Policy Brief No. 20 APLN/CNND 1

ColonialRelocationandImplicationsforFutureClimateChangeInducedMigrationandDisplacement

TammyTabe

Abstract

Scientificresearchhasprojectedthatclimatechangeisoneofthegreatestthreatstohumansecuritybecauseitdisruptsthelivelihoodsofpeopleandwillgeneratethemigrationanddisplacement of vulnerable populations across the globe. In particular, the Small IslandDevelopingStates(SIDS)inthePacificarecharacterisedaslow-lyingatolls,witheconomiesthatareheavilydependentonthenaturalenvironmentandecosystems.Theemphasisonmigrationasanadaptationstrategyhasbeenwidelydebatedininternational,regional,andnationalforums,andatthecommunitylevel.WhileitappearstobeapossiblesolutionforvulnerablecommunitiesinthePacific,withoutproperplanningandpreparation,andtheinvolvementandconsentofpeople, itcouldalsopotentially leadtoforceddisplacement.ThispaperreflectsontherelocationoftheGilbertesefromtheSouthernGilbertIslandstoPhoenixIslands,andeventuallytotheSolomonIslandsinthe1960s.Theplanningoftherelocation,especiallyfromthePhoenixIslandstotheSolomonIslands,andtheexperiencesofthepeopleprovideimportantlessonsthatcanbeusedtoinformfutureclimatechangeinducedmigrationanddisplacementinthePacificIslands.

PolicyBriefNo.79

June2020

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Introduction

Climatechangeisaffectingtheplanet,buttheimpactsarefeltmoreseverelyinSmallIslandDeveloping States (SIDS) such as the Pacific Islands. The Intergovernmental Panel onClimateChange(IPCC)hasunderlinedthatclimatechangeisoneofthegreatestthreatstohumansecuritybecause itundermines livelihoods,compromisesculturesand individualidentity,increasesmigrationanddisplacementofpeople,anddisruptstheabilityofstatestoprovidetheconditionsnecessaryforhumansecurity(Adgeretal.2014).Ofparticularconcernistherisingsealevelandits impactsonPacificIslandsCountries(PICs).Recentprojectionsshowthatsealevelrisecouldexceed2.0metresbytheendofthe21stcentury.Despite uncertainty about the accuracy of this predicted rise, scientific modelling hassuggestedthesealevelwillbesignificantlyhigherbytheendofthecentury(Storlazzietal.2018).

TheriseinsealevelwillsignificantlyaffectPacificIslandsespeciallyatollislandsbecauseoftheirlow-lyingfeatures.Manyoftheseislandshaveamaximumheightoffourmetresandan elevation average of not more than two metres above sea level, and therefore areextremelyexposedtorisingsealevels,coastalerosionandflooding,saltwaterinundation,andcontaminationof freshwater lenses (Storlazzi et al. 2018).The increasing impactofclimatechangewillalsocauseecosystemstodeteriorateandimpactPacificIslandscommu-nities heavily reliant on the natural environment for their livelihoods and economies(MortreuxandBarnett2009).Whenthishappens,manyof the islandswillno longerbehabitable.Populationswillgraduallymigrateelsewhere,somethroughaplannedrelocationprojectasanadaptationstrategy,ortheymaybeforcedtoleavetheirhomeislands,whichmaycreateasenseofdisplacementamongthepeople.Displacementinthiscontextreferstotheforcedrelocationofpeoplefromtheirancestrallands,whichforPacificIslandersisfoundational to their livelihoods, cultures, traditions,and identity (Tabe2019;Campbell2019).

ArecentIPCCreportpredictsthattheglobalmeansea-levelrisewillbebetween0.52-0.98metres between2081 – 2100 (IPCC2018). The report exemplifies that thepressure onhuman settlements in thePacific Islands is likely to increase significantly in the comingyearswiththe increaseofglobalwarmingandenvironmentalchangesthatposeriskstohumanhealth,livelihoods,foodsecurityandeconomicgrowth,andwilllikelyresultintheforced relocation anddisplacement of Pacific Islandspeople (ibid).Migration canbe anadaptivemeasureifitisvoluntaryandthedecisionstomigratearetakenbyindividualsorat thehousehold level (MortreuxandBarnett2009).However, forcedmigrationusuallyresults in the involuntarydisplacementofpeopleandexamplesof these typesofmove-mentshaveoccurredinthePacific.Forinstance,theBanabanswererelocatedfromOceanIslandtoRabiinFijiinthe1940sasaresultofphosphatemining(Edwards2014),andtheTikopianswererelocated to theRussell Islandsdue toenvironmentalproblems(Larson1977). In themid-1950s,amajorvolcaniceruptiononthe islandofAmbyminVanuatuforceditspopulationtorelocatetotheislandofEfate(Connell2012).

More recently too, communities in thePacifichavebeenrelocatedasa resultof climatechange impacts. In2014, thevillageofVunidogoloa inFijiwasrelocatedtwokilometres

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inlandfromthecoastduetosealevelriseandextremecoastalsurgesanderosion(Charanetal.2017).TherelocationofthecommunityofNarikosoinFijiisalsounderway;partofthecommunityhasalreadybeenrelocated,asaresultofsealevelriseandcoastalerosion(SPC2016). It is inevitable thatmigrationwill takeplacewith the increase in risingsealevels,butmostlyinternally,withincountries’jurisdictions(McAdam2012).However,thecomplexityofplanningandpreparation,andmovingpeoplefromonelocationtoanothershould not be underestimated. Instead the nature of themovement should be carefullyconsidered,understood,organisedandadministeredovertimetoensuretherelocationofcommunities is effectively carried out in a manner that avoids potential difficulties orconflictsandinvoluntarydisplacement.

