the scramble for col-onies truly began after the crises in Egypt in the 1870s, when the nation’s inability to repay its mounting debts to London and Paris resulted in the Anglo-French takeover of its treasury and infrastructure, undermining its sovereignty; this move subsequently led to the intensification of overseas territorial acquisition. These external powers most certainly did not see dividing lines as they carved up the continent (Sanderson, 1985, 96–100).

Thirdly, and perhaps more problematically, by establishing such an artificial division, it is doing so on the basis of race and religion: an Arabic, Muslim north standing in contrast to the Black, Christian south (Cooper, 2002, 11). There is, however, no neat split on the map, and these overarching assumptions and generalisations based on race and religion do not bear historical scrutiny. Moreover, categorising people on race, and using labels such as ‘black Africa’, does little to dispel the myths and unhelpful connotations that universalise the continent as one and the same thing. Fourthly, the African Union (AU), the continent’s multilat-eral institution, includes all these states, and, in the past, both Algeria and Libya have played active and enthusiastic roles in pan-continental affairs. For example, following its independence in 1962, Algeria became a beacon for African liberation movements from across the continent, and actively sought to assist many of them. Furthermore, the former Libyan President Colonel Gaddafi was a keen advocate of Pan-Africanism, and he played a crucial role in pushing forward the idea of a transformed continental bloc in the shape of the new AU in the late 1990s, as well as actively interfering in the domestic politics of many sub-Saharan nations. The political elite in these two countries clearly identified with the rest of Africa.



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A second geographic and political issue is the status of Africa’s island nations. The land mass is fixed and easily identifiable, but do the island territories in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean form part of the continent? Maps of Africa will often include Madagascar, yet simultaneously ignore five other island nations (Cape Verde, Comoros, Mauritius, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Seychelles). Although there are distinct differences between these islands and the mainland, particularly those located in the Indian Ocean, these nations consciously joined the Organisation of Afri-can Unity (OAU), and thus politically tied themselves to the continent’s development. These nations should be considered as an integral part of contemporary Africa, and must not be forgotten. However, it is worth noting that there are several islands and enclaves around Africa that are not part of the continent. For example, the French overseas departments of Réunion and Mayotte, direct legacies of colonial rule, are, despite their geographic location, regarded as being part of the French Republic, to the extent that they send MPs to Paris and even use the Euro. Likewise, another relic of European expansionism is found in North Africa, where Spain governs two city-states, Ceuta and Melilla, which lie geographically within Morocco. These are both disputed territories, and even though Morocco continues to petition for them to be returned on the basis that they are colonies, the enclaves have been governed by Spain since the sixteenth century, and thus Rabat’s historical claims to territorial sover-eignty are not that clear-cut.

A final issue that complicates the picture is that there is no definitive number of countries on the continent. The official number is in dispute, and the outcome depends entirely on context. For example, the United Nations (UN) recognises 54 countries and the AU 55. The discrepancy revolves around two countries: Morocco and the Sahrawi Arab Demo-cratic Republic (an area of territory within the disputed Western Sahara). In 1984, Morocco withdrew from the OAU in protest at the inclusion of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, a region which Morocco claims sovereignty over. However, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a partially recognised territory, which has not been accepted by the UN, or for that matter, some African governments (see Chapter 9). Another example of an unrecognised African state is Somaliland, a region in the northwest of Somalia, which declared independence in 1991. Although the territory has a functioning government, maintains a degree of stability, and even has its own currency in circulation, Somaliland is not recognised by any nation or multilateral organisation. In both cases, the matter has yet to be resolved. Ultimately, the question of which countries constitute Africa can vary wildly depending upon specific settings, and perspectives.

How can we answer the original question: ‘What is Africa?’ First of all, it is virtually impossible to identify a single Africa. The geographic and



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cultural diversity is simply staggering, while the multiplicity of political and economic systems dismantles the notion of a homogeneous conti-nent. If the continent is so diverse, what then binds it? For the majority of the continent there is a shared colonial past, with all except Ethiopia and Liberia experiencing some form of European conquest and rule. Although European colonialism differed depending on the region, context, and the specific colonial power, many modern African states share this commonal-ity, which had an enormous bearing upon their post-independence devel-opment. Secondly, the struggles for independence that gathered apace after Ghana was granted its freedom in 1957, had many similarities in tactics, demands, and outcomes, which helped to unite African leaders in their determination to be free of external subjugation; unsurprisingly, this sen-timent remains highly influential. Thirdly, in the post-colonial era, many African nations have experienced remarkably similar trajectories in terms of economic and political influences and choices, and unfortunately conflict and instability. In this regard, it makes it easier to draw comparisons about what unites the continent because of the array of shared developmental paths. Finally, on a theoretical and romantic level, the binding ideal of a united Africa is articulated through the vision of Pan-Africanism, and from the historic diaspora. This will be discussed in more depth in Chapter 9, but this powerful idea argues that for the continent to progress there must be social, political, and economic unity to drive Africa forward. Indeed, this unity is premised upon a shared history and a shared future for all those of African descent, both on the continent and in the diaspora. The endur-ing legacy of Pan-Africanism is still visible, with the ultimate ideal of a united continent continuing to be upheld by the AU. While there are many practical problems associated with realising Pan-Africanism, it remains an important philosophical means of conceptualising the continent.

Although many observers may regard conceptualising Africa in its totality as problematic, there are also many good reasons for doing so. Africa is home to a staggering diversity of political systems, structures of governance, ideologies, and economic practices, as well as cultural, religious, and ethnic interactions, not found anywhere else. The ‘newness’ of the continent in its current form meant that after independence, leaders had a rich array of options open to them; in many ways contemporary Africa has acted as a laboratory for the modern state. African leaders have all had to grapple with big questions such as nationhood, the purpose of the state, the role of identity in politics, and issues of violence and instabil-ity. The many and varied approaches towards confronting these challenges have resulted in a multitude of outcomes – some have failed, while oth-ers have succeeded. Therefore the plurality of contemporary Africa makes the continent a fascinating case study for enquiry into the range of themes outlined in this book, allowing for intuitive comparisons to be made.



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A crucial interlinked question to the theme of ‘What is Africa?’ is ‘Who are Africans?’. This is an equally charged and problematic question, which continues to generate significant debate. Ali Mazrui (2009, xi) identified two groups: ‘Africans of the blood’ and ‘Africans of the soil’. The main argument was that those who are Africans of the blood were categorised by racial and genealogical terms and are ‘identified with the black race’. The Africans of the soil therefore can include the people of Arabic North Africa, Indians in Kenya, and Whites in South Africa who are defined in geographical terms and ‘are identified with the African continent in nationality and ancestral location’. However, this explanation does not necessarily cover all the bases. Another way to conceptualise ‘Who are Africans?’ is through utilising different categories that address themes such as race, geography, and African consciousness linked through Pan- Africanism and the diaspora (Adibe, 2009, 16). While these two authors have tried to pin down this question, each of their definitions have their own inherent issues, which simplify a complex debate; there is clearly no easy answer. The main thing for you to recognise is that not all African people are black, identity can be fluid and evolutionary, while many in the diaspora (see Chapter 9) identify themselves as being African even if they were not born on the continent. Therefore, when considering ‘Who are Africans?’ it is once more a multifaceted question and one that has a range of interpretations and perspectives dependent on your setting and outlook.

