Communication Application Final

8/8/2019 Communication Application Final

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IntroductionExperiences with Organizational Communication

The most important lesson that I have learned in communication is that eachaspect is a building block for another. In my opinion, studying communication isessentially studying life.

Rhetorical theory teaches about the groundwork of communication.Interpersonal communication taught me why people act the way they do and I sawinsights to who I was as a person as well. Revealingly, I saw why I reacted to peoplethe way that I do. It was only when I began to study organizational communicationthat I saw how these aspects of communication play out in a grand scale in thebusiness world.

Communication specialists have to know all the beginning levels of communication to fully be able to run a successful communication department.

They have to be able recognize which messages should be sent and must adjust theirown frame of reference to do so. They have to work with multiple departments andbe able to maintain quality relationships with them.

Communication specialists also have to hold certain skills that are constantlyevolving. Among these skills are writing, listening, reading, presenting, and adaptingto technology. Increasing my knowledge of these skills was my primarymotivationin applying to graduate school. I felt as though if I mastered the skills of acommunication specialist I could apply them to field that I might enter aftergraduation.

This book is a collection of information, skills, articles, and research that Ihave conducted while in this course that I feel would benefit me in the future.

Laura Gardner


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Communication TheoriesThis section is a description of five popular communication theories. There is

a brief description and also a model. I have also included a theory that I developed

based around the shape of a roller coaster. Included in the theories are Aristotle,

Lasswell, Shramm, Shannon and Weaver, as well as Dance.

Aristiotle

Aristotle s view of communication is primarily based on the act of public

speaking or rhetoric. His study was focused on message content and structure, use

of language and delivery, and the character of the speaker and listeners (Heath &

Bryant 1992). His model was meantto be used when preparing a speech.

Aristotle s model starts with the speaker (the orator). The speaker s speech

uses organization in such a way that it would be most persuasive. According to the

model the words of the speech should be clear and compelling meaning the

language should be adapted to what would best fit the audience. Finally, the delivery

should be given in such a way that the audience would experience the desired effect.

Memory is listed as a key concept in the delivery of the speech.


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Lasswell

Harold Lasswell s theory of communication is among the broadest and most

basic of the communication theories. His theory states who says what to whom in

what channel with what effect . This theory can be applied to interpersonal

communication between two people or a leader delivering a speech to a large group.

Laswell s theory seemed ideal for comprehending the dynamics of mass

communication, particularly under the umbrella of propaganda (Heath & Bryant

1992).

This model is also one of the easiest communication theories or models to

explain and understand. It is sender-oriented so we analyze control, content,

channel, audience and effects (Heath & Bryant 1992). An example of this theory can

easily be seen in the presidential election of 2008. Barack Obama and John McCain

were constantly campaigning and delivering speeches. What they said was their

message. Their message can be delivered through the medium of television, a town

meeting, or radio. The intended audience is those who are deliberately listening.


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Their messages may not only be heard by their intended audience, but also those

who view it on CNN.

Shramm

Wilber Shramm s theorytakes more into account than that basics of

communication. Shramm s theory reconsiders the speaker and audience as encoder

and decoder. As a speaker we are encoding messages and applying meaning to them

to express ourselves to the decoder. The decoder is actively deciphering the

message and deciding what it means.

Shramm also names the encoders and decoders as interpreters. According to

his model, the process of communication is cyclical instead of linear. The encoder

becomes the decoder and vise-versa. In simplistic terms, Schramm s model explains

that while one person is peaking, the other is listening (Heath & Bryant 1992).


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Shannon & Weaver

The theory conceived by Shannon and Weaver is aimed more towards the

technology side than human interpersonal communication. Shannon was more

interested in explaining how to achieve accurate and efficient signal transmission,

particularly to improve telephone communication, than he was proposing a theory

of communication (Heath & Bryant 1992).

It begins with a speaker encoding the message, then flows through a channel

and is decoded by the receiver. The message can be affected by noise.The following are examples:

Information source: If I m having a conversation with a friend about a family issue

this would be me.


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Encoder: This is the way that I am forming the message. Maybe I am feeling uptight

about the issue and this causes my face to tighten and I am speaking with a high-

pitched voice.

Message: According to Weaver and Shannon this is uncomplicated. These are the

literal words that I am speaking to my friend.

Channel: This is the means through which the message is delivered. I could be

talking over the phone or in person.

Noise: If I was talking to my friend over cell phone there could be many different

kinds of noise. Our all may get dropped or we may experience poor reception. If we

were talking in a crowded caf other conversations may interfere with our

conversation.

Decoder: Differing from other theories, the decoder is not actually the person

receiving the message. The receiver uses decoding to interpret the message sent. In

this case my friend may use what they already know about me or my vocal cues as a

way to interpret my message.

Receiver: This is my friend who I am communication with.

Feedback: In this situation, this is the way my friend reacts to my news. If she acts

indifferent I am going to react differently than if she exhibits sympathetic smiles.


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Dance

Dance s Helical Theory does not focus on the specfic parts of communication

theory, but on the nature of it. Dance s theory describes communication as dynamic

and the eliciting of a response (Heath & Bryant 1992).

As for his model, the symbol of the helix is flexible and connected. This

translates to communication theory because it says that the communication process

is dependent upon messages that have already been sent and received.

Communication is not rigid. It is constantly changing. The helix is similar to the

infinity symbol, although it is not closed, being that communication is constantly

moving forward. The infinity symbol on the end indicates the understanding that it

is never-ending.


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Laura Gardners Roller Coaster Theory


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Communication is the infinite process of thoughts and actions meant to

produce an effect. This process is dynamic, flexible, and cyclical. It can be compared

to a roller coaster. Roller coasters can e described as fast, dizzying, and often contain

curvy turns in which the car navigates. Sometimes this is smooth, but more often the

process is bumpy. Most importantly, the track in this model is connected. The train,

if not stopped would continue forever.

The Five Points

The letter A represents the sender. The sender can be the caller on a cell phone who

is trying to reach a friend to talk, a newscaster on television delivering the weather,

or a CEO speaking at a stakeholders meeting. The sender is where the interaction

begins. What the sender must decide is who needs to receive the message. A

question that needs to be asked is if there are certain groups who should or should

not intercept the message. In the example of the newscaster, the vast majority of the

region may tune in. In an interpersonal conversation, the audience will not be as

large. A mother discussing family issues with a friend may decide to talk in private.

B represents the message being sent. The car is moving now and the

message is actively being delivered by the sender. This takes place with several

different factors coming into play. The first are tone and speed of delivery, which are

often intermixed. If the tone is high and fast, then the message may be interpreted as

urgent. If it is delivered slowly and in a low, soothing tone then the message is

probably not going to immediately interpret as pressing. The second factor is the

medium is which the message is delivered. Speaking in person in the most

interpersonal and could elicit a different reaction than if it was given over the


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phone. The receiver is unable to use facial cues to accurately interpret the message.

Within some close relationships this is not an issue, but many messages can be

mistaken due to this. E-mail and text messaging remove even more certainity. This

brings us to the last factor, non-verbal communication. Included are facial

expressions, eye contact, use of space, communication with the hands, and other

non-verbal actions such as yawning to indicate boredom.

