THEENGLISHCOUNTRYHOUSE

EXPLAINED

TREVORYORKE

COUNTRYSIDEBOOKSNEWBURYBERKSHIRE

Firstpublished2012©TrevorYorke2012

Allrightsreserved.Noreproductionpermittedwithoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher:COUNTRYSIDEBOOKS

3CatherineRoadNewbury,Berkshire

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ISBN9781846743016

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CONTENTSINTRODUCTION

SECTIONICOUNTRYHOUSESTYLESTHROUGHTHEAGES

Chapter1CHIVALRYANDGLUTTONY

1300–1560

Chapter2WEALTHANDTHEHUMANITIES

1560–1660

Chapter3COMMERCEANDSCIENCE

1660–1720

Chapter4LIBERTYANDSENSIBILITY

1720–1800

Chapter5EMPIREANDINDUSTRY

1800–1914

SECTIONIITHECOUNTRYHOUSEINDETAIL

Chapter6INTERIORSTRUCTURES

Chapter7

THEUPSTAIRSROOMS

Chapter8THEDOWNSTAIRSROOMS

Chapter9THEGARDENSANDESTATE

SECTIONIIIQUICKREFERENCEGUIDE

PLACESTOVISIT

FURTHERINFORMATION

TIMECHART

GLOSSARY

INDEX

Introduction

The English country house is an imposing record of aristocratic wealth,innovative architecture and fashionable interior design; a gloriousmuseum ofworldartandpersonalhistorybottledupinoneuniquebuilding.Morethanthis,it reflects thewhimsof itsowners, their family’sancestry,and the livesof thecountlessstaffwhohelpeddevelopandrunthehouse,itsgardensandestate.Italso highlights periods of cultural isolationwhen owners stuckwith tried andtestedmethodsordomestichistoricstyles,incontrasttotimeswhenthemindsofthe ruling classes were enlightened by wonders from the Ancient World, orexoticformsfromthefarcornersoftheglobe.Eachbuildingevolvedinadifferentway.Somehaveattheirheartamedieval

timber-framed structure; others, while appearing of the same antiquity, arecopies,barelyover100yearsold.Itwillbefoundthatmostarenotonecompleteproject.Thecostsoferectingsuchhugestructures inexpensivematerials,withthe finest interior fittings,were so vast that even thewealthiest families oftenbuiltonepartatatime.Manywillalsoshowsignsofthemoneyhavingrunout;houses with odd proportions or with a wing missing can reflect an over-ambitiousownerorcutbacksinthe20thcenturywhenaristocraticrulehadcometoanend.Despitenoonecountryhousebeingthesameasanother,thereareunderlying

trends,fashionablelayoutsandtechnicaldevelopmentswhichcanberecognisedunderneath its unique and personal details. A trip to these wonderful yetbewilderinghousescanbeenlightenedifyoucanrecognisefamiliarformsinthebuilding,datesomeofthedecorativetrimmings,andidentifyfromwhichperiodtheinteriorfittingsbelong.Thisbooksetsouttoempowerthereadertodojustthis,toexplainhowandwhycountryhousesdevelopedandtoshowthedetailsin the structure which can help date its various parts. My own drawings,diagramsandphotographsclearlyandconciselyconveythisinformation,withatext that focuses on the elements you can see and appreciate today. Anyunfamiliartermsareexplainedorcontainedinaglossary.TheEnglishCountryHouseExplainedisdividedintothreesections.Thefirst

covers five timeslots from the latemedievalperiodwhencountryhouses first

developeduptothe20thcenturywhentheybegantobeboardedupandsoldoff.Eachslotdescribesthefashionablechangeswhichaffectedthestructureandtheinteriorlayoutanddecorationofthebuilding.Thesecondsectiongoesinsidethebuildingandlooksatthedifferentstylesofinteriorfittingswhichcanhelpdatethem and the changing fashions of the various principal rooms. It also goesbehind the green baize door and describes theworking hub of the house: theservice rooms in which the household staff spent most of their lives and thegarden and estate which helped feed, finance and entertain these aristocraticfamilies.Finally,thereisaquickreferenceguide,withdetailsofhousesfeaturedin the book and a few others of note which can be visited, the glossary ofarchitecturaltermsandalistofwebsitesandbooksforfurtherinformation.

TrevorYorke

FIG0.1:DrawingsofanArtsandCrafts(top)andtimber-framedhouse(left)withlabelsofsomeofthekeyelementswhichcanbefoundoncountryhouses.

SECTIONI

COUNTRYHOUSESTYLESTHROUGHTHEAGES

CHAPTER1

ChivalryandGluttony

LateMedievalandTudorHouses1300–1560

FIG1.1:LITTLEMORETONHALL,CHESHIRE:Thisramblingtimber-framedhousehas,atitscore,a15th-centuryhallwhichoverthefollowingcenturywasaddedto,withthefamousgatehouserangepicturedherebeingthefinalpieceofthejigsawinthe1570s.Typicallyfortheperiodthecompositionofthehouseisirregularasrulesonsymmetryandproportionswereunknowntoitsbuildersoitdidnotseemtomatterthatthismainfront,withitsspectacularrowofwindows,hadagarderobetower(atoiletblock)prominentlypositionedinthemiddle!

TostartourjourneythroughthehistoryoftheEnglishcountryhouse,weneedtoturntheclockbacksome700yearstotheMiddleAges.Itwasatimewhenmilitarymightandtherespectitcommandedwereofprimaryimportanceinthelifeof anaspiring lordof themanor.Hishouseholdofficerswerehis showofstrength,with the size of his personal army and its loyalty to him acting as abarometerofhis standingamong fellownobles.He, in return, provideda roofovertheirheadsandregardedthemasanextendedfamily.This communitywould travel with their lord as hemoved from one of his

estatestoanother;asurprisinglyfrequentevent,perhapsoccurringeverycoupleofmonthsorso,andinvolvingahugebaggagetraininwhicheventheowner’sbed was taken along! This portable household, which included a wide socialspectrum from young aristocratic knights down to local peasant boys, couldnumberintothehundreds,althoughmanywouldhavebeenbasedononeestateandonlyworkedwhen the lordwasvisiting.As thesemedievalmanorhouseswerederivedfromthecastlesofthe11thand12thcenturies,theystillplayedtheroleofabarracksand,hence,mostofthehouseholdweremale,eventheentirekitchenstaff.At the head of this family stood the lord, a military leader and faithful

Christian,stronginhisdispensationofjustice,yethospitabletostrangersathisdoor;achivalrousandgracefulsocialite,asmuchateasewiththedanceorthepenaswiththehorseandsword;andalthoughfewwouldeverhaveattainedthisideal image, these were the expectations heaped on the aspiring noble.Therefore,notonlydidhehavetoworryaboutimpressinghisguestswithhugebanquets, feasts and entertainment (anything fromhalf to three-quarters of histotalbudgetwouldhavebeenspentonfoodanddrink),buthealsohadtobuildsomewhere to house them and his increasingly large household. By the 15thcentury,castlesandmanorhouseshadbeenexpandedtoformthebasisofwhatwewouldtermacountryhouse.

TheStyleofHousesIn thisperiod theexterior stylewasnotamajorconsideration in thedesignofhouses.Theywerelaidoutwithdomesticfunctionandmilitaryrequirementsinmind, hence they would appear to be a jumble of buildings set around acourtyard surrounded by crenellated walls, a moat, and accessed through animposinggatehouse.Eventhoughdefensivefeatureswouldhardlyeverbetestedintherelativelypeacefulcountiesawayfromtheturbulentborderregions,theywereusedbytheownersasstatementsofpowerandwealth;someevenmaking

theirhousesintheformofcastlesandnamingthemthus.