ThispaperreflectsonthehistoricalaccountoftheGilberteserelocationfromtheGilberttoPhoenixIslands,andtoSolomonIslandsduringthecolonialperiod(SeeFigure1).Theplan-ningfortherelocation,especiallyfromPhoenixIslandstoSolomonIslands,andtheexperi-encesof thepeopleprovide important lessonsthatcanbeusedto informfutureclimatechange inducedmigration and displacement in the Pacific Islands. The paperwill focusspecificallyonthesecondwaveofrelocationtotheislandofWagina.

Figure1:MapoftheGilberteserelocationfromGilbertIslandstoPhoenixIslandsandtoWagina,SolomonIslands.

Terminology

There are interchangeable definitions for migration, relocation, planned relocation,displacement,involuntarydisplacement,andvoluntarydisplacementwhenusedinclimatechangemigrationdiscourses.Thewayinwhichtheseconceptsareperceivedalsodifferssignificantlyaccordingtothecontextinwhichtheyareused.Forthepurposeofthispaper,thefollowingconceptswillbeusedasdefined.

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Migration is themovement of persons away from their usual place of residence, eitherwithinaStateoracrossaninternationalboundary(IOM2020).Thistypeofmovementcanbevoluntaryinnatureorforcedattimes,butitiscommonlyusedtodescribethevoluntarymovementsofpeopleandisassociatedwithanelementofchoice(ODIandUNDP2017).

Relocationcanbevoluntaryorforced.Voluntaryrelocationtakesplacewhenthereisstillfreedomtochoosebetweenrealisticoptions,whereas forced relocation occurswhen thefreedom to choose from the realistic options is no longer available (McAdamandFerris2015).Planned relocation is an adaptivemeasure administered by the State inwhich acommunityisphysicallymovedfromitsoriginalsitetoanotherlocation,usuallytoasaferoneinthecaseofbothslowandsuddenonsetevents(UNHCR2014).

Displacementinvolvesthemovementsofpersonswhohavebeenforcedorobligedtofleeorto leave their homes or places of residence as a result ofwar and conflict, persecution,naturalandhuman-madedisasters,violationofhumanrights,andclimatechangeimpacts(IOM2020).Italsoreferstotheforcedmovementsofpeoplefromtheirhomesandancestrallandsasadirectresultofslowandsuddenonsetevents(ODIandUNDP2017).

RelocationfromGilbertIslandstoPhoenixIslands,andtoSolomonIslands

TheGilbertIslandsandElliceIslands,todayknownasKiribatiandTuvalu,arelocatedinthecentralPacificOcean.Theislandsarecharacterisedmainlybylow-lyingatollswithlagoonsandlandsnotmorethanfourmetresabovesealevel(Hoverson1983).In1892,bothgroupsofislandswerecolonisedandbecameaProtectorateundertheBritishColonialAdministra-tion.TheislandsbecametheGilbertandElliceIslandsColony(GEIC)in1916.Thecolonisa-tionoftheislandsbroughtaboutmanychangessubsequenttotheEuropeanencounterandthearrivalofChristianity.Thesechangesdisruptedthetraditionalwayoflifeontheislandsandofthesystemsthatgovernedthem.

Thefragmentationofthekainga(theextendedfamilyunit)intosmallvillagesalteredrela-tions between family units and prevented land acquisition and repossession throughwarfarebetweenkaingagroups(Namai1987).Communalrightstolandandproperties,andthetraditionaldistributionoflandthroughfamilylineages,wasalsotransformed.Thebanoftraditionalpracticestocurbpopulationgrowth,suchasabortionandwarfare,andinter-island migration, which prohibited the mobility of people between islands, led to anincreaseinthepopulationbeyondthecapacityoftheislandstosustainit.Thetraditionallandtenuresystemwasreplacedwithanewlandtenurethatsupportedtheregistrationand ownership of individual landholdings and real property. The new land tenurewascomplementedwithalandtaxationsystemtoencouragelandownerstodeveloptheirlandordistributeittootherswhoneededittobedeveloped.Theintroductionofthenewlandtenuresystemandthesurveyoftheislandsledtowhatwasperceivedbytheadministrationas overpopulation and land shortages, particularly in the Southern Gilbert Islands(ChambersandMunro1980).

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WhiletheintentionsoftheGEICAdministrationwastobring‘civilisation’totheGilbertandElliceIslands,theydidnotrealisethatthesechangeshadamplifiedtheproblemsofover-populationbecausepeoplewerenolongerpracticingtheirtraditionalwaysofcontrollingpopulationgrowth.Theestablishmentofmedicalclinicsandmedicationhelpedtoimprovethehealthservicesintheislandsandincreasedthelifeexpectancyoftheelderlyandinfants(Maude1968).Thebanofwarfarebetweenislandsandkaingagroupsandtheprohibitiononinter-islandmigrationsacceleratedpopulationgrowthonislandsbeyondtheircarryingcapacity.LandwasofhighvalueandimportancetotheGilbertesepeople.Landownershipand rights were based on family landholdings comprised of individual and communalsystemsinwhichrightswerepassedonfromgenerationtogenerationthroughthematri-linealandpatrilinealsystems.Thisledtotheincreasedfragmentationoflandacrossmanyislandsbecausealandplotwasdistributedtoeveryoneincludingchildren.Theamendmentofthetraditionallandtenurecausednumerouslanddisputesamongstthepeople.

To reduce overpopulation and address land shortages in the Gilbert Islands, the GEICAdministration decided to facilitate a resettlement scheme for the surplus and landlessfamilies,mainly fromtheSouthernGilbert Islands.Families identifiedasverypoorwithverylittlelandweregivenpriorityforrelocation.ThePhoenixgroupofislandsinthecolonywas identified as the relocation destination; in particular, the islandsGardner,Hull andSydneywereseenasthemostsuitablefortheGilbertesefamilies.TheislandswerelaterchristenedbytheGilbertesewithnamesfamiliartothemandwhichremindedthemoftheirhomesintheGilbertIslands.GardnerwascalledNikumaroro;HullIslandwasnamedOrona;andSydney,Manra(Maude1968).Althoughtheislandswerequitedistant,theywouldstillbemanagedbytheGEICAdministrationfromitsheadquartersinTarawa.Whilethereset-tlement scheme was regarded as voluntary by the GEIC Administration, many familiesrefusedtoberelocatedbutwereconvincedonthebasisthattheywouldbegrantedmorelandinthePhoenixIslands.