C represents the actual message being sent from sender to receiver. The

message can be formed with literal words as in an e-mail. A message becomes more

complicated as more emotion is involved. During a fight with a significant other the

sender could say the same sentence thirty different ways and produce a different

reaction each way. If humans worked like robots than person A could ask a favor of

person B in a monotone voice and hypothetically person B would react simply to

what person A asked. In human communication person A may inject a rude attitude

into their tone when speaking to person B, therefore not receiving what they ant

without a reaction.

The previous example plays into what D represents. This is how the

receiver judges the message has been sent. The news is typically given in the same

way each night on television so their message is not usually going to change,

Different news personalities may be more charming than others, but they are not

going to generally change how one feels about a rainy day. In interpersonal

communication a receiver may be able to accurately interpret the message, or not. A

typical example is text messaging. Without tone or facial expression it is impossible


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to understand any underlying messages. Sometimes the sender may a :) symbol to

convey happiness or a pleasant tone of voice.

Point E represents the feedback that the sender receives from whom they

sent the original message to. Feedback can come in the form of facial expression,

tone of voice, or the message (words) that the sender returns. Feedback completes

the cycle of the interaction, but also allows for the communication to be continuous.

If the message stopped at the receiver, then the communication would not be

infinite in nature. At this point person A can become the receiver and person B can

be the sender, The cycle loops around and feedback is given once again after the

process has been completed.


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Learning Module for Listening Skills

This learning module has been put together by Laura Gardner for use by

Hewitt-Packard. The goal of this learning plan is to improve customer service by

way of increased knowledge of listening skills. This goal will be obtained by each

participant recognizing their own shortcomings on listening, identifying how they

can improve their listening skills and putting their new skills into practice. Each

segment is meant to force the participant to look at past behaviors and brainstorm

ways in which to fix them and produce better results. Sharing with a small group

instead of the entire class is meant to produce more confidence within the

participants and allow for more freedom of creativity. The entire program will take

roughly two and a half hours. Supplies needed include multiple flip charts, tables set

up in rounds of eight, two markers for each table, and recording devices.

This module has been specifically built for those working in customer service

lines, whose operators are notoriously bas listeners. The company seeking a

learning module for one main reason, they hope that through changing from a

scripted method to a conversational method that customers will feel more satisfied

with their experience. This will be measured through the survey that customers can

complete after their call. At the present time there is a sixty-five percent rate of

dissatisfaction.


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A packet of information will be set out for all participants. The packet

includes tips for better listening, worksheets to be used for exercises, and listening

quiz that participants take at the beginning of class. The instructor will encourage

the class to take notes in the packet and use it as a cheat sheet to refer back to.

The participants will be first asked to take the listening assessment. Ten

minutes will be given for this. This is meant to show the participants how well they

listen in the beginning of the program. After everyone has completed the

questionnaire, they will move onto small group work.

Each group is to break into partners of two or three and is given a tape

recorder. They are asked to find a quiet corner of the room or go outside. They are

each given different scenarios that they would typically deal with in a workday. One

person will play the role of the customer first and then switch to be the customer

service agent for their partner. Everyone is given twenty-five minutes to complete

the assignment. After everyone has finished their scenarios they are to return to

their chairs and play their tape recorders only for their group. An example of the

scenarios is A customer calls in and is obviously irritated. She has been put on hold

numerous times, has been dropped during a transfer twice and now simply wants to

return the product . The object of this scenario is to show the participants how

scripted their responses sound and, if their partner acts accordingly, how frustrated

the customer becomes.

The follow-up to the first segment will require flip chart and markers. After

all the tapes have been played each group will be asked to brainstorm ways in which

listening could have been inhibited in the exercise. Twenty minutes will be allowed


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for this. After all the groups have finished, they will be asked to read their lists and

explain why each point could prevent them from listening effectively. Conversation

will be allowed and encouraged during this point in the class. The main objective is

to allow the participants to learn from each other s mistakes.

The next segment is a forty-five minute lecture about how to improve

listening to regard to customers over the phone. This segment can be followed along

by a section of the handout. The 5 Stages of Customer Service Listening are laid

out. These are also listed in the packet. The main points that will be elaborated on

are on focusing attention of the customer, repeating to the customer what they have

said to their satisfaction, and allowing the customer speak without interruption.

Participants are then encouraged to take five to seven minutes to write down which

steps they have the most problems with.

Each group repeats the tape recorder exercise using the methods that have

been discussed. Each group records a hypothetical conversation with their partner

and returns in twenty minutes to share with their group. This segment should show

the difference between before the class and after it. Groups are allowed thirty

minutes to complete their sharing and are encouraged to talk about the differences

between their first recording and the second.

Lastly, the instructor will take fifteen minutes to discuss the differences that

should have been seen between the two recordings. There should be more open

dialogue, more understanding and less frustration on the customer s side. The

instructor will then ask for any questions and will be available up to an hour after

the class ends for any questions or comments. This concludes the end of the class.


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Quick Reference Chart

Segment Time Allowed

Learning Assessment 10 Minutes

Break into partners with taperecorder

25 minutes

Play tape for group 10 minutes

Brainstorming 20 minutes

Lecture 45 minutes

Repeat tape recorder exercise 25 minutes

Discussion 30 minutes

Conclusion discussion 20 minutes


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Question and answer 1 hour


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Why We Listen Most of what has gone wrong in history has to do with a communication

breakdown

45% of communication is listening

Best listening efficiency is 25%

Listening is 3D hearing, understanding, and remembering

Hierarchy of Listening


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Listening Cont.

Causes of inefficient listening J umping to conclusions F iltering emotionally Cant deal with concepts Message Overload P reconceived notions

Negative Habits of Listening R ejecting speaker because of appearance

Listening just for facts A voiding difficult subjects

G iving into distraction

How can I improve listening? A void checking time Make eye contact F ace the speaker A void daydreaming P araphrase notes E valuations Listen to media

Working Line -70%

Managers - 80%

CEO's - 90%


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Consciously expand attention span Improve study techniques B e aware of pitfalls E valuate skills S low down! Listen purposively

R epeat in own words P repare yourself E xcept role as listener B uild structure Control emotions Overlook mannerisms

Exploring Techniques: Surveys,Questionnaires,Interviews, Observation and ComparisonAccording to USA Today there are 140 million cell phones in the United

States today. Seventeen percent of cell phone users give out their cellular phone as

their primary number. Our TV s are bombarded with ads for cell phone companies

with news deals and even more technologically advanced phone. Since cell phone

sales and usage has boomed so explosively in the past twenty years that is why it is

an excellent subject for us when working with surveys, questionnaires, and

interviews.

I conducted my research on October 1, 2008. My roommates served as my

sample group. They are all female and their ages range between twenty-two and

twenty-five. I found them to be an appropriate sample group because I am aware

that they all own cell phones and I have been able to observe some of their behavior


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in the past. According to the Colorado State writing lab website this would be called

purposive sampling , since I have chosen the individuals strategically.

The survey that I gave was very vague. The questions themselves were short

and direct. Surveys are meant to be a starting point for research. I first asked the

subject if they had a cell phone. If they answered yes I would be able to move on

with the net question, but if they answered no I would have a difficult time finding

out more about their cell phone habits considering they would not have one. The

next question I asked concerned how much they pay for their cell phone, specifically

if it is pre-paid or a contract. This is a fairly open question that can be delved in

deeper in a questionnaire or interview. The third question I posed in the survey was

about overall cell phone usage. I asked the subjects if they use their cell phones

everyday. This question also gives insight to whether or not there is a chance to ask

more about daily cell phone usage.