To summarise, this book makes reference to the whole continent including North Africa and the island territories. However, to try and avoid the pitfalls of thinking about Africa as a single entity, it might be helpful to (re)imagine the continent as many Africas. This book asserts that this will help escape the all-encompassing narratives that so often accompany the continent, and allow for a more critical and analytical understanding about what makes ‘Africa’. By deconstructing the conti-nent, and viewing Africa not only along regional lines, but through cul-tural, political, and economic lenses, it provides a better sense of where comparisons can effectively be made, while powerfully demonstrating the differences and complexities.

The problem of the ‘grand narrative’As we have established, Africa is home to multiple and conflicting real-ities. However, the grand narrative has had a profound effect on per-petuating generalised, stereotypical, and often misleading views of the continent. All too frequently simplistic interpretations and images are popularised by the media, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and academics that ultimately extrapolate specific developments across Africa.



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The oversimplification is far from helpful. What occurs in one country or region does not necessarily apply to another, let alone the entire continent, be it positive or negative.

In the west, Africa often suffers from a terrible public image, and the general perception of the continent is resoundingly negative. For example, at the start of each new course I teach on African history, I ask my students to list five things that immediately spring to mind. The vast majority of responses revolve around images of conflict, poverty, economic col-lapse, famine, corruption, poor governance, dictatorships, and instability. Even when something positive is mentioned it is largely superficial along the lines of giraffes, open wilderness, or the Maasai tribes people. Such immediate characterisations of Africa are not accurate or useful and this negativity posits a continent seemingly teetering on the brink of disaster. For example, the Ebola crisis in West Africa in 2014 only reinforced such opinions. Unfortunately, all of these aspects have, and continue to, occur across the continent. They cannot be denied, and it would be disingenu-ous to pretend they did not take place. These unseemly parts of Africa’s recent history have significantly shaped the continent, and this book will be addressing many of these themes.

Yet some of the misrepresentations of the continent are far-fetched. For example, historian Hugh Trevor-Roper (1964, 9) observed ‘that perhaps, in the future, there will be some African History to teach. But at present, there is none: there is only the history of Europeans in Africa. The rest is darkness, and darkness is not the subject of History.’ Robert Kaplan (1994), in an article for Atlantic Monthly, painted an apocalyptic picture of West Africa, arguing that state collapse, crime, poverty, and violence indicated a ‘coming anarchy’ that would threaten the very bedrock of civilisation. By May 2000, the narrative had still not changed when The Economist wrote off the entire continent as ‘hopeless’. Although the specific examples used in both The Economist and the Atlantic Monthly did happen, the subsequent analysis was largely based upon selectively chosen events in Sierra Leone and Liberia, which were then used to portray an entire continent. If you take a step back and think about the irrationality of generalising in such a manner, such claims border on the ridiculous. Very few people would use examples of economic collapse in Greece, or civil war in Ukraine, to create an overarching judgement on the state of affairs across Europe. But when it comes to Africa, this is exactly what happens time and time again. The public’s poor opinions of the continent are further hampered by the selective reporting from the mass media and the tear-inducing campaigns by NGOs. The overwhelming negativity concerning Africa has profoundly shaped perceptions of the continent’s past, present, and future. Once you are caught in the trap of thinking in such a way, it is often very hard to break free from conceptualisations of the ‘dark’ or ‘hopeless’ continent.



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On the other side of the spectrum, there has been a new trend to (re)emphasise the positive developments. In recent decades, Africa has begun to shake off some of the negative perceptions that cling to its image by posting encouraging economic growth rates and witnessing enhanced prospects for popular democracy. By 2011, The Economist had made a dramatic U-turn in its depiction of the continent, choosing instead to assert: ‘Africa Rising.’ The idea of Africa’s steady emergence from its previous malaise had already begun to gain traction by the mid-2000s, and an increasing number of academic studies (Mahajan, 2008; Radelet, 2010; Robertson, 2012; Rotberg, 2013; Moghalu, 2014) have vociferously promoted the claim of an ‘emerging’ or ‘rising’ continent. It is not only academics, but also major multilateral organisations that have started to utilise such terminology. In May 2014, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) convened the ‘Africa Rising’ conference in Mozambique, where its delegates celebrated the steady economic growth and stability, and the newfound optimism for the future. According to data from organisations such as the IMF, World Bank, and the African Development Bank Group, since the mid-2000s, there has been rapid economic growth rates, dimin-ishing poverty levels, and increased investment in human and physical infrastructure across Africa. Two of the most frequently cited examples to illustrate these positive changes are the emergence of growing and healthy middle classes (Chapter 5), and the uptake and usage of mobile phone technology, particularly internet-enabled devices (Chapter 10).

Aside from the positive economic and infrastructural gains, Africa has experienced a growing shift towards embracing multiparty democ-racy and political accountability. Since the turn of the millennium, the number of democratic states has risen, and there are decreasing incidents of political violence. Increasingly, heads of state are now stepping aside from power following election defeats, rather than obstinately clinging to power; for example, when Nigerian President Goodluck Jonathan lost the April 2015 election, he was the nation’s first incumbent president to ever step down voluntarily. The emerging economic growth and political stability has also coincided with a sharp decrease in the number of violent conflicts that had scarred Africa during the 1990s. As a consequence, the growing stability and peace provides a firm platform for improved economic growth; investors from around the world are now more likely to be attracted to African nations in the knowledge that their outlay is more secure than in the past. It would be hard to deny that Africa’s future is looking infinitely rosier than that of previous decades. There is a new sense that Africa has collectively turned a corner, and is optimistically moving towards a brighter future.

Do these grand narratives help develop our understanding of the con-tinent? Not really. The more we know about Africa, the less persuasive



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the grand narrative becomes. Once again, the emphasis on multiple real-ties must be reiterated; we cannot generalise so abstractly about an entire continent. A few examples will illuminate this neatly. The economic data clearly does not lie, and a series of African nations have been growing at exponential rates for some time, including Côte d’Ivoire and Ethiopia. This is something that must be rightly celebrated. Yet two caveats must be raised. First, do gross domestic product (GDP) growth rates actually filter down to the material benefit of the general population? While there are middle classes emerging across Africa, there is, simultaneously, ever growing income inequality and poverty. The poorest Africans are cur-rently getting poorer, accentuated by human development levels much lower than other parts of the world (African Economic Outlook, 2015, vii–viii). Secondly, the economic boom is highly uneven. Not every region is progressing in the same way, starkly indicated by the fact that real GDP growth in 2017 was 5.3% in East Africa compared to West Africa’s 0.4% (African Economic Outlook, 2017, 5). When these figures are broken down further, for every individual success story there are plenty of coun-tries such as South Sudan and Zimbabwe that are not developing in the same way.

Furthermore, while the advancement of democracy and free elections progresses at pace, the continent continues to endure a high degree of authoritarianism and instability, and a significant number of one-party states. For example, in 2017, the then three longest serving global heads of states were found in Africa, with each governing for at least 37 years. For every democratic exemplar such as Mauritius or Botswana there will be a series of counter-narratives, including Angola, the Central African Republic (CAR), and Sudan. Africa, like many other places around the world, can and does experience both positive and negative developments all at once. A grand narrative simply perpetuates unrepresentative portray-als of Africa, which do little to represent the complexity and diversity of the continent.