FIG1.2:STOKESAYCASTLE,SHROPSHIRE:ThismanorhouseclosetotheWelshborderhaddefensivefeatureslikeatower(right)butlateradditions,aswiththe14th-centuryhall(centre),weremorefocusedonluxuryandstatus.

FIG1.3:Medievalframing,withitsdistinctivelargepanelsandthicker,irregulartimbers(left),wasreplacedduringthe15thcenturybyclose-studding(centre)mainlyinthesouthandeastofthecountry,andsmallsquare-framingintheMidlandsandthenorth;thefinestwithdecorativepiecesinsertedtoformelaboratepatterns(rightandFig1.1).

The buildingswere generally vernacular, that is theywere built using localmaterials and craftsmen. Only the wealthiest aristocrats, the Crown and theChurchwouldimportstoneoruseanotablemasonorcarpenterfromoutsidetheregion.Mostwouldhaveconstructedthemainpartsofthehouseusingmethodspassed down through the generations; with the only concession to fashion

appearinginthedetailing,liketheshapeofawindowanddoor,orthestyleofthe timber-framing. Stone from small quarriesworked for just the one projecttendstobefoundinhighlandareasofthenorth,thewestandthelimestonebeltof centralEngland,with timber specially reserved for the lord fromwithinhismanorbeingusedinmostotherregions.AlthoughtheRomansintroducedbricktotheseshores,aftertheydeparteditwasnotusedagainuntiltheLateMedievalperiod, when it became a fashionable material for the finest buildings in theeasterncounties.

TheLayoutofHousesTheplanofthemainpartsofthehousewasinfluencedbythemoveawayfromopen communal living towards more privacy for the lord and his family, aprogressive change which was not complete until the 18th century. The openhall,withascatteringoflesserbuildingswhichwascommoninthe13thcentury,hadevolvedbythe16thintoamainhousecomposedofanumberofrooms,withservicebuildingsand lodgingsphysicallyattached to it.The increasing sizeofthehouseholdalsodemandedmore rooms,with theseniorservantsof the lordoftenreceivingtheirownprivatelodgings.Inmanyopensiteswheretherewerenoexistingmilitarystructures,themainbuildingwhichwasusuallyanopenhallwithprivateroomsatoneend(thesolar)andserviceroomsat theotherwouldstandononesideofthemaincourtyardfacingthegatehouse.Achapeland,insomecases,furtherprivatechambers,wouldrunalongthesidenearestthelord’sendof thehall,withguest andhouseholdaccommodation, abrewhouse (beerwasaneverydaydrink,evenconsumedatbreakfast),stablesandafree-standingkitchen(duetothefireriskitposed)makinguptherestofthecomplex.

FIG1.4.HAMPTONCOURT,SURREY:Amedievalcountryhousecomplexwasusuallysetaroundacourtyard,withanimposinggatehouseacrosstheentrance,asinthispalatialroyalbuildingwithanorielwindowandcoatofarmsabovethedoorway.

ExteriorDetails

FIG1.5:Mostwindowsweresimpleandsquare-headed,withverticalsupportscalledmullionsandintallerversionswithahorizontalbarcalledatransom.Importantroomsliketheendofthehall,however,wherethelordofthemanorsat(thedais),requiredsomethingmoredramaticandwindowswithtracery(mirroringthestylesonchurches)weresometimesfitted.Thedesignofthesevariedthroughtheperiodasshownwiththeseexamplesandcanhelpdatethefeature.Originallymostwindowswereopentotheelements(thewordisderivedfromtheSaxon‘windeye’andtheirprimarypurposewasoriginallyventilation),withonlywoodenshutters,animalhideoroiledclothcurtainstoclosethemoff.Glasswasaluxuryitemwhichonlybecamecommoninthefinesthousesfromthe15thcenturyandwasofsuchvaluethatthewholewindowframewasoftentakenwiththeownersastheymovedbetweenproperties,untilthelate16thcenturywhenthewindowsbecameafixedpartofthehousebylaw.

FIG1.6:Oneplacewhereglass,oftendecoratedwithheraldicsymbols,couldbeusedtofulleffectwasinanorielorabaywindow.Theorielbythe16thcenturyusuallyreferstoaprojectingwindowfromanupperstoreyalthough,earlier,theword‘oriole’wasappliedtoporches,staircasesandaprotrusionintoanoratory(fromwhichthewordorielprobablyevolved).Abaywindowisonewhichrestsonthegroundandrunsupmorethanonestoreyofthehouse,althoughyousometimesfindthiskindofwindowstillreferredtoasanoriel.Theyweremoststrikinglyfeaturedatthedaisendofthehall,oftenreplacingatraceryopeningasthefashionablewindowforthispositionduringthe15thcentury.Notonlydidtheyallowmorelightinthanaconventionalopeningpermittedbutalsoallowedthoseinthehalltopeekoutandseewhowasatthedoor!

FIG1.7:Importantentranceswouldhavehadastone-ortimber-carvedarch,inearlyexampleswithadistinctpoint,butasthecenturiesprogresseditbecameflatteruntil,bythe16thcentury,itappearsalmoststraight.Thetopcorners(spandrels)wereoftenfilledwithdecorativecarvingandheraldicshields,asinthisexamplefromComptonWynyates,Warwickshire,whilethemouldingalongthetopcontinueddownthesides(thejambs)finishingshortofthebottominapatternedpiececalledastop.Awayfromthemainentrances,doorframeswereusuallypartofthestructureofthewallandhadthedoorclosingontothebackofthemandnotinsetwithin.Thedoorsthemselveswerecomposedofjustafewverticalplanksoftenofirregularwidthheldtogetherbyhorizontalbattensacrosstheback(oneswithnumerousregulartimbersareoftenlaterreplacements).Thissimpleplankandbattendoorcouldbeenhancedwithdecorativemetalstraphinges,thenailswhichheldittogetherformedintopatterns,oradditionalpiecesoftimberaddedtocreateadesignortogivethedoorextrastrength.

FIG1.8:BUTTRESSES:Theproblemwhichfacedmasonswasthataslopingroofpushesthewallsbelowitoutwards.Tocounterthis,buttresseswereplacedalongthesideofthebuildinginlinewiththerooftrusses(thetriangulararrangementofbeamswhichsupportit).Thesegrewdeeperthroughthisperiodand,asbuildersrealisedthattheywerecarryingmostoftheload,thewallscouldbemadethinnerandbepiercedbylargerwindowswithflatterarches.Intheaboveexamplethebuttressesalongthesideofthehall(top)lineupwiththemaintrussesinside(bottom),althoughthebuttressesarealateraddition.