The questionnaire asked more specific questions about the cell phones of the

subjects. The first question asked who they use as a service provider. I listed Verizon

Wireless, AT&T, Nextel and T-Mobile as options. Also the subject could choose

other . The second question got a bit more detailed, asking what kind of cell phone

of subject owned. I left this question open-ended since there are several different

types of cell phones on the market. This question allows for more in-depth

questions about the different phones. The last question I asked was if the subject

owned any cell phone accessories, using bluetooth as an example. I asked this

question because it can lead to other questions about cellular habits, depending on

the answer.


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The next step was the interview. I sat down with the subject had more

specific questions to ask them about they cell phone usage. I first began by asking

about how many minutes they had in their plan. As they answered I found myself

finding out much more because we ended up having a conversation. During two of

the interviews I did not actually ask the questions, but they were naturally

answered during our dialogue. The second question I was going to ask concerned

use of cell phones for business or personal use. My conversation with the first

subject began because I asked about minutes but she answered I have one

thousand minutes a month, but unlimited minutes on nights or weekends. I also

have unlimited text messaging, which is good since I text more than I talk. Verizon is

a little expensive, since I pay sixty-nine dollars a month, but they have the best

network . This not only answered my next two questions but also gave me more

specifics than I was going for.

The task of observing and recording someone s phone habits is difficult since

more conversations, with the exceptions of those who enjoy having private

conversations in public, are meant to be private. To observe and gather quantitative

data I asked all subjects to my three statistics at the end of the day: how many call

did you make or receive, how many texts did you send or receive, and how many

minutes were you on the phone total. The quantitative data can be found following

this report.

To find a comparison I used a similar sample group. The group was

comprised of one male and two females. Their ages ranged from twenty-three to

twenty-six. I used the same survey and questionnaire. It is worth noting that I did


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not get as much information during the interview and had to ask more direct

questions. This is most likely due to the fact that I was not as familiar with the

second group as I was with the first.

Model Representation of the Communication Audit

Survey Introduce to study; first data inputs

QuestionnaireWhat people think, know or feel

Interview Direct face-to-face; build repore


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Discussing the Communication Audit

Communication audits are a package of instruments used in the assessment

of employees perceptions of the communication processes in their organization

(Dewine & James 144). The process involves the communication auditor

researching the climate of the organization by means of multiple research methods

and various techniques. The methods used to conduct this research begin vague and

become more comprehensive throughout the process. Methods used by

communication auditors include survey, questionnaire, interview, observation,

comparison, and measurement. One way to imagine the process is to picture a

strainer. An auditor gathers information, ideas or subjects that may be of interest or

need more clarification, and pours it into the questionnaire strainer. This process

continues until the auditor has detailed quantitative and qualitative results that can

be analyzed and used in the audit process. It is important to add that observing and

talking to employees is not the only information that an auditor should use. Other

O bservationGather data in natural

enviroment

ComparisonsFind something similar

MeasurementQualitative and

quantitative


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resources include newsletters, annual reports, mission statements, and the company

websites (public and intranet). These sources allow the auditor to determine what

messages are being sent to the internal and external public and can also showthe

role of employees in communication. For example, a newsletter with submissions

from several employees from multiple departments points to a high level of

employee involvement. After observations have been completed, the job of the

auditor is to interpret the information that has been gathered. If the auditor has data

from a similar organization he can compare the two, allowing the auditor to make

similar recommendations. The following paragraphs explore the methods of a

communication audit; the use of different techniques, and the steps that are taken

after the data has been collected. This includes the role of an auditor, evaluation of

the audit, and follow-up options.

ole of The Auditor

Before pursuing the methodology of communication audits, it is important to

discuss the role of an auditor, the challenges, and the benefits that can be gained.

The role of an auditor is to provide the organization with an unbiased, research-

driven view of their organization. According Clair Badaracco, the auditor must first

of all be accepted, must have credibility in order to function. That credibility comes

from objectivity, the ability to be perceived as making a clear statement (28). Julie

Coffman 1 says that one role of an auditor is to identify possible levels of practice. In

order to improve strategic communication the organization and audit team should

1 Information taken from Strategic Communication Audit , a paper prepared by Julia Coffman for theCommunications Consortium Media Center in October 2004.


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know the current climate in regards to communication. According to Coffman there

are five levels that an organization may fit in:

y Ad Hoc- unassigned, uncoordinated, and has no resources

y Planned- deliberated/managed, resources allocated, responsibility

assigned

y Institutionalized- regularly performed, best practices, coordinated

y Evaluated- performance measured, progress tracked, practice

predictable

y Optimized- regular reflection, continued improvement

Furthermore, it is imperative that the auditor understands the audience to whom

organization delivers their messages. This affects how the auditor judges the

messages that are currently being sent, the techniques that should be used to

change these messages, and what objectives the organization will benefit from.

(Strenski).

Benefits

The benefits of a communication audit are wide-spreading and usually show

in the long-term. Specific benefits include:

y building support for a change initiative

y demonstrating a commitment to improving communication, receiving

practical recommendations for improving communication

y enabling programs to be scrutinized in order to eliminate wasteful

spending


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y saving cost and effort by minimizing or eliminating programs that do

not add value or strength (Basili)

The ambiguity of organizational communications makes it difficult for non-

communication professionals to evaluate their own programs and create the

necessary plans to deliver change.

Challenges

There are several challenges that must be addressed before any benefits can

be gained. The first hurdle is to have the full cooperation and support of senior

management (Strenski 1). Without this a communication audit will be less inclusive,

take longer to complete and employees are less likely to take it seriously. Many

employees may be afraid of the change that a communication audit could bring. The

term audit has a negative connotation to it and employees may need to be

reassured of its purpose. Assessment is a word that could be used as a replacement

(Hollingworth).

Surveys

The survey is the most vague method in the audit. Surveys are meant to

introduce the subject (Hollingworth) and gather a wide variety of information,

allowing the auditor to determine which subjects and issues he should seek more

information on. The first step in conducting surveys is to choose the sample. This

can be difficult since the sample probably will not be completely indicative of the

group. Several methods can be used to improve the validity of the sample. In the

case of a communication audit the best method is random sampling. If the auditor

were to use the method of biased sample framing, there would be a greater risk for


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misinformation and picking a sample that is not truly representative (Frey et. al

186). The survey should also incorporate a cross-sectional design. This design

describes the current characteristics of a sample that represents a population at

one point in time (Frey et. al 188). A communication audit aims to capture a

snapshot of the current communication situation within an organization, not the

past or the future. When constructing a survey both the types of questions asked

and they way they are worded have to be taken into consideration. The method of

using double-barreled questions, asking several questions at once, should be

avoided because of the vague nature of surveys. The survey questions should be

worded in a neutral manner to avoid unintentionally swaying the opinion of the

participant. This helps to maintain the validity of the survey.

Questionnaires

After the surveys have been completed and analyzed the auditor can then

create a questionnaire. There are two strategic ways that questions can be written.