The relocation to the Phoenix Islands was also considered favorable for the Gilbertesefamiliesbecauseofthesimilarityoftheenvironmentandphysicalnatureoftheislands,thefactthatthePhoenixIslandswerepartofthecolony,andtheabilitytomaintainconnectionandbeabletovisittheirrelativesintheGilbertIslands.However,priortotheirdepartureforthePhoenixIslands,theGilbertesefamilieswererequiredtosurrenderalltheirlandstotheirrelativeswhowereremaining,asthoseleavingwouldbedistributedlandintheirnewhome(ibid).Inthelate1930s,thePhoenixIslandsResettlementSchemewasconducted,and groups of Gilbertese families were relocated from the Southern Gilbert Islands toPhoenixIslands(bothgroupsofislandsaretodaypartofKiribati).

However,theColonywasgreatlyaffectedduringWorldWarII.Thewarcausedextensivedamagetothephosphateandcopraindustries,whichweretheprimarybackboneoftheeconomyintheColony.ThedisruptionoftheColony’seconomybecameamajorconcernfortheGEICadministration;themanagementoftheColonycouldprovedifficultinthelongterm,especiallythemanagementofthePhoenixIslands,giventheirremotenessfromtheGEICheadquartersinTarawa.ItalsobecameapparentduringthistimethatthePhoenixIslandswere highly vulnerable to long periods of drought andwould be inadequate tosupportthegrowingpopulationofGilbertesefamilies.Therefore,theGEICAdministration

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cametotheconclusionthatthemanagementoftheislandsfromitsheadquartersinTarawawouldbecomealiabilityinthelongterm(Tabe2019).

TheislandofManrainPhoenixwasgreatlyaffectedbyaseriesofdroughtsespeciallylive-lihoodresourcesontheisland,whichledtheeldersofthecommunitytorequestthattheGEICAdministrationrelocatethemtoanotherislandwithintheColony.ButwiththeslowrecoveryoftheColony’seconomyafterthewar,theGEICAdministrationwasnotpreparedtoadministerfurtherresettlementschemeswithintheColonythatwouldrequireadditionalmanagement.Instead,itpursuedpotentialresettlementsitesinotherBritishColoniesthatwould provide an opportunity for the Gilbertese to be recruited as labourers, with thepossibilityofbeinggrantedcitizenship(ibid).

SubsequentlyafterWWII,theBritishSolomonIslandsProtectorate(BSIP)sufferedashort-ageoflabourerstoworkinitsplantations,whichwereabackboneofitseconomy,andmanyofthelabourerswhopreviouslyworkedintheplantationsdidnotreturnafterthewar.Thisdilemmapresentedanopportunityfortherecruitmentoflabourersfromelsewheretoworkintheplantations.Atthesametime,theneedtorelocatetheGilbertesefromthePhoenixIslandsofferedaprospectfortherecruitmentofpotentiallabourerstoworkintheSolomonIslands.Thiswouldaddresstheproblemsfacedbythetwocolonialadministrations.Therelocation of the Gilbertese people from the Phoenix Islands to Solomon Islandswouldprovide the supply of labourers needed by the BSIP andwould relieve the GEIC of theburdenofthemanagementofthePhoenixIslandsinthelong-term(Tabe2016).

Theengineeringoftheresettlementwasalsomadepossiblebecausebothcolonialadmin-istrationswereundertheWesternPacificHighCommissioner,whowasbasedinFijiatthattime,whichmadepossiblediscussionsaroundtherelocationofavulnerablecommunityandtherecruitmentofGilberteseaspotentiallabourersfortheBSIP.Therelocationwascoordinatedundertheassumptionsthat,firstly,theBSIPwasinneedofadditionallabour-ersforitsplantationsand,secondly,theGEICdesiredtherelocationoftheGilbertesepopu-lationfromPhoenixIslandstosafeguardthemfromthedetrimentaleffectsofdroughtandprovidethemanopportunitytoimprovetheirlivelihoods.ItalsoallowedtheGEICAdmin-istration to avoid the future accumulation of expenditures for the management of thePhoenixIslands(ibid).

TheGEICandBSIPAdministrationswereawareofthefactthattheresettlementwouldbefrom a distinctive geographical, environmental, and cultural region to another, yet theyweredeterminedtoexperimentwithalarge-scalemovementofpeopleacrossjurisdictions.The proposed resettlement to the Solomon Islands was not accepted by the Gilbertesefamiliesandmanyrefusedtoberelocated,primarilythosefromManrawhohadsufferedfromtheeffectsofdrought.TheireldershadrequestedthattheGEICAdministrationrelo-catethemelsewhereinthecolony,butnottotheSolomons.However,theGEICAdministra-tionwasdeterminedtoseekpotentialsitesoutsideofthecolony.BritishterritoriesinAsia,Africa,inOceania,andevenLondonwereconsideredbutnoneofthemofferedsuchoppor-tunities.TheBSIPwastheonlyterritorythatofferedtheopportunityforlabourrecruitmentandpermanentsettlement(ibid),sodiscussionsbetweenthetwocolonialadministrationsproceeded.