Thematic approachesThe book is divided into a series of chapters that address a specific sub-ject matter, indicated below, with the purpose of providing the reader the necessary information and detail to familiarise themselves with it. The chapters can be read as standalone pieces, although there will obviously be common threads running through them all. For more information on every topic discussed in this book there will be a guide to further reading.

Chapter 2 provides the geographic setting, examining the physical, demographic, and social dimensions of the continent. The focus is on



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themes such as the impact that Africa’s physical environment has on the political and economic prospects of its nation-states; it highlights the wealth of natural resources found on the continent, the distribution of these (which is far from even) and the ways in which they are exploited; and finally points to the demographic and social indicators that are present.

The historical dimension is addressed in Chapter 3, which surveys Africa’s trajectory from the pre-colonial era up until the onset of independ-ence. Focusing on three historical eras – pre-colonial Africa, colonialism, and decolonisation – this chapter explores themes that include pre- colonial societies and polities such as the Asante and the Zulus; explains the processes of colonial conquest by the European powers; demonstrates the ways in which this power was maintained; and examines the reasons behind its collapse.

Chapter 4 sketches out some of the core political developments and outlines the main systems of governance in Africa. It assesses the main systems that have characterised political rule such as one-party states, military rule, dictatorships, and parliamentary democracies. The chapter examines how and why these various systems emerged across Africa, and the outcomes of such differing styles.

Chapter 5 addresses the economic state of Africa and seeks to explain how a continent so well-endowed in terms of natural resources has historically performed so poorly economically. The main aspects of the continent’s economic trajectory are all investigated, such as state-led development and nationalisation, the impact of neo-liberalism, the post-Cold War recovery, and the expanded role of China, which are placed in the necessary domestic and international context.

Unfortunately, the prevalence of widespread conflict has been a major impediment to continental development and stability in post- colonial Africa, and therefore Chapter 6 focuses on political violence. This chapter examines how and why there has been such susceptibility to violence and explores various reasons for conflict, including ethnic rivalry, religious sectarianism, weak states, control of resources, and the Cold War.

Chapter 7 focuses on the development of social movements and civil society across Africa. In order to encompass as many variations as possible, this section takes a broad sweep of movements and institutions, covering women’s rights, NGOs, trade unions, religious denominations, traditional authorities, and specific issue campaigns. The chapter analyses the role these movements have on society and assesses how they shape and continue to influence modern Africa.

Although there is no single African culture, nor can one universal-ising notion be constructed, Chapter 8 assesses some of the continental



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variations. It covers broad cultural themes such as music, film, literature, and sport, with each of these sub-sections focusing on specific regional and national examples to illustrate Africa’s diversity.

Chapter 9 provides a survey of Africa beyond the nation-state. It examines the role and influence of continental initiatives and ideologies such as Pan-Africanism and the African Renaissance, as well as the efforts at regional and continental integration. This chapter also looks at the diaspora, while assessing the reality behind African migration, beyond the western conceptualisation of large numbers of people fleeing the con-tinent for Europe.

The final chapter concludes the main themes, further contextualises and discusses some of the main points discussed throughout the book, and offers some observations about Africa’s future. It highlights some of the positive developments such as the importance and growth of tech-nology, while examining the challenges that climate change poses. This chapter will reiterate the overarching arguments of difference and varia-tion, while demonstrating areas of instructive comparison and similarity.

Further readingThere are several useful starting points to explore the different ways in which Africa has been conceptualised and constructed, with Valentin Mudimbe’s (1988) The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Idea of Knowledge and The Cambridge History of Africa (1975–1986), an eight-volume history of the continent, both good places to start, as they provide philosophical and historical insights into this question. Several other resources which will prove useful include Frederick Cooper’s (2002) Africa Since 1940, John Iliffe’s (1995) Africans: The History of the Continent, and Stephen Ellis’s (2002) article ‘Writing histories of contemporary Africa’.



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INDEX

In this index c represents chart, f represents figure, i represents image, m represents map, and t represents table.

abolition, slavery, 47–8Abuja Treaty, 217, 221adult literacy, 35AEC. See African Economic Community

(AEC)Africa

conceptualising, 2–3decolonisation consequences, 70–1defining, 1, 2demographic trends, 27–33economic growth, 9–10geographic/cultural diversity of, 5–6Human Development Index, 36intersectionality, diversity, 252–3island territories, 5natural resources, 23–6negative public image of, 8NGOs in, 175–9Pan-Africanism, continental unity

and, 212physical geography, 12–21plurality of, 6–7political diversity, 6, 10political geography, 21–3positive public image, 9pre-colonial history (before 1850),

39–49social trends, 33–6Sub-Saharan, North Africa v., 3–4territorial sizes in, 21–2UN recognised states of, 5World War I and, 58World War II and, 60–61t, 62

Africa Centre for Security Studies, 144–5fAfrican cinema, 195–9

directors, filmmaking forms and, 196

distribution, 199foreign films and, 198–9growth of, 199history of film industry, 195–6language, onscreen representation

and, 197Nollywood (Nigerian film industry),

196–7Ousmane Sembéne and, 197–8

(box)Third Cinema movement and, 198

African Development Bank Group, 9, 139African Diaspora Investment Fund, 228African Diaspora Skills Database, 228African Diaspora Volunteers Corps, 228African Economic Community (AEC),

217African Liberation Committee, 217African nationalism, 169–71

colonialism and, 169–70fissures in, 171social movement formation, 170–1unity, appeal for, 170

African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM), 218, 222

African people, 7African Remittances Institute, 228African Renaissance, 218–19Africans of the blood, 7



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Africans of the soil, 7African Union (AU), 213

APRM and, 223Constitutive Act, 219, 227diaspora and, 227economic unity, 221ECOWAS, sub-regional

peacekeeping and, 220 (box)EU v., 218ffunding, reliance on west for, 223intervention rights, 219leadership, 223–4legacy projects, 228NEPAD, Washington Consensus

and, 222–3peacekeeping and, 219problems of, 224RECs of, 221irepresentative seats, diaspora, 228SDGs for, 224states included in, 4trade agreements, RECs and, 222See also continental/regional

integration; unityAfro-optimism, 106Afro-pessimism, 106age, population and, 27, 30Agenda (AU Commission), 213, 221agriculture

climate change and, 245denigration of, economic collapse

and, 115–16drought and, 116European migrants/settlers and, 58geographic determinism and, 40Great Lakes area and, 19Mediterranean zone, crops, 18production, post-independence

statistics, 114–15subsistence farming, 115See also farmers

Algerian revolution, 67–8 (box)altitude, climate and, 19

anglophone African literature, 192, 194Anglo-Boer War, 54–5Angola Civil War, Cold War and, 152–4

(box)APRM. See African Peer Review

Mechanism (APRM)Arab slavers, 45–6Arab Spring, 101, 232armed conflict

authoritarian governments, 144–5f, 146

civilians, repressive violence against, 148

Cold War, impact of and, 149–54ethnic rivalry and, 154–8governance, as root cause of, 148–9militia groups and, 148rebellions, 147religious beliefs and, 158–62resources, 162–6political violence, 146, 165women’s movement, Liberia, 180See also armed conflict; coups;

violence; warfareartificial boundaries, colonial history,

52Asian Tiger states, 114asylum seeking, 231, 233Atlantic Charter, 62Atlantic slave trade, 45–6AU. See African Union (AU)authoritarian democracy, 95authoritarian governance

dominant party states, 98–9personal rule, 78–82technology, political power and,

243–4autocratic governance, 74

armed conflict and, 144, 145t, 146

ethnic violence and, 158 (box)trade unions and, 174See also political systems entries