FIG1.9:Thedramaticchangestothecountryhousewiththecreationofprivateapartmentsandroomsduringthe15thand16thcenturieswereonlypossibleinpartwiththeintroductionofthechimney(inthisperiodthewholefireplaceandstackwerecalledthechimney).Previously,smokefromthefireinthecentreofthehallescapedthroughalouvreopeningintheroofwhichmeanttherecouldbenofloorsabove.Despitetheuseofsmokehoodsandbayswhichsetthefireintoacornerorendoftheroom,itwasnotuntilthefireplacewaspositionedagainstorwithinasidewallthatadditionalchamberscouldbefittedabove.Assmokefromthesewouldbeemittedatthelowestpartoftheroof,achimneywasneededtoextendjustabovetheridgetocreateadraw.Thesechimneysbecameastatussymbol,withbanksoftall,decorated,polygonal-shapedbrickstacksbecomingadistinctivefeatureofTudorcountryhouses.(Somechimneyswereactuallyfalsetomakeitappeartheownerhadmorefireplacesthanhedid.)

FIG1.10:EXEMPLARHALLc.1400:OnourfirstvisittotheimaginaryExemplarHallthedateis1400and,afterpassingbylow,timber-framedcottagesandafewtwo-storeyhouses,youcometotheimposingcrenellatedwallssurroundingthismanorhouse.Asyouturninandpassunderthegatehouseyouenteracourtyardsurroundedbyanarrayofbuildings,withhouseholdstaffbusycrossingbetweenthem.Theoldhallisinfrontofyou,recognisablebyitslargewindowandlouvreintheroof,whilebehinditisthekitchen,whichisseparatefromthemainbuildingduetoitsinflammablenature.Theimpressionisofascatteredrangeofbuildings,withtheeyedrawntothedecorativeincidentalpartsratherthanthewholecomposition.ThistypicalmedievalpicturehaddevelopedslowlythroughtheMiddleAgesbutinthe16thcenturythingsweretochangewithuncharacteristicspeed.Thenewaristocracywouldhavedifferentambitionsandmotivations,andwouldusethecountryhouseasanexpressionofthesenewdesiresandwealth.

CHAPTER2

WealthandtheHumanities

ElizabethanandJacobeanHouses1560–1660

FIG2.1:HARDWICKHALL,DERBYSHIRE:ThiswasdesignedbyRobertSmythson,themostfamousmastermasonintheElizabethanperiod.BuiltforBessofHardwickfrom1591–97,itwasradicallydifferentfromearlierhouseswithitssymmetricalfront,roofhiddenbehindaparapetandagreaterareaofglassthanwall.Thisoutwardlookingmansionwasbuilttoimpress,withtheowner’sinitialscrowningthedominanttowers(‘E.S.’standsforBess’sfullname,ElizabethShrewsbury).

While our aristocratic families were squabbling over the Crown during the15thcentury,farawayinItalyanewsystemofeducationbaseduponthestudy

oftheHumanities(grammar,rhetoric,history,poetryandmoralphilosophy)ledto a new appreciation of Classical Greek and Roman literature, art, andarchitecture,arebirthbetterknowntousas theRenaissance.Theeffectof thisupon16th-centuryEnglandwaslimited,mainlyduetothebreakfromRomeandCatholic Europe, which resulted from Henry VIII’s quest for a divorce fromCatherine of Aragon. Despite this cultural isolation, humanist teachingsinfluenced the upper classes with the new Renaissance gentleman beingexpectedtoknowLatinandGreek,tohavereadthescripturesandclassics,andto be able to write poetry; while humanist ideals made the acquisition anddisplayofpersonalwealthmoreacceptable.Aftergenerationsofwarfareandplague,thelate16thcenturymarksanupturn

infortunesandnomoresothanforthegentry.Manyaristocratsgainedpositionsof power and influence at Court and increased theirwealth by better utilisingtheirestates,perhapsbyextractingmineraldepositsorenclosingfields,whileallbenefitedfromincreasingrentsandfoodprices.ManygainednewestatesaftertheDissolutionoftheMonasteriesinthelate1530salthoughitwasnotuntiltherelative peace and prosperity under Elizabeth I that the new owners finallyknockeddown the oldmonastic buildings and erected dazzling newhouses intheir place. The ranks of the upper classeswere also being swelled by a newclass of lesser gentry, courtiers, merchants, and lawyers, who with a goodeducationandbyseizingopportunitieshadrisentohighoffice.Thecoming to the throne in1603ofJames I saw theendofhostilitieswith

SpainandmadeEuropeaccessibleonceagain,so thatRenaissanceideascouldflowmorefreelyfromtheContinent.During thisJacobeanage(fromJacobus,theLatin for ‘James’) therewere exponents ofClassical architecture but theirinfluenceonthecountryhousewasnot toblossomuntilafter thedisruptionofthe Civil War and the Commonwealth. In this period it is the aristocrat orgentleman, armedwith an architectural patternbook from theContinent and amastermason,whowerethebuildersofcountryhouses.

TheStyleofHousesThe first significant change with the new country houses of the Elizabethanperiodwas that they started to look outwards.Althoughmanywere still builtaround a courtyard, they now had a front designed to impress and onewhichwoulddemonstrate theowner’sgoodtasteandwealth.Thesenewhouseswerealsosymmetrical,aRenaissancepracticederivedfromtheAncients’beliefthatas theGodshadmadeus in the imageof themselvesso theproportionsof thehumanbodywerethereforedivine,andthisincludedthefactthatwe,ashumans,

aresymmetrical.AlthoughEnglishbuildersappliedthisruleandusednumerousclassicalmotifs, they clumsily stacked columns and pedimentswithout havingan understanding of the true nature of the rules of proportion and geometrywhichwerebeingusedbydesignersinItaly.

FIG2.2:BURGHLEYHOUSE,LINCOLNSHIRE:Althoughitappearsasasolidmass,thishugeprodigyhousebuiltforWilliamCecilover30yearsuptothe1580sisactuallyasquarering,setaroundacentralcourtyard.Numerouswindows,prominentdisplaysofchimneys,andogee-shapedcappedtowersaretypicalElizabethanfeatures.

Anotherdistinctionofthisperiodistheobsessionwithglass.Nowthatitwasmore readily available, the country house builder would seemingly use it atevery opportunity. The solid mass of medieval walls was replaced byshimmering façades of tall windows. Brick, which was becoming morewidespreadacross the south, east and theMidlands,was still a luxuryproductand often featured diamond patterns formed of a different colour. Anotherdistinct featureofElizabethanandJacobeanwallswas theuseofacontinuousentablatureorstringmoulding,aprojectinghorizontaltrimwhichranallaroundthehouseatthevariousfloorlevels.

FIG2.3:WOLLATONHALL,NOTTINGHAM:Thisprodigyhouse,designedbyRobertSmythson,hasaraisedcentralsectionwithroundcornerturretsstandingabovethehallandcreatesanoutlineresemblingacastle.

ProdigyHousesTherewasnoonedominantstyleinthisperiod.Manylordsbuilttimber-framedstructureswhichwerestillvernacularbutnowhadawealthofglassandafewtokenclassicaldetails.However,someofthewealthiestandmorecosmopolitanintroduced imposing new symmetrical houses in stone and brick. These stillresembledcastles,havingcornertowersandgatehouses,butnowtheyhadlarge,vertical,glazedwindows,carvedclassicalfeaturesanddecorativeparapets,withstrapworkpatternsorlettering.Theselargecountryhouses,usuallyerectedwithavisitfromthemonarchinmind,havebeenchristenedProdigyHouses.ContactswithourProtestantalliesintheLowCountrieshadalreadyseenthe

import of details like Dutch gables but in the early 17th century as therestrictionsontravel to theContinentwerereceding,Renaissanceideasflowedmorefreely.BythisstagethearchitectsinEuropehadlongbecomeboredbythelimitationsofthestrictClassicalrulesandhadstartedbendingthem.Thismoreplayfulstyle, labelledasArtisanMannerisminEngland,startedtobearfruit inthe reign of Charles I, only for the CivilWar to cut it short. The first greatEnglish architect, Inigo Jones, set to work during this Jacobean period butdespite his ground-breaking understanding of the principals of Classicalarchitecture, the limited purse strings of themonarchymeant fewof his plansevermadeitpastthedrawingboard.InigoJones’sgeniuswouldhavetowaitahundredyearsbeforeinfluencingourcountryhouses.