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The relocation from Phoenix Islands to Solomon Islands was conducted in two waves.Despitethelackofenthusiasmfortherelocation,peopleagreedonthebasisthattheywouldaccessmorelandandhaveabetterlivelihoodintheSolomonIslands.Therelocationwouldbeconductedonafive-yearcontractwhichwassignedbythepeoplepriortotheirdepar-turefortheSolomonIslands.IftheGilbertesewerenotabletore-establishthemselvesintheirnewhomeduringthisperiod,theywouldberepatriatedbacktothecolonyafterfiveyears.Manyof thepeople signed the contract and in1955, the firstwaveof relocation,comprisedof500people,wasconductedfromtheislandofManratoTitianaonGizoIsland,inSolomonIslands(SeeFigure2).

TheManra-Titianarelocationwasconductedinaseriesofeightvoyagesbetween1955and1962,whichallowedtheallocationoflandtotheGilbertesefamiliesandtimeforthemtore-establishandfamiliarisethemselveswiththeirnewhome.TitianawaslocatedneartheWesternDistrictHeadquartersonGizo,andtheheadquartersprovidedassistanceforthesettlementoftheGilbertesepeople.AfterfiveyearsoftheresettlementtoTitiana,theGEICAdministrationdeclared theschemesuccessfulwithout theknowledgeof theGilbertese.ThiswasdonetopreventtheGilbertesefromseekingrepatriationbacktothecolonyunderthetermsofthecontract.Instead,theadministrationsawthattherewasstillanopportunitytorelocatetherestofthePhoenixIslandspopulationtoSolomonIslands,soitinitiatedthesecondwave of relocation (ibid). Prior to their departure, the remaining population ofPhoenixIslandswastoldtogiveupalltheirlandsonNikumaroroandOronatotheGEICAdministrationinexchangeforthelandstheywouldbegiveninSolomonIslands.

Theabruptdecisiontorelocatetheremainingpopulationgave littletimefortheAdmin-istrationtoconsultandobtainthepeople’sconsent.Thisledtotherefusalofmanypeopleincluding the elderly to relocate to Solomon Islands. Most of the families had also justdeveloped the land and established their households in Phoenix Islands after the initialrelocationfromGilbertIslands,sotheywerenotpreparedtoabandonthenewhomeandseealltheirhardworkgotowaste.Othersrefusedtoabandontheirlovedonesburiedontheislands.

From1963to1964,theremainingpopulationofnearlyathousandpeoplefromtheislandsofNikumaroroandOronainthePhoenixGroupwererelocatedtoWagina,alsoinSolomonIslands(SeeFigure2)(Weber2016;Tabe2016).Duetothecostoftheoperationandfacil-itation of the Titiana resettlement scheme, the entire remaining population of PhoenixIslandswasrelocatedtoWaginainonelarge-scalemovement.WaginaIslandwasremotelylocatedfromtheWesternDistrictHeadquarter,whichatthattimewasinchargeofadmin-isteringTitianaandWaginaIsland,alongwithotherislandsandcommunitiesintheDistrict.

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Figure2:MapofSolomonIslandswiththelocationofTitianaonGizoIslandandWaginaIslandintheSoutheastofChoiseul.

DuetothehastyrelocationoftheremainingpopulationofPhoenixIslandstoWagina,thevillagesitesandhomeswerenotreadywhenthepeoplearrivedontheisland.Mostofthemhadtobehousedincommunalhousingwithrationedfoodtoallowtimefortheclearingofthelandandtheallocationoflandplotstoeachofthehouseholds.Manyofthemenwereoverwhelmedwiththeworkrequiredofthemtoclearthevillagesitesespeciallycomingfrom atoll islands where cutting down big trees and clearing thick vegetation was notrequired.However,followingtheclearingofthevillagesites,landplotsweredistributedtoheadsofhouseholds for their familiesand theywere required to clear,develop, andre-establishthemselvesintheirnewhome(Tabe2016).

RelocationtoSolomonIslands:TheGilberteseExperiences

TheunderstandingoftheGilbertesepeoplewasthattheirrelocationtoSolomonIslandswasbasedontheinstructionsoftheGEIC,whichgavethemanewhomeinexchangefortheirPhoenixIslandslandswhichtheyreturnedtotheGEICAdministration.However,theGilbertesepeoplefacedchallengesuponarrivalinSolomonIslandsparticularlyonWaginaIsland,duetothegeographical,environmental,andculturaldifferencestheyexperienced.ThepeoplehadverylittletimetopreparethemselvesbeforetheyweremovedtoSolomonIslands. Although there was an expectation from the colonial administrations that thepeoplewouldre-establishthemselvesassoonastheywereallocatedlandplots,thiswasnot thecase. Instead thepeople struggled toovercome thechallenges they facedon theislandastheytriedtosettleintotheirnewhome.

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SomeofthechallengesencounteredincludedthelackofconsultationwiththeGilbertesepeople and lackofproperplanningandpreparationbefore the relocation fromPhoenixIslands.ThiswastheprimarybasisofmanyoftheproblemsfacedbytheGilbertesepeoplewhichincludedthelackofconsentfromtheSolomonIslandsindigenouspeople;environ-mentalproblemsencounteredonthe islandduetothetopographyandecologicaldiffer-encesincomparisontoatollenvironments;landrelatedissues;andassimilationintotheSolomonIslandssociety.

a) ConsultationandConsent

AccordingtotheelderlymenandwomenwhowerepartoftherelocationtoWaginaintheearly1960s,therewasnoproperconsultationwiththepeopleonOronaandNikumaroroabouttheirrelocationtoSolomonIslands.WhiletheAdministrationofficersheldameetinginthemaneaba1withtheeldersoftheislands,therestofthepeoplewerenotincludedinthedecision-makingprocess.ManyoftheelderswerenotpleasedwiththeproposaloftheirrelocationtoSolomonIslands,butaletterofOrderfromtheResidentCommissioneroftheGEICAdministrationwasissuedandreadouttoalltheeldersandthepeople.Despitethereluctancetocomplywiththegivenorders,theelderswereforcedtoinstructandconvincethe people that theymust all leave for Solomon Islands and that no one should remainbehind.Thepeoplehadtocomplywiththe instructionsof theeldersandgatheredtheirfamiliesinpreparationfortherelocationtoSolomonIslands(Knudson1964).