INDEX

274

bauxite, 25, 108tBerg Report, structural adjustment

programme, 120 (box)Berlin Conference (1884), 50–2biomass energy, 26birth rates, 27black diaspora identity, 226blood diamonds, 180–1borders

country sizes and, 21–2diaspora and, 225–6migration and, 234retaining colonial, 216unequal resource distribution and,

21See also boundaries, territorial;

colonial boundariesboundaries, territorial, 21

colonial, 51m, 52European control over, 53geographic determinism and,

39–41slavery and, 47–8See also borders; colonial boundaries

brain drain, migration and, 234Brazzabille Group, African unity and,

215Britain

Gold Coast independence and, 65 (box)

Mau Mau rebellion, brutal repression, 66–7

See also colonialism; post-colonialismBritish South Africa Company, 53business ownership, women and, 139

Casablanca Group, African unity and, 215

Central Africacoastal regions, 18migration and, 233

Central African Federation, 62China

communications investments, 134

critique of African involvement, 135–6 (box)

infrastructure projects and, 132–4non-interference policy, 135raw materials and, 131total trade with Africa, 134ctrade and, 132

Christianity, 58–9history in Africa, 184Pentecostalism, 185 (box)spread of, 159See also religion

cinema. See African cinemaCitizens and Diaspora Directorate, 228citizenship rights, colonialism and, 57city-states, 42civil society, change and, 171civil war(s)

Angola, Cold War and, 152–4 (box)political conflict and, 146religion and, 160

climate changecoastal areas, 245–6defining, 244–5desertification, 245drought and, 245green energy, 247impact of, 245innovation initiatives, Great Green

Wall, 246–7 (box)nations affected by, 244Paris Climate Summit, 246water shortages, 246

climate zonescoastal regions, West Africa, 18Ethiopian Highlands, 18–19geographic determinism and, 40Great Lakes, 19Mediterranean, 18Rift Valley, 19Sahara Desert, 18

cobalt, 25cocoa exports, 108t



INDEX

275

coffee exports, 108tCold War, Africa and, 149–54

Angolan Civil War and, 152–4 (box)Congo Crisis, 151–2 (box)domestic collaboration, elites, 150external interventions, 149–50key battlegrounds, 152Marxist regimes, 150–1

colonial African armies, World War II, 61tcolonial boundaries, 21, 51m, 52

landlocked nations, 22See also borders; boundaries,

territorialcolonial history

adoption of European culture, 50–9African rulers, collaboration of, 56Anglo-Boer War, 54–5Berlin Conference and, 52conquest, explanations/causality, 50decolonisation, 59–71. See also

decolonisationdiplomatic control, 53direct rule and, 57extract and exploit, 59genocide, brutality, 55indirect rule, 56–7 (box)King Leopold of Belgium and, 51–2map of colonial Africa, 51mmedical/technological advances, 50motivations behind annexation, 52–3reforms, social/education, 58–9settler colonies, 57–8violent resistance, 53–5World War I and, 58World War II and, 60–1t, 62See also colonialism

colonialism, 39anglophone literature and, 194citizenship rights and, 57as civilising mission, 58–9cost of, 53differences in control, power and,

55–6

Hutu/Tutsi identities and, 157–8 (box)

internal development skewed by, 109language, literature and, 191nationalism and, 169–70Negritude literature and, 193–4promises, reality v. and, 59tribal groups and, 154–5See also colonial history; Europe

commodity(ies)China and, 132prices, economic growth and, 125,

127, 136–7communication infrastructure, 238–9communications investments, China and,

134conflict mediation, OAU non-

intervention policy, 217–18conflict resolution

Burkina Faso, Mogho Naba and, 183 (box)

political instability and, 100conflict resources, 162–6Congress of South African Trade Unions

(CSATU), 173–4 (box)constitutional coups, 99–100constitutions, adoption of, 91, 99Constitutive Act (AU), 219, 227Continental Free Trade Area (CFTA), 128continental/regional integration, 214–25

African Union (AU) and, 218–19AU, EU functions v., 218fconflict mediation, OAU non-

intervention policy and, 217–18institutional organisations and, 218intervention rights, AU, 219Morocco, Western Sahara and,

216–17 (box)OAU and, 215–16Pan-Africanism v., 215REC trade agreements, 222sub-regional peacekeeping,

ECOWAS, 220 (box)See also African Union (AU)



INDEX

276

copper, 25, 108tcorruption

blood diamonds and, 181democratisation and, 97neo-patrimonial practices and, 112oil and gas reserves, wealth and, 26Tanzania, Magufuli and, 97 (box)wealth distribution and, 24

country sizes, diversity of, 21–2coups

AU and, 219Burkina Faso, Mogho Naba and,

183 (box)constitutional, 99–100Lisbon, 68See also armed conflict; coups;

military coups violence; warfarecultural diversity, African states, 5–6cultural imperialism

African cinema and, 198literature language and, 191

culturefilm, 195–9imagined, diaspora and, 226literature, 189–95music, 199–203Pan-Africanism and, 214sport, 203–8See also entries for specific cultures

dams, electricity-generating, 14, 16, 247dark continent, 8data collection issues, Africa, 107debt cycle, 117debt relief

African nations and multilateral efforts for, 131

HIPC and, 122, 130–1Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative

(MDRI), 130–1SAP failures and, 122, 124

decolonisation, 39, 59–71Algerian revolution (1954–1962),

67–8 (box)

Atlantic Charter, African resistance and, 62

Cold War and, 149colonial retreat, power maintenance,

69–70Congo, Belgium and, 69–70consequences of, 70–1countries, by date, 64mcross-cultural experiences, African

soldiers, 61Ghanaian independence 1957,

Kwame Nkrumah and, 63, 65, 66i

Independence (1960), 63independent nations (1945), 63liberation movements, 150literature, language and, 191–2Mau Mau rebellion, British and,

66–7nationalism, leadership and, 63–5North African independence, 63Pan-Africanism and, 66post-colonial political systems,

73–87. See also political systems, post-colonial era (1952–1990)

processes, stereotypes, 59progression of, 63reforms, post-war, 62–3revolutionary movements and, 68West Africa referendum, France and,

69–70white flight, 68 (box)World War II and, 60–61t, 62

de Gaulle, Charles, 67–8 (box)de-industrialisation, 138democracy(ies)

colonial institutions v., 74development v., 76elections, politics and, 10flawed, 95–7hybrid, 95–7multiparty, 87oil and gas reserves and, 26post-colonial era, 86–7



INDEX

277

religious social movements and, 186–7

democratisation, 87–104African governance, Mo Ibrahim

index, 103tAfrican National Congress and, 91Botswana dominate party, 98causal factors in shift to, 88constitutional coups, 99–100constitutions, adoption of new, 91decision-making, corruption and,

97dominant party system and, 96–7Egyptian military coup of 2013,

101–2 (box)elite pressure to reform, 89Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Liberia, 93–4

(box)francophone model of reform, 90

(box)freedom levels in Africa (2018),

92tfuture in Africa, democratic trends,

102–5Gambia/Côte d’Ivoire coups, 101international aid tied to, 88–9Mauritius, 94military coups, refusal to recognise,