Open-ended questions allow respondents to be more open with their answers. This

way of non-directive questioning may allow the respondent to express themselves

and their ideas freely. Close-ended questions are more directive in their nature and

are typically yes or no questions or multiple choice. The way to decide between

these two types of questions depends on the situation. Close-ended questions are

quick and easy, potentially cutting down non-responses. Open-ended questions

have a couple advantages. They reduce the likelihood of words being put into the

respondent s mouth and researchers may learn something that they had not

anticipated (Ruane 132). Putting together the questionnaire should be strategic. One


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of the most important aspects of a questionnaire is the flow. Questions can be

grouped in several ways including time order and topic. It is also important that the

auditor be aware that the order of questions, as to avoid influencing how they are

answered (Ruane 136). One way of answering close-ended questions is to use

scales. The Likert scale identifies the extent of a person s feelings or attitudes

toward another person, event, or phenomenon (Frey et al. 103). This is a five point

scale raging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Some critics oppose the use of

this scale. According to Sue Dewine and Anita C. James, it reduces the usefulness of

the information for the client. (Scholars have argued that) the ordinal scale restricts

the opportunity to measure the finer changes in an organization s communication

pattern (DeWine & James 147). Another example is the semantic differential scale

that uses a word or phrase as the referent and asks that the respondent indicate

their feelings by checking a space, either to the far left, far right, or anywhere in

between.

Interviews

The next step in the communication audit process is the interview. In this

part of the audit the questions begin to become more focused but are also more

likely to be open-ended. The interviewer is typically interested in finding out

specific information by seeking to have an in-depth interview. An in-depth interview

is primarily initiating a conversation, as to elicit more information from the

interviewee (Marshall & Rossman 81). Maintaining neutrality in an interview is

impossible, says Denzin and Lincoln. The conversation aspect of the interview

creates the reality of the interview situation (48). One problem with interviewing


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face-to-face is that certain respondents may feel uncomfortable and respond with

normative responses and answer questions in a socially desirable way (Ruane 155).

To avoid this there are rules that the interviewer must follow including being honest

and open, conducting the interview in a comfortable environment, and most

importantly guaranteeing anonymity (Miyomoto). Active listening is one of the most

important skills that an interviewer can have. By utilizing active listening the

interviewer can strategically probe throughout the interview. For example, the

interviewer may stay silent after the interviewee answers in order to prompt them

to say more or ask directive follow-up questions. Also it is the interviewers

responsibility to be clear with instructions and to moderate. One example of this is

to provide the interviewee with feedback on how completely they are answering the

questions (Hirsh et al. 132).

Group interviews are an option to save time and money. During a group

interview the questioner can choose to keep the interview structured or

unstructured (Denzin & Lincoln 71). The interviewer would probably want to

employ both strategies. An option that uses both of these would be to use a guide,

unstructured tools that list the general topics or issue to be covered in an interview

(Ruane 149). This would enable the interviewer to maintain focus within the group,

but also allow the group to speak freely and perhaps divulge more information.

According to Ruane, the focus group (group interview) produces social interaction

that is both dynamic and insightful (157).

In interviewing , the auditor is looking for qualitative data instead of

statistical information. Data analysis is the process of moving from raw interviews


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to evidence-based interpretations that are the foundation for published reports

(Rubin & Rubin 203). Ideas, expressions, and opinions are the types of data that are

going to make the interview useful. There are several methods for analyzing this

kind of data , which include sorting and ranking, sorting and comparing, weighting

and combining, as well as checking and modifying (Rubin & Rubin 229). After

organizing the data , the results of the interview can work towards what is called

middle-level theory by asking how far the principles and processes (you have)

discovered in (your) research might extend (Rubin & Rubin 230).

Ob servations

Observation typically follows the interviewing process. Observing is

extremely useful to auditors, making it unfortunate that it is one of the most difficult

ways to obtain research. A situation where the organizational climate is complicated

may entail more time and be more difficult to code. Complicated social dynamics

within an organization may challenge the validity of the data gained. Maintaining a

high level of validity is difficult in observation. Another possible problem is the

Hawthorne effect. This can occur if participants are sensitive to being watched and

may cause of them to act differently than they normally would (Frey et al. 127). This

is partially caused by the need for privacy as noted in my previous paper on

research techniques. 2 To avoid these problems the observer can concentrate on text,

also know n as indirect observation. Researchers examine newsletters, company

training videos, speeches, or meeting minutes (Frey et al. 114). This eliminates the

chance of affecting the actions of those observed with the researchers presence.

2 Exploring Research Techniques: Surveys, Questionnaires, Interviews, Observation and Comparison, October 6,2008.


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Videotaping and audiotaping are also ways to reduce the Hawthorne effect, if the

participants can forget they are being taped.

Before beginning observation, the auditor will need to decide on the focus of

their observation. What types of interactions are they looking for? This is the best

way to develop a coding scheme. A coding scheme is a classification system that is

used to decipher observations. An example of this would be if the auditor wanted to

observe a meeting. The auditor could be looking for codes like verbal cues and

nonverbal indicators (smiling, frowning, etc.). This would allow the observer to

count the number of cues and produce quantitative data (Frey et al. 116).

Comparison

Comparing organizations is a useful way to determine which methods are the

most valuable for specific situations. Financial institutions are probably not going to

have same problems that hospitals or universities have. By comparing like

organizations the auditor is able to find like solutions. One example of this is the

audits of two school districts, the Chesterfield County Public School District 3 and the

Lewis-Palmer School District 4. Though the formats of the audits are very different, it

is easy to see that both school districts have similar problems. Briefly, here is a list

of weaknesses that the audit exposes for both districts:

y trouble keeping up with rapid growth of the community

y lack of strategic communication

y general negative view of the school board from parents

3 http://www.chesterfield.k12.va.us/CCPS/news/files/Communication%20Audit.pdf 4 http://lewispalmer.org/media/EDocs/LPSD_Communications_Audit_Report_052307.pdf


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y poor reviews of the district websites

y poor media relationships

The auditors for both school districts use similar methods. These include

focus groups, interviews, analyzing supplements, and commenting on meeting

protocol. Both audits concentrate on parents and as well as others in the

community. Another similarity is the recommendations that are given. Key

recommendations include rebuilding trust, listening to feedback from external

sources, provide more training for employees in regard to communication, multiple

improvements to text sources, and to clarify and define roles.

While the two audits have similarities, they also have differences that each

could learn from. The Lewis-Palmer School District is provided with a strong list of

public perceptions. The auditors also provide an extensive explanation of data that

the focus group participants provided and how those views can affect the school

district. The audit also includes a section labeled Now What . This section provides

the school district with detailed and realistic implementation methods for their

recommendations. The plan is listed in phases and includes an ideal timeline. The

Chesterfield Public School District audit also contains strong aspects. The auditors in

this situation explain in detail how the communication goals of the district are

directly linked with the overall goals and objectives. This explanation is vital in

explaining to those who are not communication professionals why certain

recommendations are made. The audit also provides a detailed explanation of how

the district can re-brand itself. They suggest designing a name logo, adopting a new

slogan, and developing a stylebook for all publications to maintain consistency. The


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two audits provide in-depth insights to both school districts and provide useful

recommendations. By comparing the two side-by-side it is clear that each have their

strengths that the other could learn from.