b) PlanningandPreparation

Thelackofplanningforthesecondwavewasevidentintheimmediateremovalofthere-mainingpopulationfromOronaandNikumarorotoSolomonIslands.TheallegedsuccessfulrelocationoftheManrapopulationtoGizoIslandgavetheGEICAdministrationtheimpres-sionthattheremainingpopulationofthePhoenixIslandscouldalsoberelocatedsuccess-fullytoSolomonIslands.However,thepeoplewerenotgivenadequatetimetocontemplatetherelocationorenvisagewhattheirliveswouldbelikeinSolomonIslands.AgroupofmenwassenttoWaginain1962priortotherelocationoftheremainingpopulationtoassistwiththeclearingofthesettlementsites,butwithouttheexperienceofworkingaheavilyvegetatedandforestedlandscape,clearingofthelandwaslaboriousandtheywerenotabletogetthesitesreadyintimeforthearrivaloftheremainingpopulation(Tabe2016).

The rush to remove the remaining population from the Phoenix Islands did not permitadequateplanning for the large-scale transportationof theGilbertesepeople. Insteadofrelocatinggroupsof families insequencedtrips,a largecargoshipwashiredandall thepeoplelodgedintheship’shulluntiltheyarrivedatWagina.Whentheyreachedtheirdes-tination,theywerewinchedofftheship.TheurgencyofrelocatingtheremainingpopulationofPhoenixIslandsalsodidnotprovideampletimefortheGilbertesetophysicallyprepareeithermateriallyorpsychologicallybymakingsenseoftheirrelocationandwhattheirliveswouldbeintheirnewhomeinSolomonIslands.

1Gilbertesetraditionalmeetinghouse.

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c) EnvironmentalProblems

Therelocationofalargegroupofpeoplefromatollislandstoahighislandcoveredindensevegetationandforest,andthedifferencesintheenvironmentallandscapeandlifestyle,wasnotsincerelyconsideredduringtheplanningoftherelocation,giventheimmediateneedtoundertake the scheme. The people were overwhelmed with the workload required tore-establisheachhouseholdandthecommunityonWagina.ThelackofknowledgeabouthouseconstructioninSolomonIslandsmeantmanypeoplebuilttheirhousesusingmateri-alsthattheyhadbroughtfromPhoenixIslands.However,giventhedifferenceinclimaticconditions,theywereadvisedtobuildsturdierhousesthatcouldwithstandheavyrainandstrongwinds(Tabe2019).

ThecolonialadministrationhadexpectedtheGilbertesepeopletosubsistfromcultivatingtheland;however,thiswasunattainablebytheGilbertesepeoplebecauseagriculturehadnotbeenasourceoftheirlivelihoodbeforeandmanystruggledtolearnthepropermethodsofplantingrootcropsandmaintainingthemuntilharvest.TheGilbertesepeoplewerenotaccustomedtoeatingrootcropsorvegetablesandpreferredfishandcoconuts,whichwerethemainsourceofproteinandstapleintheatollsoftheirhome.However,therewerenococonut trees on Wagina, and coconuts had to be collected from offshore islands andrationedamongthefamilies(Knudson1964).

ThepresenceofmosquitoesontheislandwasamajorthreattothehealthoftheGilbertesepeopleandwidespreadmalariaontheislandcausedanuncountednumberofdeaths,espe-ciallyamongchildrenandtheelderly.Manyofthemthoughtthattheywerebeingpossessedbythespiritsoftheland,withoutanyknowledgeofthesymptomsofmalariaorknowingthattheyhadcontractedthedisease.TheexpectationoftheGEICAdministrationthattheGilbertesewouldbeabletocopewiththeenvironmentalconditionsofWaginawerenotcarefullythoughtthrough,especiallygiventhatthepeoplecamefromatollislandswheremalariawasnotpresent.TheGilbertesepeoplewerealsonotinformedaboutthehistoryofthe island–that ithadbeenabandonedformanyyearsbecauseitwasbelievedtobehauntedbyspirits,whichhadpreventedtheestablishmentofsettlementsbytheSolomonIslandsindigenouspeoplebeforethearrivaloftheGilbertese.TheindigenouspeoplefearedthatthesamewouldalsohappentotheGilbertesepeopleandthattheywouldeventuallydieandalsoabandontheisland,butthisdidnothappen(Tabe2019).

d) LandRelatedIssues

ThearrivalsonWaginaweretoldthattheislandbelongedtothem,andthatitwouldbedividedupandallocatedtoeachofthehouseholds.TheGilbertesepreferredtoestablishtheirvillagesinproximitytoeachotheralongthecoastbutmuchofthelandareaonWaginawascoveredinswampandprovedtobeinadequateandunsuitableforalarge-scalesettle-ment.However,thepeoplestillpreferredresidingclosetotheoceanratherthanfurtherinland,soeachfamily’sheadofhouseholdwasallocatedaresidenceplotandanareaforagriculturepurposesuphilltowardstheinterioroftheisland(Tabe2016).

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Tothisday,theGilbertesepeoplehavegroundedtheirownershipclaimoverWaginaandtheoffshoreislandsbasedontheassurancesoftheAdministrationofficers.TheGilbertesealsobelievedthattheislandhadbeengiventotheminexchangeforthelandswhichtheyrevertedtotheGEICAdministrationpriortotheirdepartureforSolomonIslands.However,theallocationofWaginatotheGilbertesepeoplewasbasedonlyontheverbalaccountgiventothemwhentheyarrivedinSolomonIslandswhichwasnotdocumentedasproofofown-ership.Asaresult,rightstotheislandwerecontestedbytheindigenouspeopleofChoiseulwhohadtraditionalownershipofWagina,whiletheGilbertesecontinuetomaintaintheirclaimstotheisland.Despitethesetensions,aconsensuswasagreeduponbetweenthetwogroupsacknowledgingtheGilberteseastheoccupantsofWaginawithbothgroupsofpeoplehavingmutualaccesstoresourcesandfishingareasaroundtheisland(ibid).