101multiparty elections, 90–1, 95–6NGOs and, 178Nigeria elections, 96post-colonial demands for, 74power-sharing initiatives, 100ranges of, 95Tanzania’s dominant party, 97 (box)term limits, 99–100transitions to, 87–8types of African, 95unsuccessful attempts, 89–90women, African politics and, 94t

demographic trends, 27–33desertification, 244, 246–7 (box)development, democracy v., 76

diamond exports, 108tdiamond producing countries, 25diamonds

blood, 180–1conflict resource, 162–3

diasporaConstitution Act, AU, 227defining, 225economic migrants, 232Global African Diaspora Summit,

227–8largest African, historical/

contemporary, 226fmigration and, 230–5national identities and, 226–7political activism, Gambia and, 229

(box)project of AU for, 228remittances from, 228–9types of, 225See also migration

Diaspora Development Marketplace, 228digital infrastructure, 243direct rule, colonialism and, 57disease(s)

challenges of, 20Dutch disease, 24Ebola crisis, 8, 138, 176–7 (box)geographic determinism and, 40HIV/AIDS, 33–4 (box)mortality rates and, 45life expectancy and, 33–4pandemic, 138polio eradication, 20waterborne, 20

dominant party stateauthoritarian nations, 98–9Botswana, 98Tanzania, 97 (box)drought, 116, 156, 245. See also

rainfall; waterDutch Disease, 24Dutch East India Company, 48–9



INDEX

278

East Africa, migration and, 233Ebola crisis

Médecins Sans Frontièrs (MSF), 176–7 (box)

West Africa, 8, 138economic collapse, 115–18

austerity measures, 118debt cycle, 117drought, food imports and, 116oil and, 116–17SAP loans and, 120 (box)trade unions and, 172–3

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), sub-regional peacekeeping and, 220 (box)

economic consequences, decolonisation, 70–1

economic developmentagricultural production and, 114–15China and, 131–6commodity prices and, 125, 127debt relief, 130–1economic collapse, onset of, 115–18Ethiopia’s rapid growth, 129–30

(box)export base of, 107–9external forces, dependence on,

114financial aid, SAPs and, 118–25.

See also structural adjustment programmes (SAPs)

foreign direct investment flows and, 128–9

GDP growth rate (select countries, 2002–2010), 126t

indebtedness, 117finternal development, skewed by

colonialism, 109Mauritian, success of, 113–14 (box)mobile technology and, 239optimism (1960s–1970s), 107–15outward-facing, 128parastatals, 112political control, central to, 121

primary production and exports, reliance on, 108t

SDGs for, 224state-led growth model, 111–12underdevelopment, neo-colonialism

and, 109, 110 (box)economic growth, 9–10

declining, 2012, 136–41de-industrialisation/industrialisation,

138demographic changes and, 139destabilising factors, 138infrastructure and, 133–41960s–1970s, 107–15trade, Europe and, 45unevenness of, 10

economic inequality, 32economic migrants, 231–2economic policy, democratisation and,

128economic practices, diverse, 6economic unity, 217ECOWAS. See Economic Community of

West African States (ECOWAS)education, 248–52

achievements by country, 250adult literacy, 35barriers to, 249colonial reforms, 58–9decolonisation and, 70gender and, 250increased spending, 111investing in, need for, 251–2lack of, literature production and,

193literacy rates, 248need for, benefits of, 248poverty and, 249–50student participation, 248–9teachers, training, 251teaching resources, 251

Egyptian Revolution, 101–2 (box), 161–2



INDEX

279

electionsauthoritarian nations, 98Botswana dominate party, 98democratisation and, 89disputed, restricted social media,

244Mauritian, 94mobile technology and, 242multiparty, 90–1, 95–6refusals to relinquish power and, 99Tanzania dominate party, 97 (box)violence and, 93, 100

electoral violence, 93, 100electricity

dams, water power and, 14, 16renewable sources of, 26See also energy production

electronic device production, 25employment

increased opportunities for, 127industrialisation and, 138informal sector, 175migration and, 234private sector, 127public sector, 112SAPs and, 123service sector, 129 (box)women and, 35youth, creating jobs for, 139See also trade unions

energy productionChina and, 132–4digital infrastructure and, 243emissions, climate change, 245green sources of, 247types of, 26

entrenched multiparty democracies, 87environmental change, 138, 245.

See also climate changeequality, gender, 35–6equatorial zone, 19Ethiopian Highlands, 18–19ethnic diversity, 6, 214

ethnic exclusion, armed conflict and, 146ethnic groups

borders and, 21indirect rule and, 56–7 (box)

ethnic identity, diaspora and, 226ethnicity

political mobilisation and, 155power and, 155social life and, 155violence and, 154–8

ethnic rivalry, armed conflict and, 154–8colonialism, tribalism and, 154–5Darfu, Sudan, 155–6ethnicity, political mobilisation, 155Rwandan genocide of 1994, 156–8

(box)Europe

Africa, World War II and, 60–61t, 62

African colonies. See colonialismannexation of Africa, motivations,

52–3Berlin Conference, colonial history,

50–2colonialism in Africa and, 50–9conceptualising Africa and, 3, 4illegal migration to, 235migrants/settlers to Africa, 57–8World War I, colonial soldiers and,

58See also colonialism; post-

colonialism European Union (EU), African Union

V., 218fexports

China and, 132gold, 25intra-African trade and, 222Mauritius and, 113–14 (box)oil and gas, 25–6raw materials, 24–5reliance on primary production and,

107–8t, 109, 137See also resources



INDEX

280

factionalism, 77family unit size, 27farmers

exploitation of, 115incentivising, 120SMS networking technology and,

239See also agriculture

fast-food, 34fertility rates, 27, 30films. See African cinemafinancial assistance

diaspora and, 228–9SAP stipulations, 118–19See also foreign aid; structural

adjustment programmesfinancial transactions, technology and,

239, 240 (box), 241flawed democracy, 95–7food, conflict resource, 163food imports, 115, 116food production, 30. See also agriculture;

farmersfootball. See sportforced displacement, 233forced migration, 231foreign aid

dependence on, 123funding, reliance on west for, 223official development assistance, 123See also financial assistance;

structural adjustment programmes (SAPs)

foreign direct investment (FDI) flows, 113–14 (box)

effects of, 139external flows and, 128–9

forestry, 25fossil fuels, 25–6France

Algerian revolution and, 67–8 (box)colonies, 4, 5, 48interventionism, 83

neo-colonialism of, 110 (box)West Africa referendum, 69–70See also colonialism; post-colonialism

francophone African literature, 192–4

francophone nations, continental integration and, 215

free trade agreements, RECs, 222French Community, 69–70French Union, 62

Gambia, diaspora political activism, 229 (box)

gas reserves, 25–6gender

business ownership, women and, 139

education and, 250equality, 35–6, 180literature, women and, 194–5 (box)women in African politics, 94twomen’s social movement, Liberia,

180violence and, 35

gender equality scores, 35–6genocide, 55

AU and, 219Rwandan (1994), 156–8 (box)

geographic determinism, 39–41geographic differences, African states,

5–6, 39–41geographyclimate zones. See Climate zones

diversity of, 16, 17mlandlocked nations, north/south

equator, 22t, 23land mass, continent, 14physical, 12–21political, 21–3river systems, 14–16

geothermal energy, 26Gini co-efficient, gross national incomes

and, 140



INDEX

281

Global African Diaspora Summit, 227–8globalisation

economic, football and, 207trade unions and, 175

Gold Coast Convention (UGGC), 65 (box), 66i

gold exports, 25governance

autocratic, 74decolonisation consequences, 70–1demand for good, SAPs and, 120extending authority, colonialism,