FIG2.4:Someownersjustupdatedtheirearlierhouse(left)byaddingnewwings(A),fittingaporch(B)tobalancethebaywindow(C)andinsertingachamberabovethehall(D).However,whenbuildingfromscratch(right)thebuildercouldsitetheporchcentrally(E),withthehallinthiscasetotheleft(F),theserviceroomstotherightorrear(G)andanatticfloor(H)forextraaccommodation.

TheLayoutoftheHouseWell-educated Elizabethans loved to communicate in a secret language ofsymbolsandhiddenmeaningswhichcouldevenextendtotheplanofahouse.The E-shaped layout could have implied homage to Queen Elizabeth or toEmmanuel,whilethedesignerJohnThorpeevenplannedahouseintheshapeofhis own initials. Geometric shapes, especially circles, triangles and crosses,couldformthebasisofthelayout.Forinstance,thetriangularlodgeatRushtonin Northamptonshire represented the Trinity and symbolised the owner’sCatholic faith. In general, anE-orH-shaped planwas common in this period,formed fromwings at right angles to themain bodywhich increasingly had acentral porch, while the largest houses appear as a massive block but wereusuallyonlyonemainroomdeepandarrangedaroundacentralopenarea.Thechangeofroleofthecountryhousefromthecommunalcentreofamanor

to the private residence of a cultured noble can be seen in the layout of bothElizabethan and Jacobean houses. In earlier examples the hall dominated themainpartofthehousebutasitwasenteredfromoneend,themainentrancewassited off centre. As the appreciation of symmetry grew and the hall fell fromimportance, the room could be re-sited and a central porch positioned in themiddle of the façade. At Hardwick (Fig 2.1), for the first time, the hall wasturnedroundendontothefront,makingsymmetryeasierandthusitbecametheentranceroomwithwhichweassociateittoday.

FIG2.5:LONGLEATHOUSE,WILTSHIRE:Thiswasprobablytheclosestthat16th-centuryEnglandgottoaRenaissancehouse,withitsfaçadeamassofglass,aparapethidingtheroof(A)andahorizontalmouldingcalledastringcourse(B)and(C)runningaroundthehouseateachfloorlevel.

FIG2.6:BLICKLINGHALL,NORFOLK:Towerswithogee-shapedcaps,Dutchgables(thethreeinthemiddlesectioncomprisingquadrantsandcorners)and,ontheroof,awhitecupolawereallpopularfeaturesintheearly17thcentury.Thetallestwindowsmarkthestateapartmentswhichwerenowoftenraisedabovethegroundfloorasinthisexample.

With this move to privacy, an ever-increasing ensemble of rooms evolvedwhichcouldbespreadover threerather than twofloors. In largerhouses therecould be a series of state apartments on an upper floor for entertaining andimpressingimportantand,preferably,royalguests.Theseareusuallydiscerniblefrom theexteriorby the rowofhighestwindows.Therewould thenbe furtherprivateapartmentsforthefamily,whilethestaffstillateintheoldhalluntilasthisbecameanentrancearea in the17thcentury,aseparateservants’hallwasprovided.Thekitchencouldnowbefoundwithinthebodyofthebuildingsince

stone and brick fireplaces set within the wall had replaced open hearths forcookingand thus the fire riskwasgreatly reduced.A fashionableaccessory toany aspiring lord’s housewhich is almost exclusive to this period is the longgallery. This was a thin rectangular room which usually spanned the entirelength orwidth of the house,with a bank ofwindows on one or occasionallybothsides.

FIG2.7:Acut-awayviewofamodestcountryhousefromthisperiod,showingapopulararrangementwiththehallontheoppositesideoftheentrancefromtheservicerooms.Thelonggalleryrunsalongoneofthewingsthoughitcouldalsobefoundalongthelengthofthehouse,onthesecondorthirdfloors.

FIG2.8:HATFIELDHOUSE,HERTFORDSHIRE:ThereisadistinctRenaissancefeeltothecentralsectionofthesouthfrontofthisJacobeanhouse.Thearchedopeningsalongthegroundfloor(knownasaloggia),theClassicalcolumnsandpilasters,andtheDutchgablesareallfeaturescopiedfromhousesoftheperiodontheContinent.Thepairsofcolumnsupthesidesofthecentralporcharetypicalofthelate16thandearly17thcenturies.

ExteriorDetails

FIG2.9:Atypical16th/early17th-centurywindowfromacountryhouse.Thewindowswerealmostexclusivelysquareorrectangularframes,withanumberoffixedhorizontal(transoms)andverticalbars(mullions).Astherewasnotthetechnologyyettomakelargepiecesofglass,thewindowswerefilledwithsmallpanesheldinplacebyleadstripsinadiamondpatternwithmetalstanchionsupthecentreontheinsidetopreventdamage.

FIG2.10:Thechimneysinthisperiodtendedtohaveindividualstacksforeachfireplacebelowthem

joinedatthetop,andwereoftenfoundinrowslikethisexample.Brickandstonewereusedfortheirconstruction,oftenwithprominentbandslinkingthematthetop.Bythe17thcenturytheybegantobecomelessprominent.

FIG2.11:Thiscornertowerisacommonfeatureof16th-andearly17th-centuryhouses.Ofbrickconstruction,withstonecornerblocks(quoins)andacapinadistinctive‘S’profile(ogee).

FIG2.12:Thehumbleentrancetothemedievalhousewassupersededinthisperiodbyflamboyant,ifsometimesclumsy,porches.Theyarediscerniblebytheirheightandnarrowness,andbythestackedseriesofClassicalornamentsandcolumnswitharoundheadeddoorwaybelow.ThisexampleonthenorthfrontofLymePark,Cheshire,incorporatesallthesefeaturesalthoughthetopsectionwiththestatuewasaddedatalaterdate.

FIG2.13:Brickworkwitha‘diaper’patternmadefromdarkerbrickswhichwerevitrifiedbyoverburningortheadditionofsaltinthefiringstageoftheirconstruction.Bricksofthisperiodwereoftenhand-madeonsiteandwereusuallythinnerandlongerthanmodernmachine-madeexamples.Thepatternformedonthefaceofthewallbythedifferingarrangementsofbricksisknownasbondingand,inthisperiod,Englishbondwhichwasformedfromalternatelayersofheaders(theshortendofthebrick)andstretchers(thelongside)waspopular.

FIG2.14:Theparapetalongthetopofwallshidtherooffromviewandgavethebuildingamoreimposing,Classicalform.Inthisperiodmanywerepunctuatedwithinitials(asinthetopofthetowersatHardwickinFig2.1)or,asinthiscase,withactualwordsmadeoutofstone.

FIG2.15:Thispatternofswirlsandstraightsformedbyflatpiecesofmasonryslightlyraisedabovethesurroundingstonewallisknownasstrapwork.Itwaspopularbetween1580and1620,andcanbefounddecoratingbothexteriorandinteriorfeatures.