ThelackoffixedrightsoverWaginahasalsosparkedrecenttensionsbetweentheGilber-teseandaMiningCompanythathadbeengrantedaprospectinglicensebythegovernmenttominebauxiteontheisland.Itbecameclearduringthisrecentconflictthatthegovernmenthadretainedrightsoverpartoftheislandbelievedtohaveeconomicsignificance,whichhadbeendemarcatedbytheBSIPduringthesurveyoftheislandfortheGilbertesepeople.However,theGilbertese,withsupportfromtheChoiseulProvincialgovernmentandpeople,opposed this development initiative in order to protect the land and their future. TheGilbertesepeoplefearedthat,withoutformalrightstotheisland,thebauxiteminingcouldpotentiallydisplacethemagainandthreatentheirlivelihoodandthefutureoftheirchildren(ibid).

e) Integration

TheintegrationoftheGilbertesepeopleintothelargerSolomonIslandssocietywasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthattheywereculturallydifferentintermsoftheirlanguage,phys-icalappearance,traditions,andwayoflife,especiallyforthepeopleofWaginabecauseofthedistanceoftheislandfromneighboringcommunities.ThiscreatedanenclaveGilbertesecommunityonWagina.Althoughthisallowedthegradualre-establishmentofvillagesandhouseholds,andadaptationtothenewenvironment,italsopreventedopportunitiesforas-similationandtheintegrationoftheGilbertesewiththeSolomonIslandsindigenouspeople.

ThelackofunderstandingaboutthepresenceoftheGilbertesepeopleinSolomonIslandscreatedconfusionamongtheSolomonIslandspeopleandtheneighboringcommunitiesofWagina.Someof thecommunitieshadassumed that theGilbertesewere lostat seaandendedupcomingashoreatWaginatooccupytheirlands.TheSolomonIslandsindigenouspeopleshouldhavebeeninformedofthepurposeandscaleoftheGilberteserelocationinordertogettheirconsentandsupportfortherelocationandassimilationoftheGilbertese;however, the Solomon Islands indigenous people did not understand that the influx ofGilbertesepeopletoSolomonIslandswouldbynomeansthreatenthefutureoftheindige-nous population but would rather contribute to the cultural diversity and the overalleconomyofthecountry.Similarly,theGilbertesepeopleshouldhavebeeninformedoftheimportanceof integrating into theSolomon Islands society, and thepotential challengestheywouldbeexpectedtofaceintheSolomonIslands.

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f) CommunityandIdentity

ThelackofintegrationoftheGilbertesepeopleintotheSolomonIslandssocietywasduetotheculturaldifferences.TheGilbertesepeopleperceivedtheSolomonIslandsculturesandwayoflifeassignificantlydifferentfromtheirs;theydesiredmaintenanceofrelationshipswithintheirowncommunityandobservanceoftheirownculturesandtraditions,languageandwayoflife.Livinginaclose-knitcommunityandobservingsocialrelationshipsamongtheGilbertesepeopleissignificantforthecontinuationoftheiridentityinSolomonIslands.WhilemaintainingtheiridentityasGilberteseisimportanttothem,theyfacethechallengeofbeingmarginalisedasmigrantsandaminoritycommunity.Manyofthepeopleusuallyfeeloverlookedwhenitcomestoemploymentandeducationopportunities,andtheyarealwaysgiven the lesserpositions.TheGilberteserealised the importanceofassimilatingintotheSolomonIslandsasawaytobeintegratedintothelargersociety.Thismeantassim-ilation through adapting to the way of life and themanner in which they do things inSolomonIslands.ThisrealisationalsoledtointermarriagesbetweentheGilbertesepeopleandSolomonIslanders,notonlyasawayofintegratingintothesocietybutalsoasameanstoaccesslandandpermanencyinSolomonIslands(Tabe2016).

g) SenseofDisplacement

TheGilbertese felt displacedwhen theywere forced to relocate to Solomon Islands, forreasonsoutlinedabove.Notbeingabletomakesenseoftheplaceinrelationtotheircultureandwayoflifewasalsoamajorproblemforthepeople.MostfeltthattheywereuprootedfromtheirhomeislandsandbroughttoSolomonIslandsforreasonsofwhichtheywereunaware,andmanytothisdaystilldonotunderstandwhytheywererelocatedtoSolomonIslandsinsteadofwithintheColony(Tabe2016).

Theabandonmentoftheirlovedones’gravesandthelabourinvestedtodeveloptheirlands,andtheimmediateneedtoleavetheirhomeislandsmadetheirpermanentrelocationtoSolomonIslandsfeeluncertain.TheGilbertesepeoplealsofeltbetrayedbytheGEICAdmin-istration for not ensuring that theywere assisted until such time as theywere able tosupport themselves as a community and people. Their assimilation could have beensupported through stipulations about employment or income generating opportunities.However,manyfeltthattheywerelefttostruggleasmigrantsandaminoritycommunityandcultureinthelargerSolomonIslandssociety.

TheabsenceofdocumentedrightsoverWaginaIslandandthelandstheystilloccupytodayalsocreatesasenseofbeingdisplaced,alongwiththelackofclarityaboutthelandstheygaveup.ThelackofgoodlandonWaginaforresidentialanddevelopmentpurposesalsoraisedconcernsthattheislandwasnotsuitablefortheinhabitationoflargersettlementsandmanyfeltthattheGEICAdministrationdidnotupholditspromisetothepeopleaboutaccessingmore land thatwould help improve their livelihoods. As a result,most of theGilbertesepeopletothisdaystillfeelasenseofdisplacementasaminoritygroupofpeopleinthelargerSolomonIslandssociety(ibid).