55Mo Ibrahim Index on African, 103tneo-patrimonialism, 77–8 (box)NGOs and, 176pre-colonial, 41–2public sector employment, 112types of African, 95See also political systems; and entries

for specific types of governancegreen economy, climate change and, 247gross domestic product (GDP), 10

annual of selected countries, 2002–2010, 126t

net official development assistance and, 125t

select annual (2011–2017), 137tsocietal uplift and, 139–40socio-economic development and,

35world regions’, 119t

gross national income, 139–40groundnut exports, 108tguerrilla war, Somalia, 161 (box)

hardwoods, 25healthcare, 33–4

colonialism, reforms and, 58increased spending, 111infant mortality, 35Médecins Sans Frontièrs (MSF),

Ebola and, 176–7 (box)

Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPC), 122

historycolonial, 50–9pre-colonial (before 1850), 39–49oral, 190, 200See also entries for specific histories

HIV/AIDS, 33–4 (box), 180Horn of Africa, 18–19housing scarcity, 32Human Development Index (HDI), 36humanitarian aid, Ebola and, 176–7 (box)human rights

education as basic, 248migration and, 233–4violations, AU and, 219, 224

hybrid democracy, 95–7hydroelectric power, 14, 16, 247

identityblack diaspora, 226ethnic, violence and, 155See also ethnic; ethnicity entries

income, gross national, 139–40incumbency, lengthy, 77independence movements, 59–71

African cinema and, 196guerrilla fighters, insurgency, 150Pan-Africanism movement and, 212trade unions and, 172See also decolonisation; liberation

movementsindirect rule, 56–7 (box)industrialisation

funding for, 114need for, 138

inequality(ies)educational outcomes, 249enduring societal, 202global economic, 174, 208increased, 140political, 144



INDEX

282

infant mortality rates, 35infrastructure

capturing, coups and, 83China and, 132–4communication, technology and,

238–9decolonisation consequences, 70digital, 243education and, 251growth, 9population growth and, 32

instability, elites and, 93internally displaced populations (IDPs),

233–4internal slaving networks, 45–6international aid, NGOs and, 178International Monetary Fund (IMF), 9internet

differences in access to, 241tsocio-economic development and

access to, 243interstate conflicts, 147intertropical convergence zone, 18intra-African trade, 222iron, 25iron ore exports, 108tirredentist movements, 215Islam

Al-Shabaab, Somalia and, 161 (box)

Boko Haram, Nigeria, 186Egyptian military intervention

against, 161–2history in Africa, 184jihadism, 160music, banning non-religious, 203Muslim Brotherhood, Egypt and,

161–2pre-colonial history, 42–5Shari’a law, 158–60spread of, scriptures, 159See also religion

island nations, Africa, 5

job scarcity, 32

Kimberly Process, 162, 180–1kinship, 41kleptocracy, in Zaire, 80 (box)

labour, slave trade and, 45–9lakes

Rift Valley, 19Sahel region, 18

land availabilityconflict and, 163population density and, 41

landlocked nations, 22t, 23language

African cinema and, 197African literature and, 191borders and, 21migration and, 231–2

leadershipAfrican collaboration, colonialism

and, 56African Union, 223–4austerity measures and, 118colonial transfer of, 70control of people, as power, 41direct rule, colonialism and, 57Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, 93–4 (box)French parliament, Africans in,

62–3gender and, 35–6indirect rule, colonialism and, 56–7

(box)longest serving presidents in Africa,

to 2018, 79tMagufuli, Tanzania, 97 (box)modernising, OAU and, 218nationalism, decolonisation and,

63–5neo-patrimonialism, 77–8 (box),

112OAU and, 215–16Pan-Africanism movement, 211



INDEX

283

personal rule, 78–82post-coup return of civilian power,

82–3SAP stipulations and, 119–20Sustainable Development Goals

(SDGs), 224traditional authority and, 182–4wealth distribution and, 24–5

LGBT rights, 180liberation movements, 150, 155. See also

independence movementsLiberia, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and, 93–4

(box)life expectancy, 33–4lifestyle changes, health and, 34Lisbon Coup, 68literacy rates, 248

adult, 35by country, 250

literature, 189–95African Writers Series (1962), 193anglophone tradition, 194conceptualising contemporary,

190–1decolonisation, language and,

191–2diversity of, 190language, debate on writing in, 191modern, 195narrative style, 192negative stereotypes, Eurocentric

writing, 193Negritude movement, 193–4Nobel Prize in, 190oral arts, folk tales and, 190schools of African, 192social impact of, 193themes of, 192–3women and, 194–5 (box)

logging, 25long-distance running, 203–4looting of the state, personal rule and, 81Lugard, Frederick, 56–7 (box)

Maghrebi African literature, 192malaria, 20, 50Mandela, Nelson, 91marginalisation, breaking cycle of, 222maritime technology, European trade

and, 45Marxist-Leninist military states, 86,

150–1Mau Mau rebellion, 66–7Mauritius, economic success of, 113–14

(box)Médecins Sans Frontièrs (MSF), Ebola

and, 176–7 (box)medicine, advances in, colonialism and,

50Mediterranean climate zone, 18mercantile states, 45metal ore exports, 108tmetals, 25metals exports, 108tmiddle class, growth of, 9, 10migration, 230–5

African population movements, 232–3

brain drain and, 234Europe, halting illegal, 235forced displacement, 233forced/voluntary, root cause of,

234hub nations and, 232–3internally displaced populations and,

233–4language of, 231–2out, extra-African, 232refugee, economic v., 231South Africa and, 233western international community

and, 234–5See also diaspora

military coups, post-1990Egypt, 2013, 101–2 (box)Gambia/Côte d’Ivoire, 101refusal to recognise, 101



INDEX

284

military coups, post-colonial era (1952–1990), 82–6

civilians, post-coup return of power to, 82–3

domino effect of, 83French interventionism, 83historical coups, 82infrastructure, success of and, 83Marxist-Leninist military states, 86motivations for, 83–4Nigeria, 85–6 (box)personal advancement, 86prevalence of, reasons for, 82successful (1952–1990), 84t

militia groups, 148minerals, 25mobile technology

China and, 134device affordability, 243digital infrastructure, 243money systems, 240 (box)money transfer technology, 239, 240

(box), 241phones, 238–9political activism and, 242See also technology

mobility, 42. See also migrationMobuto Sese Seko, Zaire, 80 (box)Monrovia Group, African unity and, 215mortality rates

disease, 45infant, 35life expectancy, 33–4

movies. See African cinemaMultilateral Debt Relief Initiative

(MDRI), 130–1multiparty democracy

African countries, 87entrenched, 87growth of, 95See also dominant party state

multiparty elections, 90–1, 95–6music, 199–203

Islamic banning of non-religious, 203

local production/consumption of, 202

playlist, African music, 201 (box)political instrument, 202social justice and, 202–3social/political influences, 200traditional, oral history and, 200

nationalism, 169–71decolonisation, post-World War II,

61rise of, decolonisation and, 63–5Zaire, Mobutu and, 80 (box)Zulus and, 49

nation-statecontinental/regional integration,

214–25diaspora, 225–30Pan-Africanism and, 211–14

natural resources, 23–6negative public image, 8Negritude movement, literature, 193–4neo-colonialism, underdevelopment and,