FIG2.16:EXEMPLARHALLc.1600:TwohundredyearshavepassedsincewelastvisitedExemplarHallandtherecentlordsofthemanorhavemademodestprogressandhaveembellishedtheirfamilyhomeratherthanrebuildingit.Theentranceismarkedbyanimpressivebrickgatehouse,withthecourtyardbeyondnowlinedwithnewlodgingsandservicebuildings.Asmallconcessiontosymmetryappearsonthefrontofthemainhallwhichhasalargebaywindowtotheleftandatallporchbalancingittotheright.Anewkitchenhasbeenbuiltontherightsideofthehouseandtheareaattherear,whereitpreviouslystood,hasnowbecomeagarden.

Modestcountryhouseslikethisforthegentrywerestillamateurattemptsatarchitecture,asometimesclumsymixoftraditionalEnglishforms,withthelatestinforeignClassicaldecoration.Fromthe1660sa

newbreedofaristocratandartisan,betteracquaintedwiththetheoryandstylesofEuropeanarchitecture,wastodesignnewformsofhouseswithbold,deepstructuresandcarefullyplannedlayoutswhichwouldnowbeemulatedbythelessergentry.

CHAPTER3

CommerceandScience

RestorationandWilliamandMaryHouses1660–1720

FIG3.1:BELTONHOUSE,LINCOLNSHIRE:Thislate17th-centuryhouseissimilartoClarendonHouseinLondon,byRogerPrattwhich,alongwithColeshillinBerkshire,influencedthedesignofnumerouscountryhousesinthisperiod.Beltonwasbuiltrapidlybetween1684and1687.Surprisingly,itsmentorClarendonHouseonlylastedseventeenyears,beingdemolishedtheyearbeforeBeltonwasstarted.

Religious and constitutional differences erupted into civil war in 1642 and,after the subsequent Parliamentary victory, a large number of aristocrats andgentry lay dead or had fled abroad to France and the Low Countries, only

returningfromexilewhen theMonarchywasrestored in1660.ThepopulationwelcomedCharlesIIbutParliamentwasmorecautiousandlimitedhispowersandpurse strings,hencehe reliedon theFrenchKingLouisXIV for financialsupport.InaperiodofreligioustensionswiththePuritansatoneendofthespectrum

andthePapists(RomanCatholics)attheother,Charlestrodacarefuldiplomaticline, only revealing his true faith on his deathbed. Although he had kept hisCatholic leanings secret, his brother James IIwho succeeded him in 1685 didnot,andthebirthofJames’ssonwasoneofthetriggerswhichinspiredagroupoflordstoinvitetheProtestantWilliamofOrange,thehusbandofCharlesII’sdaughterMary, to invade and claim the throne. The subsequent constitutionalchangesknownastheGloriousRevolutionincreasedparliamentarypowersandgave thearistocracysupremacyover themonarch.Asa result, theygained theopportunity to further their wealth, especially with perks from their newpositionsofoffice.With itsnewpowers,Parliamenthad regular sittings ratherthanjustbeingrecalledbythemonarchwhenmoneywasneeded.Thus,asocialseason developedwhen the gentry and their entourage invadedLondon,manyleaving their country houses during the winter to rent new fashionable urbanproperties. Some aristocrats, however, went in the other direction, makingadditional incomebyputting tenants in theirLondonhomesandconcentratingefforts on developing their country estates now there was sufficient politicalstabilitytogivethemconfidencetobuildonalargescale.

FIG3.2:SUDBURYHALL,DERBYSHIRE:Ahouseprimarilyofthe1660sand70swhichlooks

backwardsasmuchasforward.Despitethefashionablefeaturesonthissouthfrontlikethecupola,parapet,dormerwindowsandplainrectangularchimneys,ithasbythistimeoutdateddetailslikediaper-patternedbrickworkandJacobean-stylemullionedwindows.Thismaybeduetothetastesoftheowner,GeorgeVernon,who,likesomeatthetime,stillactedashisownarchitect.

This was also the period of commercial revolution and many of the upperclassesgrewrichonforeignenterprise.Sciencealsoblossomed,heightenedbyadesiretounderstandandcontrolNatureinthefaceofwhatmanybelievedwastheimpending‘endoftheworld’.Thegulfbetweentheculturedgentleman,withhisnewscientificlearning,andhisilliteratehouseholdstaff,stillinfluencedbymedievalsuperstitions,widenedfurther.Thebuildingofthehousewithinwhichtheyall residedwasstill likely tobe theprojectof theowner,butnowhewasaided by an architect, not necessarily a full-time professional but an educatedgentleman who may have studied the fashionable building styles on theContinentandgraspedtheprinciplesofClassicalarchitecture.Theywererarelyeducated in this art. John Vanbrugh, for instance, had been a captain in theMarines,whileChristopherWrenpractisedanatomy,yetthesemenofingenuityreplacedmasonsandcarpentersasthedesignersofcountryhouses.

TheStyleofHouseThereturningmonarchandhiscourtin1660broughtwiththemfromFranceandtheLowCountries, a taste for the latest inClassical architecture, newdesignswhichdominated thisperiod such that fewgentlemenwouldconsiderbuildingtheirmanor houses in a vernacular style.Themost distinctive type of countryhouseinthisperiodevolvedfromtheworkofInigoJones,whatlittletherewas,fromColeshillinBerkshire,builtintheearly1650sbySirRogerPratt(butnowdemolished), and from theDutchPalladian-styleofhouseswhichwas seenbythose exiled in Holland. These had a plain façade with quoins (raised cornerstones), two rows of tall but roughly equal-sized windows and a deepoverhangingwhitecornice.Abovethiswasaprominenthippedroof,brokenupbylinesofdormerwindows,stoutrectangularchimneys,andoftencrownedbyacupola(seeFig3.3).

BaroqueMany architectural styles have their name coined by the next generation ofdesigners as an insult to what they regard as an outdated or inappropriatefashion. In this case, later critics labelled the largestbuildingsof the late17thand early 18th centuries with their fanciful shapes, opulent decoration andirregularskyline,Baroque,aftertheFrenchwordbarocco,meaning‘amisshapedpearl’. This style had its origins in the 16th-century reforms of the Catholic

ChurchinreactiontothethreatfromProtestantisminwhichanewformofartevolved which was designed to stupefy and impress upon the viewer theeverlasting andunchangingnature ofHeaven.Agood example of this changecan be seen in portraits: from the rather flat Elizabethan gentleman standinguprightwithhishandonhip,toVanDyke’sportraitofCharlesIonhisbuckinghorse produced only a few decades later, a new dynamic visualisation full ofmovementwith sweepingvistas and flying angels.This changewould also bemirrored in architecture asmanyaristocrats turned toFrance for inspiration increatingadramatic,grandandimposingstyleofcountryhouse.

FIG3.3:UPPARK,SUSSEX.ThefaçadeofthisDutch-stylehouseiscappedbyahippedroof(A),withplainrectangularchimneys(B),anddormerwindows(C),apediment(D)andadeepcornice(E).Thelowerofthetworowsoftallwindows(F)areslightlyhigher,indicatingthatthisfloorcontainstheprincipalroomswhilethehalf-heightwindowsbelow(G)illuminatethebasement.