Qualitative Measurement

Qualitative research is an integral part of the communication audit. Denzin

and Lincoln define qualitative research as a situated activity that locates the

observer in the world (4). This definition is generic and lacks the visual that it takes

to grasp the idea of qualitative research. The best way to describe this type of

research is to consider what it measures. It measures thoughts, opinions, and

perceptions. There are three challenges that this types of research faces: (1)

developing a conceptual framework for the study that is thorough, concise, and

elegant; (2) to plan a design that is systematic and manageable yet flexible; and (3)

to integrate these into a coherent document that convinces the proposal reader a

funding agency or dissertation committee that they study should be done, can be

done, and will be done. (Marshall and Rossman 6). Creating guidelines is extremely

difficult in this type of research since the nature of it is based on communication,

and communication is constantly evolving. The most common perception of

research it has to always be uniform in how it is conducted. Qualitative research, on

the other hand, attempts to combine thoroughness and logic with fluidness and

flexibility. To understand how the different types of research are related, consider

that quantitative research provides the numerical evidence to support the

statements made by qualitative data (Holland & Gill). For example, a researcher

organizes a focus group of fifty employees and gathers from their statements that


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they are generally unhappy. To provide numerical support for this statement the

researcher gives the same employees a survey using the Likert scale. The average

outcome of the survey will probably be low, thus providing hard data that describes

the opinions of the survey.

Quantitative Measurement

The other type of measurement is known as quantitative research. This type

of measurement focuses on numerical value. One example of formatting this data is

through a frequency table. For example, an auditor may have observed a

conversation and counted how many times each participant interrupted someone.

Using status (supervisor, subordinate, etc.) the auditor could formulate a percentage

of who interrupts more and how often they do it compared to the other group. Using

this quantitative data the auditor may theorize that supervisors consistently

interrupt twice as much as their subordinates. Quantitative measurements cannot

be taken during certain phases of the audit because variables can be changed. An

example of this is interviewing. Poorly worded questions, inadequacy in judging

responses, and not knowing the proper time to probe further can lead to ambiguity.

For instance, depending on the skills of the interviewer, the answers may be

different (Hirsh et al. 129). It is important to note that errors should be expected in

this type of research. Every measurement will contain two components, true score

and error score. The true score component is measured over time, while the error

score is the score from the one-time interview or survey. The average of multiple

error scores would be more accurate (Frey et al. 120).

Recommendations


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After all the research has been completed and the data has been analyzed

then recommendations can be made. To ensure that these recommendations can be

properly executed its important to provide the organization with implementation

methods. Before making suggestions to the client several questions have to be taken

into consideration. Sue DeWine and Anita C. James address these issues by working

through a process called POMRIE. This acronym stands for problem, objective,

method, reality, implementation, and evaluation. The first four steps are meant to

evaluate the audit before it reaches the organization.

First, the problem needs to be pinpointed and put into a statement that the

client can understand. For example, similar problems can be grouped together,

preventing the client from being overwhelmed with too much information. The

audit group should also use data to demonstrate how the problems are occurring in

the present, and not concentrate on their future impact (Coffman).

The objective should also be phrased specifically for the client. This

statement provides the organization with goals they should aim to meet. For

example, the audit for the Lewis-Palmer School District lead to many recommended

objectives. They include: simplify the homepage, make the website friendlier and

warmer, make navigation bar headings clear and succinct, and connect with non-

parents. These basic objectives directly relate to the problems within the

organization.

The implementation method is the action the organization can take to

achieve their objectives. Giving the client multiple methods is the best choice. One

objective that a communication audit team recommends to the Chesterfield Public


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School District is to consider publishing their newsletter every other week. The

audit explains that in the focus groups that they conducted they learned that

participants wanted fresh news and enjoyed seeing their colleges highlighted.

Another suggestion was to put the newsletter online. By making this change more

information could be linked, thus providing more material without crowding the

newsletter.

Reality also has to be considered. The communication audit team should be

in touch with the special needs and abilities of the organization. Providing the

organization with unrealistic goals and methods of implementation will prevent any

recommendations from being used. Using the example of Chesterfield Public Schools

again, auditors recommended that school administrators visit the schools more

often. This is a recommendation that is realistic and does not take any drastic steps

to accomplish.

Finally, lack of follow-up is a major criticism but it is vital to the continued

success of the audit. Providing the organization with tools to assess itself is

necessary for continued progress. The best way to evaluate the effect of the

communication plan is to repeat the audit after changes have been implemented.

One example is to examine employee satisfaction scores. One method of doing this is

to have the same sample size of employees complete an identical satisfaction survey.

The communication audit had the desired effect if the correlation is positive (Hargie

et al. 423). The time frame to repeat the audit depends on the opinion of the auditor.

Julie Coffman believes that they should be done within five years. James B. Strenski

on the other hand recommends an evaluation after eighteen months. While a follow-


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up audit is the most useful evaluation technique, it is important to leave the

organization with its own evaluation tools.

Increasing the Effectiveness of Communication Audits

The effectiveness of a communication audit is heavily reliant on the skill of

the auditor but organizations are also responsible for their own success. In addition

to cooperating with the process, there are several steps that an organization can

take to maximize the effectiveness of an audit. According to Holland and Gill, who

both specialize in communication strategies, the most common reasons that

organizations reject the idea of seek consultation on strategic communications is

lack of time, money, and know how (20). Communication audits should be

considered a way to save money in the long run. James B. Strenski estimates the cost

of an audit to be around $10,000 to $13,000. One way that an organization can test

its own communication climate is to add questions on to employee attitude surveys.

By adding on the right questions an organization can peak into the knowledge,

attitudes, and behaviors as they relate to business goals (Holland & Gill 21).

Another way of over coming cost is to plan ahead. If someone within the

organization already has a head start and can measure small aspects, then costs can

be cut back considerably due to the cut in time. Since communication audits are

considered consultants when they enter an organization it is important to have a

good idea what kind of expertise to look for. To save money on consultants it is

important to follow four pieces of advice: provide the consultant with as much

information on the company as possible, have a basic understanding of the

techniques that the consultants will use, have clear expectations of the consultant,


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and do not hide anything. The best way to ruin an audit is to give false information.

(Holland & Gill 22). Following this advice is a smarter way to approach a

communication audit, by saving money and time in combination with the right

research, communication audits are easier to afford and more useful.

How to Read Better and Faster: A Review

I have always found myself to be interested in reading and can recall in detail

at a young age having nightmare after nightmare after reading Cujo , by Steven

King. The task of becoming a better and faster reader has been difficult for me since

I have a habit of becoming distracted if the subject matter does excite my

imagination. Due to my recognized issues with reading I was very interested in what

Norman Lewis suggested in his book How to Read Better and Faster . I was mainly

interested in learning how someone could learn to read faster while improving

efficiency. I also was curious to learn specific exercises that would rewire my brain

into performing in different ways that it has been set in for twenty years.

In the first paragraph of the book, Lewis gives us a summary. He says the

book is a step-by-step, day-by-day training manual in the techniques of rapid and

skillful reading (Lewis, vii). This is precisely why the book is so helpful to the


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untrained reader. It is meant to be interactive. A reader could easily read through

the book, learn a couple tricks, and attempt to practice while reading through their

morning paper. The full potential of the intended effect of the book could not be

reached if this was the case. The book contains several modules that contain full

explanation of why they are useful, how to achieve the intended effect and allows

you to test yourself with a reading.