109, 110 (box)neo-liberalism, NGOs and, 178neo-patrimonialism

armed conflict and, 144, 145t, 146

economy, political control and, 121ethnic rivalry, Sudan, 156one-party state and, 77–8 (box)parastatals and, 112

New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), 218, 222

New World, slaves and, 46nickel, 25Nile River, 16 (box)Nkrumah, Kwame

Ghana, one-party state, 75 (box)Ghanaian independence and, 65

(box) 66i, 74Nobel Prize, African literature and, 190



INDEX

285

non-governmental organisations (NGOs)blood diamonds, corruption and,

181critiques of, 178democratisation and, 178expansion of, 124foreign aid and, 123international, influence of, 176Médecins Sans Frontièrs (MSF),

Ebola and, 176–7 (box)negative perceptions of Africa from,

178–9as social movement, 175–9white savior narrative, 179

non-intervention policy, OAU, 217–18non-renewable resources, 25–6North Africa

climate, 19coups in, 82division of continent and, 4independence of, 63literature in, 192Mediterranean climate zone, 16, 18out-migration, 232

OAU. See Organisation of African Unity (OAU)

obesity, 34official development assistance (ODA),

123–4oil exports, 108t, 116–17oil reserves, 25–6oligarchy, personal rule and, 79one-party state, 73–8

benefits of, 76civil war and, 146de facto form, African politics,

73–4Ghana, Nkrumah and, 75 (box)justifications for, 74–5multiparty democracy as luxury, 76national unity and, 171neo-patrimonialism, 77–8 (box)

problems/failures of, 77socialism, African style, 76–7unity, self-interest v., 75

opposition political parties, 76, 77oral arts, 190oral history, music and, 200Organisation of African Unity (OAU),

5, 210failures of, 217founding of, 215modernising leadership, 218non-intervention policy, conflict

mediation, 217–18

Pan-Africanism, 4anti-colonialism, independence

movements and, 212Continental Free Trade Area and,

128continental unity and, 212–13cultural, ethnic differences and,

214decolonisation and, 66defining, 211diaspora and, 225early leaders, 211nationalist concerns and, 213nation-state, shared continent,

170OAU and, 215origins of movement, 211passport program, 213secessionist movements and, 214state sovereignty, continental unity

v., 215Pan-African Parliament, 218pan-continental trade, 222pandemic disease, 138parastatals, 112, 119Paris Climate Summit, 246passport, Pan-African, 213pastoralism, 19Peace and Security Council (PSC), 218



INDEX

286

Peacekeeping19AU, UN fund and, 223AU and, 219sub-regional, ECOWAS and, 220

(box)Pentecostalism, 185 (box)personal advancement

constitutional changes and, 99military coups and, 86

personal rule, post-colonial era (1952–1990), 78–82

defining, 78Idi Amin, Uganda and, 81–2leaders, 74longest serving presidents in Africa

to 2018, 79tlooting of the state and, 81tactics, 79Zaire, Mobutu’s kleptocracy, 80

(box)physical geography, 12–21platinum, 25polio, eradication of, 20political activism

Gambian diaspora, 229 (box)mobile technology and, 242social media and, 242

political conflict, 100, 138Muslim Brotherhood, Egypt and,

161–2Rwandan genocide, 156–8 (box)

political diversity, Africa, 6Political geography, 21–3political parties

competing, concerns of, 75decolonisation and, 70dominant party, Tanzania, 97 (box)legalisation of, 64, 65opposition, as luxury, 76

political structures, armed conflict and, 144–9

political systemsdemocratisation, 87–104

dominate state, 98–9post-colonial era (1952–1990),

73–87 See also entries for specific systems

political violenceAU and, 219migration and, 233

politicsdemocracy, elections and, 10education spending and, 250ethnicity, power and, 155, 170post-colonial, 72–3. See also

political systems, post-colonial era (1952–1990)

religion as motivational tool, 159–60trade unions and, 172women in, 93–4 (box), 94t

pollution, China and, 135–6 (box)popular participation, 77population

control of, as power, 41demographic trends, 27–33diaspora, 225–30. See also diasporadissatisfied, democratisation and, 89education, and growth of, 251food production and, 30growth, demographic changes, 139internal slaving and, 47land availability and, 41movement/migration of, 230–5rapid growth of, 32unrest in colonial, 63–4urbanisation and, 33warfare to attain resources and, 49

population growth rates, 30, 31t, 32positive public image, 9post-colonial era (1952–1990), political

systems, 73–87democracies, 86–7military coups, 82–6one-party state, 73–8personal rule, 78–82shift to autocracy, as colonial legacy, 74



INDEX

287

traditional authority and, 183violence, political change through,

146See also Europe; and entries for

specific systemspoverty

civil society action against, 130, 224education and, 249–50gross national income and, 139–40growth of, 10NGO campaigning, satire and, 179rates, SAP loans and, 123select nations, 140f

powerconsecutive years of presidential,

79tcontrol over people and, 41democratisation and, 90economic resources and, 147elections, refusal to relinquish and,

99ethnicity and, 155exclusion from financial/political,

224loss of traditional authority, 182–3music, politics and, 202neo-patrimonialism and, 77–8 (box)one-party state and, 73–7personal rule and, 78–82post-coup return to civilians, 82–3technology, political and, 243–4

power-sharing agreements, 100pre-colonial history (pre-1850), 39–49

Boers, slavery and, 48colonial history, 50–9. See also

colonial historyDutch East India Company, 48–9economics, warfare, society, slavery

and, 47European traders, 45geographic determinism and, 39–41internal slavery, 47–8Islam, rise and fall of, 42–5

land ownership, 41mobility, leadership power and

control, 42power, slave trade and, 48slaving networks, internal/external,

45–6slaving routes, 46mZulu nation, rise of, 48–9 (box)

predatory state, slavery and, 48price manipulation, agricultural products,

115private sector, growth of, 127public image

negative, 8positive, 9

public sectoremployment, 112spending, 111

punitive taxation, 115

quality of lifeHuman Development Index and,

36life expectancy, diseases and, 33–4

quinine, malaria and, 50

racelife expectancy and, 33–4See also ethnic; ethnicity entries

rainfallcoastal zones, 18Ethiopian Highlands, 18–19geographic determinism and, 40Mediterranean climate zone, 18Sahara Desert, 18Sahel region, 18See also drought

raw materialsChina and, 131–2electronic device production and,

25gold exports, 25resource curse, 24–5



INDEX

288

rebellionsAlgerian revolution, repression, 67–8

(box)decolonisation repression and,

66–7political power and, 147resources and, 163

RECs. See regional economic communities (RECs)

reformsdemands for, democratisation and,

89francophone model of, West Africa

and, 90 (box)international pressures for, 91OAU leadership and, 218post-World War II, 62, 63SAPs and, 124

refugees, 231, 233regional economic communities (RECs),

210economic unity and, 221political violence and, 219sub-regional peacekeeping,

ECOWAS and, 220 (box)trade agreements, 222

regional economic communities (RECs), African Union (AU), 221i

religionChristian missionaries, 58–9churches, democratisation and, 89diversity of, 184–5ethnic conflict and, 156faith-based NGOs, 176history, Africa, 184Islam, pre-colonial history, 42–5violence and, 158–60See also entries for specific religions

religious beliefs, armed conflict and, 158–62

Algeria civil war and, 160Al-Shabaab, Somalia and, 161 (box)Egyptian military intervention, Islam

an, 161–2

Islamic jihadism, 160mobilising tool, political, 159–60political/social justifications, 162scriptural interpretations and, 159violence, underlying causes, 160

religious social movements, 184–7democracy and, 186–7diversity of practices, 184–5history, influences, 184importance of, 187Pentecostalism, 185 (box)social action and, 186

remittances, diaspora, 228–9renewable energy, 26resource curse, 163resources

blood diamonds, 180–1borders, unequal distribution of

and, 21educational, 251ethnic conflict and, 156European control over, 53monopolies over, 49natural, 23–6social networking, and access to,