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Insummary,theGilbertesepeoplehavenowlivedinSolomonIslandsforover60yearsandstillencounterchallengesrelatingtolandownership,andlossofcultureandidentity,buthavegraduallyintegratedintothelargerSolomonIslandssocietythroughintermarriages,education and employment, and learning the cultures and the way of life of SolomonIslanders.

ImplicationsforFutureClimateChangeInducedMigrationandDisplacement

Migrationmaybeinevitablewiththecontinuousriseinglobalcarbonemissionsandclimatechange impacts, especially for low-lying atolls and coastal communities in the PacificIslands.Atollcountriesmaybeatgreaterriskofbeingaffectedduetothelackoflandtomovefurtherinlandforsafetyandtheir lowadaptivecapacitytocombatclimatechangeimpactsonfoodandwaterresources,whicharethebasisoflivelihood(Gemenne2010).

However, studies have argued that while migration may be considered as an effectiveadaptationstrategyforcountries,communities,andpopulationsthatmaybethreatenedbyclimatechangeandrelatedevents,itisimportantthatmigrationisvoluntaryanddecisionsaremadebyhouseholdsorindividuals(MortreuxandBarnett2009;McAdamandFerris2015).Forcedmigrationmay lead todisplacement if it involves removalofpeople fromtheirhomeislands,placeofresidence,orplaceinwhichtheiridentityandsenseofbelong-ingisembedded,especiallyinthePacificIslands(Tabe2019).

Whilemanymeasuresmayhavebeendevelopedtoassistwiththerelocationofcommuni-tiesandpopulationswhomaylikelybeforcedtomovefromtheirislandsinthenearfuture,itisimportanttoensurethattheseprocessesareconductedinthebestwaypossible.

AlthoughrelocationasaresultofclimatechangehasnottakenplacebetweencountriesandbeyondnationalboundariesinthePacific,theexperiencesoftheGilberteserelocationtoSolomonIslandscanhelpinformsomeofthedecisionsforfutureclimatechangemigrationofcommunitiestoensurethatthesemovementsareproperlyplannedandconductedwiththeinvolvementandconsentofthoseaffected.Theirexperiencescanalsobeusedtoassistinpreventingandminimisingpotentialdifficultiesassociatedwithlarge-scalerelocationofpopulations,andinvoluntarydisplacement.

a) ConsultationandConsent

Consultationwith communities andpeoplevulnerable to climate change impacts and inneedofrelocationisvital,andthisshouldtakeplaceonaregularbasisoveraperiodofyears.Stakeholderswhowillbeinvolvedinfacilitatingthemovementandthoseaffectedmustbeable to communicate and participate in the process. Obtaining the consent of relocatedpeopleandcommunitiesisvitallyimportantwhenplanninganyrelocation,anditisnotthesameasmereconsultationandparticipation.McAdam(2014)arguesthatwhiletheconsul-tationandparticipationofpeopleandcommunitiesisrelevantwhenplanningrelocation,obtaining their consent is significantly important. Obtaining peoples’ consent involvesprocesses of informing, negotiating and liaisingwith the prospective settlers about the

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reasonsforandproceduresoftherelocation,andalsobeinformedbytheauthoritiesaboutthebestwaysofrelocationwhichwouldallowthere-establishmentandcontinuityofthecommunity.

Anyformofrelocationshouldoccuronlywiththeconsentofthepeopleandcommunitiesconcerned.Thelackofconsentusuallyresultsinthetraumaofdisplacementanddisplayofsocialtensionsbetweenthereceivingcommunityandtherelocatedpeople(Connell2012).Obtainingtheconsentoftherecipientcountryandcommunityisalsoimportanttoassistinthefacilitationoftherelocationandassimilationoftherelocatedcommunity.

b) PlanningandPreparation

Itisessentialthatanyformofrelocationisproperlyplanned.Thefailuretoplanproperlyleadstotheimpoverishmentoftherelocatedcommunitiesandpeople(UNHCR2014).Plan-ningtakestimeandshouldtakeintoaccountallpotentialproblemsandhowtheycanbeminimisedoravoided.Itshouldalsoincludetheadvancedpreparationofarealisticprovi-sion of funding thatwould assistwith the relocation process and the settlement of thepeopleintheirnewdestinations.Suchfundsmaybeusedalsoforlandpurchases,houseconstructions,developmentofinfrastructureandthenewcommunity(Wrathall2011).Thepsychologicalpreparationofpeopleespeciallyinrelationtorelocationfromtheirlandandislandhomes,andintermsoftheirnewhome—theenvironmentalsetting,culturaldispar-ities,opportunitiesandwhattheirfuturewouldbelike—,shouldbetakenintoaccountintheplanningprocessinordertominimiseandpreventpossibletraumafromdisplacement.

c) EnvironmentalProblems

Theenvironmentallandscapeoftheproposedsettlementsitesmustbetakenintoaccountduringtheplanningandpreparationprocesses.Itisadvisablethattheproposedsiteshavesimilarorrathercomparableenvironmentalcharacteristicstotheoriginalhomesofthoserelocated, to assist with the re-establishment of the community and the adjustment ofpeople to theenvironmental setting.Health factors shouldalsobeconsideredespeciallywhen relocating a group of people from a geographically and environmentally differentplacetoonewithwhichtheyarenotfamiliar,andwhichpresentshealthissuestowhichtheyhavenotbeenexposed.

d) LandRelatedIssues

LandisaculturallyimportantandhighlyvaluedassetforPacificIslanders.Itisalivingandrelationalentitythatcharacterisestheidentityofagroupofpeopleoranindividual.ManyPacificIslandsembodylandasarelationalpartofthepeople,whichthereforecannotbedisconnectedorleftunoccupiedforalongperiodoftime(Campbell2014;Campbell2019).Theacquisitionof landforprospectivecommunities isextremelyimportant.Thisshouldgrantlandrightstothecommunityorindividuals.Theacquiredlandshouldalsobesuffi-cient to accommodate development requirements and future population growth of thecommunity.Thelandshouldprovideaplaceandspaceforthere-establishmentandconti-nuityofthecommunity.