FIG3.4:CASTLEHOWARD,YORKSHIRE:Thedome(A)andstatuesalongtheparapet(B),alongwiththevariationinheight,makeadramaticskylinetothisfamousBaroquehouse.Themainbodyofthebuildinginthecentreisflankedbytwoseparatewings(C)fortheserviceroomsand(D)originallydesignedasstablesbutbuiltforaccommodationthirtyyearslater.

The houses built in this style from the late 1600s likeBlenheim andCastleHowardweremonumentalinscale,withfaçadeswhichsteporcurveinandout,andaskylineofpinnaclesandtowerswhichowesasmuchtothemedievalcastleastoContinentalsources.OtherhousesofthisbriefEnglishBaroqueperiodmayhave been, like Chatsworth, a piecemeal reconstruction, or just a re-facedexistingbuildingwhichineithercaselimitedtheshapeofthestructure.Itisinthedetailingofthefaçadewherethestyleshinesthrough.Entrancesflankedbyoversized blocks, tall windows some with rounded tops, heavy surrounds toopenings in thewall, and a stonebalustrade along the roof featuringClassicalurns or statues (hiding the now lower chimneys) are some of the popularfeatures.

FIG3.5:BLENHEIMPALACE,OXFORDSHIRE:ThecentralbodyofthismonumentalBaroquehousewasdesignedprimarilybyJohnVanbrugh.Notethetallwindows,nowwithglazingbarsratherthantransomsandmullions,thearchedheadstothoseonthetoprowandtheroundwindowsalongthebasement.Giantpilasters(columnsattachedtothewall)andthebusydecorationoftheportico(thepedimentsupportedoncolumnsacrosstheentrance)aretypicalofthisperiod.

TheLayoutoftheHouseThemajorchangeinthelayoutofcountryhousesaftertheRestorationwastheadoptionofadoublepileplan,thatis,onewhichistworoomsdeep.Bytheendofthisperiodithadalsobecameuniversaltohaveabasement.Theadvantageofthis being that as the social gulf between the gentry and their staff had nowwidened, itwasconvenient toplacetheengineroomof thehouseoutofsight,alongwithitssmellsandnoise.Thebasementalsohadastoneorbrickvaultedceilingtoreducethefireriskfromthekitchen.Astherewouldhavetobesomelight in these service rooms,a rowof lowwindowswas insertedwhichmeant

that theroomscouldnotbebuiltcompletelybelowground.In turn, thismeantthatthegroundfloorofthehousewasraised,thushavingthedesirableeffectofmaking the entrance, now up a row of exterior steps, more impressive to thevisitor. At the top of the house, attic floors were standard in the Dutch-stylehouses. With their massive sloping roofs, a row of small, wedged-shapedwindows called dormers stickingout of the tileswas the onlywayof lightingthese rooms. With accommodation now spread over four floors, the actualgroundplanofthehousecouldbecomemorecompact.Thearrangementoftheroomsalsochangesduringthe17thcentury.HouseslikeColeshillstillhadthestateapartmentsonthefirstfloorandtheywouldbeapproachedupanevermoreelaborate staircase, sometimes rising out of the hall itself, relegating it to itspresentroleofareceptionroom.Accesstotheroomsfromthestaircasescouldnowbeviacorridorsratherthanthroughroomsasinpreviousperiods.Aspinalonewhich ran the full length of the house sandwiched between the front andbackrowsofroomswascommon,reflectingthesymmetryoftheexterior.

FIG3.6:CHATSWORTHHOUSE,DERBYSHIRE:WilliamTalmandesignedthisnewBaroque-styledsouthfront(top)fortheDukeofDevonshirein1687,withitsdistinctivegiantpilastersandvasesalongtheparapet.Bythetimetheownercametorebuildthewestfront(bottom,)hehadfallenoutwithTalmanandthiswasprobablytheworkoftheDuke,aidedbyhismasons,withthecentralpedimentcontainingthecoatofarms,acommonfeatureatthistime(completedin1702).

InthelaterBaroquehousesitbecameusualtohavethestateapartmentsonthe

groundfloorso thegrandstaircase in thehallwasno longer required. Instead,the guestswalked directly through to the saloon behind and, fromhere, couldturnleftorrighttoaccesstheluxuriouswithdrawingroomsandbedchambers.Itbecame fashionable tohave these rooms laidout one after theother along therearof thehouse,with thedoorways all in line, an arrangementknownas theenfilade, the length of which in this period of processions and ceremoniesbecame something of a status symbol. The larger Baroque houses furtheremphasisedtheirmonumentalscalebyhavingseparatecourtyardstothesideofthecentralhouseor flanking theentrancearea.Onewouldusuallycontain theserviceroomslikethekitchen,separatedfromthediningroomtoreducethefirerisk and the odours and noise, with the other courtyard usually housing thestablesandcoachhouses.

FIG3.7:Acut-awayviewofanimaginaryRestorationhousewhichstillhasthestateapartmentsonthefirstfloor,thefamilyroomsonthegroundandtheserviceroomsinthebasement.

FIG3.8:Anexampleofanenfilade.NotethatinthisBaroquehousetheprincipalroomsareonthegroundfloorsothatahugestaircaseinthehallisnolongerrequired.Discreetlypositionedstairsleaduptothefamily’sprivaterooms.

ExteriorDetails

FIG3.9:Square-headeddoorsandwindowscouldbecappedwithasegmentalarch(left)oratriangular

pedimentrestinguponscrolledbrackets,withtheseoptionsoftenalternatedalongafaçadeoronthedormerwindowsintheroof.Baroquehouseswouldhavemoreimposingdoorwayswith,inthiscase,thepedimentbrokenbyahugekeystone.Thehorizontalgroovescutintothesidepillarsareastyleofdecorationknownasrustication;afavouritedecorationofthearchitectJohnVanbrugh.

FIG3.10:AselectionofarchedandroundwindowsfromBaroquehouses.

FIG3.11:Fromthe1680s,sashwindowsappearforthefirsttimeandquicklybecomepopular.Itishazardoustotryanddateacountryhousefromthestyleofwindowastheywerefrequentlychangedata

laterdatebut,ingeneral,theoldersashwindowshavethickerglazingbarsandframes,withmorenumerouslights(theindividualopeningbetweentheglazingbars).

FIG3.12:AcommonfeatureonDutch-styledhouseswasadeepoverhangingcornicewithcarvedbracketsandmoulding.Abovethis,arowofdormerwindows,withalternatetriangularandarchedpediments,waspopular.

FIG3.13:AsectionofparapetwhichcrownedthetopofthisBaroquehousehelpedtohidetheroofandchimneys.Thevasesstandingontop,whichcouldhaveequallybeenstatues,gavethehouseadistinctiveskyline.

FIG3.14:Classicalscrollsandswagsofflowersandfruitwereapopularformofdecorationinsideandoutduringthelate17thandearly18thcenturies.

FIG3.15:Astonecupolamountedasacentralfeatureontheroofandgrantingtheownerandhisguestsviewsoverhissurroundingparkland.Thesewereusuallydomed,oftenwithbalustradesaroundtheedgeoftheflatroofonwhichtheystoodandwereverypopularinthesecondhalfofthe17thcentury.Unfortunately,manywerelaterremovedalongwiththebalustradeswhenahousewasrestyled.