230squandering of, 24–5warfare to attain people and, 49

resources, armed conflict and, 162–6Angola civil war and, 163DRC, Africa’s ‘world war’ and,

164–5 (box)Liberia, Sierra Leone and, 164

revolutionary movements, decolonisation and, 68

Rift Valley, 19rivalries, 77river systems, 14–16

dams, electricity and, 14, 16Nile River, 16Rift Valley, Great Lakes area, 19Sahel region, 18

Royal Niger Company, 53



INDEX

289

rural societies, 33Rwandan genocide, ethnic conflict,

156–8 (box)

Sahara Desert, 18Sahel region, 18SAP. See structural adjustment

programmes (SAPs)school. See educationSDGs. See Sustainable Development

Goals (SDGs)secessionist movements, Pan-Africanism

and, 214–15self-sufficient tribes, 41Senghor, Léopold, 62–3services, urbanisation and, 32settler colonies, colonial history, 57–8Shaka Zulu, 48–9 (box)Shari’a law, 159, 160, 186Sirleaf, Ellen Johnson (Liberia), 35–6,

93–4 (box), 180slave trade, 45–9

Boers and, 48diaspora and, 225effects on Africa, 47moral panic, 47routes, 46m

slaving routes, 46mSMS networking, 239smuggling, farm products, 115social cost, financial aid, 123socialism, African, 76–7socialist economy, agriculture and, 115social justice, music and, 202social life, ethnicity and, 155social media

political activism and, 242restricted use, 244social movements and, 187use in Africa, 238

social movementsAfrican cinema as, 196African nationalism an, 170–1

NGOs, 175–9religious, 184–7single-issue, 179–82social media platforms and, 187trade unions, 172–5traditional authority, 182–4youth, DRC and, 181–2 (box)

social networks, resource access, 230social structure, post World War II, 63–4social trends, 33–6socio-economic development, GDP and,

35socio-economic migration, 234solar energy, 26, 247Somalia, Al-Shabaab and, 161 (box)Soviet Union, Cold War and

Angola, 152–4 (box)Congo, 152–2 (box)Spanish colonies, 5. See also

colonialism; post-colonialismsport, 203–8

African diaspora, football and, 206–7

domestic football clubs, 207–8Europe, migration of players to,

207–8European team popularity, 207football (soccer), and, 204–5long-distance running, 203–4

state, as path to personal prosperity, 112state-controlled farming, 114–15state-led economic growth model, 111–12structural adjustment programmes

(SAPs), 106Berg Report, 120 (box)conditions of, 119costs of, social/human, 123countries accepting, 119–20critique of, 121–2debt increase and, 122growth outcomes of, 122growth rates, need for loans and,

118–19



INDEX

290

structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) (continued )

impact of, 124, 125tliberalisation and, 127official development assistance

(ODA) and, 123reforms and, 124social/economic problems and, 121success/failure of, 120–1

student activism, democratisation and, 89Sub-Saharan Africa

coups in, 82forced displacement, 233malaria in, 20North Africa v., 3–4

subsistence farming, 115Suez Canal, 69

tantalum, 25tariffs, barriers to trade, 112teachers, training of, 251technology, 238–44

advances, colonialism and, 50African cinema and, 199China investment in, 134energy supply, digital infrastructure

and, 243football broadcasts and, 207hubs for, 241Internet penetration, differences

across Africa, 241tmaritime, European trade and, 45mobile phones, 238–9money transfers, mobile platforms,

239, 240 (box), 241political activism and, 242political power of, 243–4SMS networking, 239See also mobile technology

term limits, 99–100tin, 25trade

China’s total, with Africa, 134c

European arrival, 45intra-African, 222pan-continental, economic growth

and, 222REC agreements, 222tariffs, 112

trade routes, 45trade unions, 64, 172–5

Congress of South African Trade Unions, 173–4 (box)

democratisation and, 89globalisation and, 175state control, independence from, 174state-sanctioned, 173strikes, anti-colonialism and, 172

traditional authority, as social movement, 182–4

Burkina Faso, Mogho Naba, 183 (box)

decolonisation and, 182–3resurgence of, 183trust of, 184

transportationgeographic determinism, 40landlocked nations and, 22population growth and, 32

tribal groups, colonialism and, 154–5Tropic of Cancer, 19Tropic of Capricorn, 19tsetse fly, 20tungsten, 25

underdevelopment, neo-colonialism and, 109, 110 (box)

United Nations (UN)Human Development Index, 36recognised African states, 5

United States, Congo and, 152–2 (box)unity

anti-colonialism and, 75economic, 217, 221Pan-Africanism and, 212–13See also African Union (AU)



INDEX

291

UN Millennium Developmental Goals (MDGs), 130, 224

uranium, 25uranium exports, 108turbanisation, 32, 33

violencearmed conflict, political structures

and, 144–9electoral, 93ethnic identity and, 155ethnicity and, 154–8gender-based, 35migration and, 233predatory force, attain people/

resources, 49political, 219, 233religious, 158–60repressive against civilians, 148slavery and, 47See also armed conflict; coups;

genocide; rebellions; warfare

war crimes, AU and, 219warfare

political structures and, 144–9rebellions, decolonisation repression

and, 66–7resources and, 26violent resistance, colonialism, 53–5World War I, Africa and, 58World War II, Africa and, 60–61t,

62See also armed conflict; coups;

genocide; rebellions; violenceWashington Consensus

financial aid and, 118–19NEPAD and, 222–3

waterclimate change and, 246as conflict resource, 163drought, 116, 156, 245

energy production and, 14, 16, 247See also rainfall

waterborne diseases, 20water security, 19wealth, personal rule, Mobutu and, 80

(box)wealth distribution, 24–6wealth of nation, infant mortality/literacy

rates and, 35welfare provision, 35, 111West Africa

coastal regions, 18Ebola crisis, 8francophone model of reform, 90

(box)negative public image, 8

Western Sahara, Morocco and, 216–17 (box)

white savior narrative, NGOs and, 179wind energy, 26, 247working class, growing, 63–4World Bank, 9

aid, conditions set for, 88parastatal study, 112SAPs and, 118–22

World War I, Africa and, 58World War II, Africa and

colonial resources, European revival and, 62

Free French, Congo and, 60number of African troops, 61t

World War of Africa, DRC and conflict resources, 164–5 (box)

youth bulge, population trend, 27, 30youth movements

DRC, 181–2 (box)music and, 202–3

Zaire (DRC), Africa’s world war, 164–5 (box)

Zulu nation, rise of, 48–9 (box)



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