Tammy Tabe Colonial Relocation and Implications for Future Migration and Displacement 15

e) CommunityandIdentity

Theplanningofanyrelocationshouldensurethecontinuityofthecommunityinthenewdestination. The social structure, traditional governance systems, culture, traditions,religion, economy and livelihood, andway of life of those relocatedmust be taken intoaccounttoensurethatthesocial,economic,spiritualandculturalelementsofthecommu-nityarereconstructedinthenewlocation.Thiswillassistinmaintainingtheidentityofthepeopleandhelpthecommunitythriveintheirnewhome.

f) Integration

It isessential toconsiderdifferentwaysof integratingtherelocatedcommunity intothenewdestinationandreceivingcountry.Thus,obtainingtheconsentofthereceivingcountryandcommunityisimportantinassistingwiththeacceptanceandassimilationoftherelo-catedcommunity.Thereasonsfortheneedtosupporttheassimilationandintegrationoftherelocatedcommunityshouldbeclearlyoutlinedtothereceivingpopulation,includingthe long-term implications for their future. This should also help in preventing culturaltensions and potential conflicts between the communities. Pathways that support theassimilation and integration of the migrants into the receiving community should beconsideredintheplanningprocessesandinwaysthatarefeasiblefortherelocatedpeople.

g) SenseofDisplacement

Peoplemustbeinformedsotheyunderstandthereasonfortheirrelocationandtheimpli-cationsitwillhaveonthemasindividuals,households,andasacommunity.Theymustbeengagedinthediscussion,decision-makingandplanningoftherelocation.Anyrelocationshouldbeconductedinthebestpossiblewaythatallowsthecontinuityofthecommunityinthenewlocationandpreventspeople fromfeelingatraumaticsenseofdisplacement.Developingpathways thatallowthecommunities tomovewithoutdisrupting thesocial,cultural,economic,andspiritualcharacteristicofthecommunityisimportantandshouldbeconsideredwhenplanningandpreparingpeoplefortherelocation.Landtobeallocatedtorelocatedpeoplemustbelegallyacquiredsothatpeoplehaveownershiprightstoliveanddevelopit,andultimatelymakesenseofit.Thiswillminimisepeople’ssenseofbeingdisplaced.Thelandmustbeadequatetocaterforagriculturalanddevelopmentalpurposes,andthefuturepopulationgrowthofthecommunity.Rightstofishinggroundsshouldalsobespecified.Withoutproperplanningandpreparation,andconsultationwiththeprospec-tive community, relocation may be perceived as being forced upon the relocating andreceivingcommunities.

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Conclusion

Ithasbeenprojectedthatmigrationwilllikelytakeplaceamongcommunitiesandpopula-tionsinvulnerablestatesifglobalcarbonemissionsremainpersistentlyhigh,andclimatechangecontinuestoimpactislandecosystemsandthecapacitytosustainlivelihoods.ManyoftheseimpactshavealreadymaterialisedinthePacificIslands.Thedegradationofislandenvironmentsandessentiallivelihoodresourcescouldinstigatethemigrationofpeopleandplannedrelocationofcommunitiesasanadaptationapproachtoclimatechange.Therelo-cationofcommunitiesinthePacificasaresultofclimatechangehassofaroccurredonlyinafewcountriesacrosstheregion.However,thedevelopmentofproceduralandsystematicmeasuresissignificantforcountriesandcommunitiesthatmaybesubjecttorelocationasa strategy for copingwith climate related impacts. Thus, it is relevant for governments,stakeholders,andcommunitiestobeinformedoffundamentalmeasuresthatcanbeusedwhen planning and carrying out a relocation. The Gilbertese relocation from PhoenixIslands to Solomon Islands provides lessons that can be used to inform policies anddecision-makingconcerningfutureclimatechangemigrationsinthePacific.

It is critical that regularconsultationwith theprospectivecommunity isconducted,andpeople’sconsentobtainedfirst,priortotheinceptionofanyrelocation.Theconsentofthereceiving community is also paramount. There must be proper planning and adequatepreparationofsettlementsitesandmovements’procedures,andmaterialandpsychologicalpreparation of a community, households, and individuals that are subject to relocation.Considerationofpotential environmental issueswith regards to thedifferences in land-scape,sourcesoflivelihoodsandaccesstolandandsearesourcesisvitallyimportant.Thecultural, spiritual, social and economic dynamics of the community should also beconsideredwhenevaluatingpotentialrelocationoptionsandalsohowtobestassistwithintegrationintothereceivingcommunity.Theacquisitionoflandandallotmentofrightsissignificantforanyrelocationandshouldbeadequatefortherelocatedcommunitytoavoidcausingconflictsoveraccesstoresources.

Tammy Tabe Colonial Relocation and Implications for Future Migration and Displacement 17

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TheAuthor

TammyTabeisaSolomonIslanderofI-KiribatiandTuvaludescent.Sheiscurrentlya Lecturer at the Pacific Center for Environment and Sustainable Development(PaCE-SD),attheUniversityoftheSouthPacific(USP).Herresearchinterestsencom-pass marine resources management, socio-economic benefits of Marine ProtectedAreas,genderstudies,identityanddiaspora,culturalanthropology,andclimatechangeinducedmigration and displacement in the Pacific. Dr Tabe holds anM.A from theUniversityoftheHawai’i,Manoa,andaPh.D.fromtheUniversityofBergen.

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