One of the modules that I found most interested and useful for myself was on

the subject of reading for main ideas. One of the most useful directions that Lewis

gives is to read faster than you are accustomed to and to push yourself to quickly

find the main idea. This is Norman s main philosophy in his work; to read faster and

force yourself to concentrate, causing a heightened efficiency. After reading the

selection and taking a comprehension test that accompanies it, Norman tells the

reader to do the most logical thing possible, to compare what your reactions and

comprehension to those who read better. If you want to continue improving,

continue with the steps until you are not making the same mistakes over again.

Another part of Norman s plan is training perception. This is the chapter that

concentrates on how to physically read better. We know that readers use their

brains to translate shapes into words and words into meaning. How our eyes move

across a line is a surprisingly good indicator of how proficient we are as readers.

Lewis breaks this down well by explaining that pauses are the real indicator in

reading ability. Since typically most people read everyday and in many different

contexts including the newspapers, labels and street signs, it is very unlikely that we

pay attention to how many times we pause and regress in a sentence. By paying


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attention to our pauses and regressions we can begin to retrain our eyes while we

read. Lewis describes the action of fixation, which is the technical term for the

fractional second in which the eyes focus on a portion of a line of print (Lewis, 52).

Lewis then dissects the anatomy of fixation for us to show readers where they go

wrong. In his diagrams we see that the further we can space out our eye movements

the better. By stopping after each individual word we are not only slowing ourselves

down, but also preventing ourselves from better comprehension. The sentences are

broken down into short lines to demonstrate how easy it is to read three or four

words without moving your eyes. Lewis also uses upside down print as a tool to

explain how topping at each word can make reading slower and more difficult. What

I found was that by stopping at each word I was more easily forgetting what the

beginning of the sentence said.

I found it very difficult to find criticisms with Lewis s book. The one aspect

that I do disagree with is that if you read with your mouth you are instantly a bad

reader. If I have a sentence that I need to remember and understand, I find that I

tend to read with my mouth. The argument of constantly reading your mouth

causing readers to slow down because of the actual word forming that has to occur, I

can agree with. My opinion is that I find on occasion using vocalization for

memorization to be useful.

Norman Lewis s book is overwhelmingly helpful and easy to follow. I found

myself imploring certain aspects of the training while I was reading and noticed an

immediate difference. The biggest difference that I found in my own reading was the

usefulness in being aware of my eye movements. By moving my eyes without as


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many stops (at first being very difficult) I noticed that I was making myself

concentrate harder. I was moving both faster and remember more of what I read,

the intended effect of the book!

My Program to Read Better and Faster

To improve reading based on problems that I am interested in I have devised

a step-by-step program for myself to follow. The program is devised of three

sections that focus on different aspects of reading. All three sections are based on

struggles that I have while reading including widening the variety of books I read,

my ability to concentrate and the rate that I read. My goal is to expand vocabulary,

concentrate on what I am reading, and the rate that I read at, thus making myself

better reader. The following is a program that I would follow, concentrating on my

three major weaknesses.

The first step to the advancement in reading is attacking the issue of what

you read and how often you do it. Although people may assume that they are avid

readers, the key is to read more. If you are reading a book every two weeks try

reading a book every week. If you are reading two books a week try to read four. In


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any case make a substantial jump in your book consumption. The second step is to

be adventurous and expand in the genres that you typically read. Some people can

become stuck in the murder-mystery rut. Explore biographies, cooking books, and

books about travel. This requires a commitment of time and the ability to turn off

the television. By reading more often and varying the types of books you are reading

you will be find yourself reading faster and learning new vocabulary. Learning new

vocabulary is always important, particularly in reading. One of the most common

ways that causes readers to stumble is the confusion of a new word. If you are

reading difficult genres of book you will naturally pick up new vocabulary, learned

by the context of the sentence in the book.

Another issue that slows down readers both in speed and comprehension is

the ability to concentrate. This is deeply seeded bad-habit for those who fall victim

to it. At their worst, those who lack the ability to concentrate will skim entire

sentences and paragraphs. This causes the reader to miss main ideas and

consequently the reader will have to back track eventually. The best way to combat

this problem is to use a gradual method. Starting with long sentences the reader will

quickly skim the sentence, without losing focus. Short paragraphs of three sentences

are next. You should commit to being focused on the paragraph. If wondering should

occur, you should start over until the paragraph has been read without mental

interruption. The goal for this is for it to become natural.

Lastly to read better is to read faster. This is tied to how many books one

reads on a regular basis and the ability to concentrate while reading those books.

The best way to improve this skill is to practice, over and over. One method to


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practice is to limit the number of words that you stop on per sentence. Stopping at

each word is not only slow but also makes it more difficult for the mind to tie the

sentence together. Take the following sentence:

Thinking about the meanings of words and phrases and sentences and about

the ways they can be combined gives the learner power over language.

Using a stopwatch time yourself reading the sentence as you normally would. Next

read the sentence concentrating on stopping on any word in particular but skipping

at least two words. Even though you aren t stopping to focus in on each word, your

eyes can still pick up the words in between where your eyes fall. After you are

comfortable with four or five stops, try to go to three to four. After you are

successful with this amount of stops use a stopwatch to time yourself again. The

more that you consciously practice this method, the easier it will become in time.


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Lessons on Reading

Basics Read More S earch for main ideas C hallenge yourself Budget your time P ace yourself CONCENT RA TE!

P ersonalC omments

- Make time forreading

- Focus on eyemovement


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5 things to look for in a reading program

It doesnd t cost very much S hould teach a variety of skills S hould take about 30 hours S hould have a good pre- and post take Follow-up doesnd t cost

Anything

Good Books on Reading How to Read Better and Faster by Norman Lewis

T he E velyn Wood S even Day S peed Reading and LearningP rogram by E velyn Wood


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THE ONLINE POLITICAL REVOLUTION:Will You Be My Friend?

In August of 2007 Neilson began tracking ratings of social networking sites.

The ratings showed that the average social networking site user spent an


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astounding two and half hours of their day surfing Facebook and one and half hours

a day on Myspace. These two social networking sites have not only revolutionized

the way we interact with their peers but the way the nation, especially students, are

getting their information about political candidates. Both Myspace.com and

Facebook.com are taking advantage of the political year by hosting debates, creating

special forums about the election and promoting politician s personal pages.

Mutually, politicians are taking advantage of social networking sites. They can list

their positions in a reader friendly manner using a blog and allowing their online

friends to leave them comments. So how did the politicization of Facebook and

Myspace come about and how could it possibly change the outcome of the election?

According to Neilsen-netrating.com, Facebook.com has more than sixty

million active users, has an average of three percent weekly growth since January

2007 and more than half of the users log on daily. It s clear to see why politicians

hopped on the Facebook bandwagon and surprising to see that it didn t happen

earlier. As of October 11,2008 Barack Obama had 2, 178, 768 supporters, or friends

of his page. These over two million supporters and others that visit Obama s page

can gain a variety of information in a format that avid Facebook users are

accustomed to. They can view personal pictures, sign up to receive updates to the

campaign in their Facebook inbox and connect with other Obama supporters. The

main page of Barack Obama lists several other side pages, such as Women for

Obama, Latinos for Obama, and Michelle Obama s personal page. One feature listed

on both McCain and Obama s pages is a link to register to vote. This could be an


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especially important function since young people are less likely to vote. A link on

Facebook could be the visual push that young voters need to register.