FIG3.16:EXEMPLARHALLc.1700:OverthepastcenturytheramblingcollectionofmedievalbuildingshasbeensweptasidetomakewayforanewsymmetricalDutch-stylehouse,withonlytheold

chapelandthewallbetweenitandthechurchretained.Totherightthesitehasexpandedoutintowhatwerepreviouslyfieldsandanewstablecourtyardwithanarchedentrancehasbeenerected.Behindthehousethegardenhasbeenterracedandthemainestatefarmhasbeenmaskedoffbytreesandlandscapingasthelordofthemanorbeganseparatinghimselffromthevillagebothsociallyandphysically.Yetwithinageneration,thisflamboyantstyleofbuildingwouldseemoutdatedandinappropriateandinturnwouldbereplacedbynew,strictformsofClassicismandascaleofcountryhousewhichwouldresultingreatupheavalstothecommunitiesandlandscapearoundthem.

CHAPTER4

LibertyandSensibility

GeorgianHouses1720–1800

FIG4.1:LYMEPARK,CHESHIRE:ThesouthfrontofthisTudormansionwasdesignedinthe1720sbyGiacomoLeoniinthenewPalladianstyle,withrusticatedmasonryalongthelowersection,tallwindowsonthefirstfloorilluminatingthepianonobile,andaporticointhecentrecappedoffbyaplaintriangularpediment.Thepilasters,though,couldhavebeenfoundonBaroquehouses.

ThosewhohadsupportedtheexclusionofJamesIIfromtheCrownandhadwelcomed the subsequentGloriousRevolution in 1688 had risen in power. In1715,aftertheaccessiontothethroneofGeorgeI,theyremovedgreatswathes

of the old landed gentry from high office. These Whigs (from the wordWhiggamore,a termforScottishCovenanterswhohadalsoopposedJames II)were to dominate the developing political map during the 18th century,excludingtheTories(fromthewordtoriadhe,whichwasIrishforanoutlaw,aninsultaimedatsupportersofJamesII)fromofficeuntiltheaccessionofGeorgeIII. Itwas these aristocrats in highoffice rather than the reclusiveHanoverianmonarchswhoweretheculturalleadersoftheirday.TheWhigsunderRobertWalpole,thefirstso-calledPrimeMinister,claimed

tobechampionsofcommerceandinvestment,fightingforlibertyasopposedtotyrannical rule. They imagined themselves as senators in Imperial Rome,completewith toga andolive crown, rather than just countrygentlemen.Theysent their sons off on grand tours of Italywhere they not only soaked up thewondersofAncientRomebutalsobroughtcartloadsofitbackwiththem,oftenone of the reasons for the family country house being extended. The 18th-century aristocrat thus developed from a collector of curiosities into an artconnoisseur,amassingbooksandprintsratherthandisplaysofarms.Hejoinedsocietiesdevotedperhapstoancientarchitectureorarchaeology,andopenedhismind to emotions andan appreciationof thebeauty anddrama tobe found innature.Inotherwordsitbecameacceptabletobeabitofasensitivechap.This lifestyle did not come cheap, and these gentlemenwould benefit from

some understanding of developments in science, industry and agriculture toincrease their incomes, especially from their country estateswhich, formany,were their main financial source. Improvement was the order of the day andenclosureofthefieldsontheirlandwasoneofthemostcontroversialandstillvisiblemarksthatitmade.Thenewhousestheybuiltandtheolderoneswhichwere extendedwere only possible because of their growingwealth and status.TheoldTorysquiresandrepressedCatholicfamilies,however,deprivedoftheincomeswhich camewith holdingoffice, oftenhad tomakedowith their oldcompactTudorandJacobeanpiles.Inthesecondhalfofthe18thcentury,withthedefeatofFrancein1763and

Londonnowthechieffinancialcentre,thereweremanycommercialgainstobemade. Aristocratic sons set off for adventure on the high seas, took up postsabroad, developed quarries, mines and factories and established tradingcompanies, returningwith greatwealth to enhance their family’s estates. Thisperiodof rapiddevelopmentwashaltedby theFrenchRevolutionof1793andthesubsequentwarwithNapoleonas,forthefirsttime,aristocraticfamiliesandthe ruling classes felt insecure. Suddenly, liberty and sensibility with theirFrenchassociationsseemedinappropriate.

TheStyleofHousesThisera isdominatedbyClassicalarchitecturewhichby theendof theperiodwas being manipulated by professional rather than amateur architects. Fewhouseswerebuiltinanyotherstyleuntilthelastdecadesofthecentury,andtheAncients’ rules of proportion and architectural orders even filtered down toterracedhouses.To the refinedGeorgian aristocrat, good tastewasofprimaryimportance, and his country housewould reflect this in its reserved and strictadherence to theseClassical rulesandorders.Only later in theperiodwould itbecomeacceptableagaintobendtherulesasBaroquearchitectshadpreviouslydone.

FIG4.2:CHISWICKHOUSE,LONDON:ThisstartlingvillawasdesignedbytheEarlofBurlingtonfrom1723–29.HepromotedthearchitectureofPalladioanditslaterinterpretationbyInigoJonesandstatuesofthetwomenstandatthebaseofthestairs(justoutofview).Theplanofthehouseissquarewithasymmetricallayoutofrooms,aestheticallypleasingbutnotsopracticalforeverydayuse.

PalladianIntheopeningyearsofthereignofGeorgeI,adramaticallynewstyleofhousestartedtoappearacrossthecountry,onewhichwasprincipallyusedby,andhassincebeenassociatedwith,thenewWhigaristocrats.Thisstylewaschampionedby two men: Colen Campbell and Lord Burlington, who were determined toremove the flamboyant excesses of the Baroque and return to pure Classicalarchitecture as determined by the Roman Vitruvius and the later Renaissancearchitects. They helped rediscover the drawings and work of Inigo Jones andchampionedtheplansofthelate16th-centuryItalianarchitectAndraesPalladio,afterwhomthisnewPalladianstylewasnamed.

ThefirstinfluentialbuildinginthisnewstylewasWansteadHouse,London,(demolished1824)byColenCampbell.ItintroducedthecharacteristicPalladianfaçade,witharusticatedmasonrybase(stoneworkwithdeepgroovesor roughsurface)belowthefirstfloororpianonobile,whichhousedthestateapartmentsandwasidentifiedbyalonglineoftallrectangularwindowswithsmalleronesabove.Ashallowpitched roofeitheroverhangingwithadecorativecorniceorhiddenbehindaplainparapetfinishedthetopofthewall,whilechimneys,nowthatmosthouseshad them,becamenothing toshowoff sowere lowandkeptout of view. Most significant was the portico, a huge triangular pedimentsupported on columns, which acted as an enormous storm porchmarking themainentrancetothehousewhichwasreachedupagrandstaircasefrombelow.Gonewere the flowing,undulating linesof theBaroquemansions;now,plain,refined horizontal blockswith temple-like centre pieceswere the order of theday for the gentleman of taste. Their beauty lay in the strict adherence to therulesofproportion,withdecorationlimitedtocarvingsalongthecorniceandthetop of the columns. Palladio had also developed other designs which provedpopular–asquareplanwithporticosononeorallfoursidesandacentraldomeabove as used at Chiswick House – while a main rectangular block withindividual wings linked by a colonnade or corridor inspired buildings likeKedlestonHallinDerbyshire.

FIG4.3:HOLKHAMHALL,NORFOLK:RatherthantheBaroquepracticeofmassingblocksandcurvesuptoacrescendointhemiddle,thelargePalladianhouseiscomposedofseparate,symmetricalsections.Themainhouse(A)withalargeporticointhemiddleandatowerateachendissimilartoWiltonHouseinWiltshire,designedbyInigoJonesnearly100yearsbefore.Thewings(B)ateachendarelinkedtothemainhouse,inthiscase,byenclosedcorridors(C).