Myspace.com has more than 110 million monthly active users around the

globe. It is currently the country s most trafficked site on the Internet, which makes

it another goldmine for politicians. After logging onto Myspace the user has a

number of tabs to chose from. He or she can go to his or her profile, search for

friends, or search for musicians. Myspace s most recently added tab is labeled

Election 08. This tab takes you to a page that is dedicated to the presidential

election this November. John McCain and Barack Obama s personal pages are listed,

along with their running mates pages as well. This page provides a link to a page

called MyDebates. MyDebates is in partnership with the Commission on Presidential

Debates, giving it more validity in the question of fairness towards the candidates.

On a page titled MyDebates users can take an issue quiz to see which candidates

they match with on certain issues such as fair trade and gun control. Users can also

take polls on whom they plan to vote for and which issues are most important to

them. The administrators use this information for graphs. Since Myspace has so

many users it s a large sample of the country. It is important to remember that

Myspace users typically range between the ages of 16 to 25, who typically lean left.

Another important function on the site allows users to watch old debates and

categorizes certain clips by issue. The personal pages of the candidates are similar

to Facebook. They are in the typical Myspace format, allowing for easy navigating

among Myspace users. Each page has a section for pictures, blogs, comments, and

links to other sub-pages for more specific groups. Myspace also has a place on each


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people that we work with become our confidants, best friends, husbands, ex-wives,

and enemies. Simply put office politics is a game. Every game has its players. In the

office game there are gossip queens, ladder climbers, know-it-alls, and slackers to

name a few. Office politics is all about getting from point A to point B so there are

rules that everyone must follow to win. Properly maintaining workplace

relationships is one of the best ways to do this. So who are we working with and

how can we manage our relationships with them to benefit us not only day to day

but in the long-term as well?

Unfortunately office politics are a lot like real politics. Knowing the right

people can send you quickly up the career ladder and not knowing anyone will keep

you stuck in the same spot for years. In most offices it seems that everyone has a

distinct role. A role that always seems to be filled is the office gossip. This person

knows everything and I mean everything going on in the office. They know who

is fighting with who, who flirts with the boss in secret and, sometimes even know

who is getting fired before they know. According to about.com you should listen to

the office gossip but not become involved. The worst situation you can get yourself

into is becoming entangled in a web of gossip at work. Rumors of the personal

nature should be avoided because this can cause a rift between co-workers. For

example, if a co-worker at work is having a problem in their marriage and knows

you are talking about it, they probably will not go out on a limb for you in the future.

Business gossip should also be taken with a grain of salt. A merger may be in the

company s future at some point, but you will not win points with your boss by

announcing it too early.


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A more frustrating co-worker is the credit-grabber. This co-worker willingly

accepts all credit without acknowledging any help from his follow associates. While

the department gossip may be harmless, the credit-grabber may actually be

detrimental. This most commonly occurs when working on group projects. It is

important to not allow the credit-grabber to receive pats on the back for your work,

or else what reason will you have for asking for a raise or a promotion? Promoting

your accomplishments with tact is vital. If we do not make our accomplishments

known, no one will probably recognize them (Zupek, Co-workers Who Drive You

Crazy. par 2 ). The same can be said if you are a group leader. If you share the glory of

a job well done with the rest of your group they are going to respect your leadership

and develop a greater trust in you as a result.

Managing these relationships takes finesse and strategic communication.

According to Monster.com there are five ways that you can manage poor co-worker

relationships: Try not to take it personally, stay away from this person, keep your

conversations strictly business, confide in a trusted co-worker for their opinion, and

do not be afraid to involve management. The best method that I have used to

maintain my professional relationships is to simply be kind. Work is a place where

stress can be overwhelming and expressing anger towards co-workers is only going

to become ugly. People tend to remember when they are hurt or embarrassed. This

is a prime example of how work place relationships are different than our personal

relationships. A fight within a personal relationship can be mended in private,

where as a work place fight can cause a slue of rumors and make you appear to be

unsympathetic and harsh (7 Habits To Win in Office Politics , par 5).


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and communal satisfaction.

Article Review: What is Chat Doing in the Workplace?


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The article that I have chosen to review is titled What is Chat Doing in the

Workplace? 5 by Mark Handel and James D. Herbsleb. The essay primarily focuses

on the use of e-mail and instant messaging within an organization, including

advantages and disadvantages. The authors also attempt to give reasons why instant

messaging is different and more user friendly than e-mail.

The first point that the authors make is perhaps the most important in the

subject that we are studying, They say that it has become commonplace for teams

to work across distances so common, in fact, that new terminology such as virtual

teams and global work are becoming widely accepted (1). The globalization and

virtualization of organizations goes hand in hand. The landscape of business

changes with the invention of new technology and new technologies are often

adopted to fit new business schemes. This article discusses how e-mail is both useful

within an organization, along with some of its downfalls. The authors refer to e-mail

as the widest used form of computer-mediated communication (1), but also say that

e-mail experiences delay and typically is not read immediately. This concept is the

part of the article that I completely agree and identify with, as I have seen even in

my short time spent in the work force, technology has changed drastically.

The authors describe instant messaging as real time communication (1)

that is being brought into the workplace. This type of communication is typically

used for conversation, making it ideal in a fast-paced work environment. Besides the

positive aspects of it, there is also vagueness to instant messaging in the workplace.

It is not as commonplace or as accepted in the work place as e-mail. It is also

5 M. Handel and J.D. Herbsleb, What Is Chat Doing in the Workplace? Proc. ACM Conf. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, pp. 1-10, 2002.


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difficult to follow how often employees use instant messaging for work purposes ad

not to discuss non-work activities.

The authors cite several studies, but find that the issue is that none of the

studies look at the whole picture with instant messaging. One study looks at which

groups (age, sex, etc.) inside of organizations use instant messaging more often and

other studies look strictly at the messages that are being sent and received. They

believe that if a study can extensively study every aspect of instant messaging at

work, more will be gained from the research. I believe it would be difficult to obtain

such research. If a group of researchers are going to monitor messages being sent

and received in a organization they will probably have to receive permission and the

associates would probably be properly informed. This could drastically change the

nature of the messages.

One of the main points that the authors make is that with instant messaging

conversations can be picked up at a later date. They claim that with e-mail

conversations cannot be resumed. I disagree that this is a reason why e-mail is more

useful in organizations than instant messaging because e-mails can surely be

continued a day or even a week after the initial conversation has come to an end.

The authors use an instant message between to co-workers as an example. In the

conversation an associate has to leave because their son is in the hospital. The other

associate says goodbye and asks to be updated on the son s health. The next day the

man whose son was sick instant messages his co-worker to tell him that his son is

okay. This could also easily be done in e-mail. He could even send out a mass e-mail

telling everyone that his son is healthy.


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One disadvantage that the authors discuss is that users may abuse instant

messages by flaming or sending rude messages. I do not really see how this

distinguishes e-mails from instant messages. E-mails can also be used to defame or

hurt someone. I do not believe this would be a big concern because this kind of

abuse leaves a cyber trail, similar to e-mail.

I was attracted to this article because I am interested workplace

communication, especially new ways in which co-workers are communicating.

Although the article did make a few good points about the nature of instant

messages and how it can be useful with an organization, I believe it did not

successfully list reason how instant messaging is different from e-mail. It is clear

that it is instant and more conversational, but it leaves the reader questioning how

else instant messaging can be useful and what possible repercussions it could have

in the work place.

Oral Communication Within the Organization: An Annotated Bibliography


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V ideo Conferences : According to Wikipedia.org videoconferencing is a set of

interactive telecommunicationtechnologies which allow two or more locations to

interact via two-way video and audio transmissions simultaneously .

O Connail, B., Whittaker, S., & Wilbur, S. (1993). Conversations Over Video: An

Evaluation of the Spoken Aspects of Video-Mediated Communication.

Human-Computer Interaction, 8 (4). Retrieved November 4, 2008 from

Emerson Library Database.

I chose this article not only because it explains what video conferencing is,

but because it delves into the pros and cons of specific video conferencing programs.

Before discussing different types of programs, the article talks about how

videoconferences developed and how they are meant to improve the aspect of

interpersonal visuals to the conference. The systems that they are studying are the

IDSM systems and LIVE-NET. The article includes diagrams of how each system is

set up and also charts. The researchers also include comments and complaints that

typical users of the programs have made. Overall the article is easy to read, provides

solid opinions on where the program needs improvement and is a valuable resource

for videoconferencing.

Interviews : The type of interview that I am interested in finding a source for is the

time when have first contact for a possible position with an organization. This


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meeting is typically the time when a Human Resources director or direct supervisor

will question an applicant to decide if they will offer the applicant the position.

Einhorn, L. (2003). An Inner View of the Job Interview: An Investigation of

Successful Communicative Behaviors. Communication Education, 30 (3).

Retrieved November 4, 2008 from Emerson Library Database.

This article does not presume anything about the process of interviewing.

The author uses research involving the actual interview process to come to his

conclusions. He uses short questionnaires given to the interviewers both before the

interview (judging just the application) and after the interview (judging the

interview itself). This is very useful because it gives the researcher a look into what

the interviewee could have done in person to sway the interviewer one way or the

other. The researcher chose ninety-three behaviors to concentrate on during the

interviews, which were taped. By quantitatively relating the behaviors displayed by

interviewees to the success, or lack there of, the researcher was able to develop a

correlation between certain communication behaviors and the success of an

interview.

Performance Review : This meeting between a superior and their employee is

typically on a quarterly or yearly basis to discuss their job performance. The goal of

this meeting can be for promotions, salary adjustments or disciplinary action.


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Goodall L. H., Wilson, G. L., & Waagen, C. L. (1986). The Performance Appraisal

Interview: An Interpretive Reassessment. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 72 (1).

Retrieved November 4, 2008 from Emerson Library Database.

This article focuses on the issues with performance reviews and what can be

done in order to make them more productive and useful. The main argument for the

question why performance reviews are so detested is the notion of fear in the

receiver. Since there is not a typical script used in most reviews, those being

reviewed are unable to predict what they will hear. Lastly, the article talks about

how the temperature positivity or negativity of a performance review can t be read

by outsiders. The relationship between the reviewer and reviewed has to be taken

into consideration. I feel the article is a great advocate for performance reviews,

while providing a complete criticism.

Pu b lic Speaking: This method of communication in organizations is primarily

defined by the amount of people in the audience. Public speaking in regards to an

organization can also refer to seminars, stakeholders meetings, presentations,

debriefing, press conference, and guerilla type marketing. The intended effect of

public speaking is to entertainment, teach or inform.

T oastMasters. 2008. T oastMasters International. November 7[www.toastmasters.com].


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Toastmaster s is an organization whose goal is to improve communication

skills and self-confidence through public speaking. Toastmasters web-site is a great

resource for two reasons. First, it introduces the reader to the organization. The

organization in itself is a wealth of information on public speaking. Secondly, the

website provides the reader with a library of resources on public speaking for free.

It contains articles on the fear of public speaking and tips for business

presentations.

Training : Training is most commonly addressed on the job in the beginning stages,

but commonly is last throughout one s career, especially with the onslaught on new

technology. Examples of training can be verbal or by text. Examples of training

maybe role-playing, discussions, brainstorming and games depending on the task

that is supposed to be learned.

Source: Tannenbaum, S., Yukl, G. (1992). Training and Development in Work

Organizations. Annual Review of Psychology, 43 (1). Retrieved November 5, 2008

from Emerson Library Database.

This article on training is especially useful because it discusses in depth

different methods of training, including the pros and cons of each. Going beyond the

initial discussion of training methods and article also describes traits that are

pivotal in a trainer and trainee. The article also goes through the process of training

including the pre-training period and the post-training evaluation. One of the most


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developed ideas in the article is the method of team training and how useful it can

be in an organization.

N egotiations : Negotiations are typically a dialogue between two or more

individuals to accomplish an end. The two parties typically work towards a decision,

that is closer to the middle of their own position, instead of giving into the other

party. Negotiations in the work place typically occur over salary and job duties. At

work we are constantly negotiating with our co-workers, bosses and clients to

achieve the best result.

Murray, D. (1987). Requests at Work: Negotiating the Conditions for Conversation.

M anagement Communication Quarterly, 1 (1). Retrieved November 5, 2008

from Emerson Library Database.

This article is an excellent source on negotiation, specifically in the

organizational context. It describes the basic concept of negotiations and also lists a

detailed study that breaks down communication between co-workers so that we

may see how they negotiate to achieve their desired result. The author also makes a

point on behalf of interpersonal communication during negotiations stating that it s

difficult to negotiate over phone or online because of the lack of nonverbal

communication for clarity, i.e. eye contact.


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G rapevine : Grapevines are probably the least direct and most difficult mode of oral

communication throughout an organization. That being said, grapevines are one of

the most important modes of communication as well. Grapevines move information

quickly between co-workers and often grossly misconstrue information and damage

control may have to follow. Grapevine communication closely relates to gossiping.

Mills, C. (2002). In-house Perceptions of an Organisation's Grapevine Activity.

Refereed paper published in the ANZCA 2002 web journal by Australian and

New Zealand Communication Association Conference, Bond University,

Coolangatta, Australia.Retrieved November 5, 2008 from Google Scholar.

This source describes the difference between the two types of grapevines,

gossip and rumors. The positive and negative aspects of grapevines are also

discussed, specifically mentioning venting and forming close relationships with co-

workers. According to the other grapevines are also used to separate groups in

organizations. The author also provides a chart detailing the motive behind certain

subjects of grapevines and examples of each. Furthermore the author uses several

real conversations between workers to detail why the grapevine is occurring. A

common thread between the conversations was the lack of formal communication

channels in the organization, leading to uncertainty between the participants in the

grapevine.

Other Sources of Oral Communication


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Meetings, voicemail, gossip, phone, presentation, loudspeaker, intercom, debriefing,

sales pitch, conflict mediation, public statement, press conference, radio,

advertisements, brown bag meeting, seminars, question & answer, exit interview,

road shows, gorilla marketing, pod casts, and salary negotiations.


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Visual Communication Advantages/Disadvantages

V ugraph

Vugraphs. 2008. Wikipedia. .

Vugraphs are machines that project images onto screens. When used

properly the vugraph is an excellent tool for providing an audience with visual

representation. It is also very useful when teaching to a large

Communication Application Final

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