FIG4.4:KEDLESTONHALL,DERBYSHIRE:Themainbodyofthenorthfront,withitsdistinctivePalladianfeaturesofaprominentportico(D)uponabasebrokenbyarchesandwithstairs(E)eitherside,arusticatedmasonrybase(F)andtallfirstfloorwindows(G)markingthepianonobile.Furtherroomsabovearedistinguishedbyarowofsquarewindows(H)whilethetopisfinishedoffwithacornice(I),oneofthefewareasofdecorationontheseotherwiseplainfronts.

NeoClassicalHousesThenewgenerationof architectswhoappeared in themid18thcentury foundstrictadherencetoPalladio’spatternbooktoolimiting.Theywantedtobemoreimaginative and creative so they began to look at other periods of history forinspiration,helpedalongbynewarchaeologicaldiscoveries.Untilnow,houseswere based on Renaissance interpretations or simply on guesses as to what aRomanhousewouldhave looked like.For instance,Palladio thought that theyallhadaporticoon the front, soCampbellandhis followers in theirquest forhistoric accuracy stuck them on every building. It was only as the societies,whichthesearchitectsandtheirpatronshelpedestablish,fundedexcavationsinplaceslikePompeiithatitbecameclearthat,infact,Romanhousesdidnothaveporticos on the front. The new architects increasingly by-passed Palladio’sworksandwentstraighttothesenewarchaeologicalsourcesfortheirinspiration.At thesametimeNicholasRevettandJamesStuartproducedthefirstaccuratedrawingsofAncientGreekbuildingsinAthensandalthoughthelimitedrangeofGreek forms did not immediately appeal to architects craving greater variety,theydidaddGreekordersanddetailingtotheirincreasingarchitecturalpalette.Thecountryhouseswhichusedthesenewly-discoveredRomanandGreekforms

fromthe1760sonwardsarelabelledNeo(New)Classical.

FIG4.5:KEDLESTONHALL,DERBYSHIRE:ThesouthfrontwascompletedsomeyearsafterthenorthbyRobertAdaminaNeoClassicalstyle.Althoughthesidesmirrortheearlierwork,thecentrepieceisbasedonanactualRomantriumphalarchratherthanuponPalladio’sdesigns.ItfeaturesAdam’sdistinctiveshallowanddelicatedecorativedetails.

AnotherdifferencebetweenNeoClassicalhousesandthepreviousPalladianbuildings is a return to the more playful use of Ancient architecture. RobertAdams,themostprolificcountryhousearchitectofthisperiod,believedthattheRomansthemselveshadbenttherules.Hesetaboutaddingasenseofmovementand space to his façades although he despised theBaroque use of flamboyantdecoration to hide the function of the building. Features to look out for arecurved bay windows, flat domes, columns standing proud of the front andshallowarchedrecesses.Stonewasthemust-havematerialforthesenewhouses(oftenonlyathincladding)andwhenitwasn’tavailable,brick,whichhadstillbeenacceptableinPalladianhouses,wascoveredinstucco,asmoothrenderedfinish,groovedandcolouredtoappearlikestone.

TheLayoutofHousesThroughout the 18th century there was an increased demand for space asaristocrats opened their doors to a wider range of guests, rather than justexclusivedignitaries, andhostednumerousparties.They alsohad to house alltheartworkstheywerebringingbackfromtheContinentandinstallalibrarytostoretheircollectionofbooks,aswellassettingasidemorespecialistareasforthe production and preparation of food. This wider range of rooms, however,was restricted in size and layout by theClassical orders and symmetry of thefaçades, while the interior spaces were also controlled by the desire to maketheminthecorrectproportions.

FIG4.6:SHUGBOROUGHHALL,STAFFORDSHIRE:ANeoClassicalfaçadebutwithevidenceoftwopreviousstylesshowingthrough.Thethree-storeymainblockwasbuiltinthe1690s,ontowhichwingswereaddedeithersideinaPalladianstylesome50yearslater.SamuelWyattredesigneditinthe1790s,addingthelarge,flat-toppedporticoandabalustraderunningatthesamelevelalongthefaçade.ThisemphasisedthehorizontallineswhichwereakeycomponentofaClassicalhouseandheldtogetherthevariouselementsfromwhichthefrontwascomposed.

FIG4.7:TATTONPARK,CHESHIRE:ThismansionwasrebuiltinstagesbySamuelandLewisWyattfrom1780–1813intheNeoClassicalstyle.Therecessedshallowarchesabovetheouterwindows,theswagmotifsinthecentreandthelackofdecorationaroundthewindowsaretypicalfeaturesofahouseofthisdate.

FIG4.8:Fourplansof18th-centurycountryhouses,withtheshadedareasshowingthepossiblepositionoftheservicerooms:(A)hastwowingsinlinewiththefrontofthehouse,while(B)hasthepopularlayoutforthelargerhousewithfourlinkedpavilions;(C)hastheserviceroomsinaseparatebuildingwhichcouldbelinkedbyapassageorevenatunnel;whilein(D)acourtyardtothenorthofthehouseallowsthesuntoshineontheotherthreefacesofthemorecompactcountryhousewhiletheworkingareaiscool.

FIG4.9:AplanofacompactcountryhousefromthelateGeorgianperiod,withaseparatecourtyardcontainingtheservicerooms.Thisareaoftenincorporatesolderpartsofthebuildingormasksanearlierfrontofthemainhouse.

FIG4.10:Acut-awayviewofaPalladianhouse.Thehall,withasaloonbehindit,formstheaxisofthehousewith,asnearaspossible,asymmetricalarrangementofroomsoffeitherside.Abovethesestateapartmentscouldbefoundbedchambersalthoughsomefurtherfamilyorguestroomsmightbelocatedinoneofthepavilionsofftotheside.Thekitchenisinoneofthesetoreducethefireandodourrisk,althoughsomestoreroomslikethecellarorbutler’spantrywouldremaininthebasementofthemainhouse.

Forthelargerhouseamainblockwiththeprincipalroomsonaraisedgroundfloorcouldhaveseparatepavilionsateachside,connectedbycorridorsor justanopencolonnadedpassage(arowofcolumns),withadditionalaccommodationinoneandserviceroomsintheother.Althoughthisimpressivedesignhadtheadvantageofkeepingtheodoursandnoisesfromthekitchenatbay,itwaslikelythatdinersinthemainhousewouldbereceivingtheirmealscold.Mostmediumandsmallercountryhouseswerestillbuiltasarectangularblock,someretainingthe17th-centuryhabitofsitingtheserviceroomsinthebasement;whileotherscreatedseparaterangesofbuildingsforthemsetbacktoonesideorformingacourtyardattherearofthehouse.Thesetendedtobeclosertothediningroomsotherewouldbesomeheatinthemealsbythetimetheyarrivedat thetable.However, thisunwelcomecarbunclegrowingoutofonesidewouldhavetobedisguisedbycarefullandscapingandplanting!ThesquareplanusedatChiswickHouse, London and Mereworth Castle, Kent was inflexible in its layout andcreateddifficultyinaccommodatingserviceroomsespeciallyifthehousewastobeviewedonallfoursides.Thus,thislimiteditspopularity.

ExteriorDetails

FIG4.11:AClassicalcolumn(intheCorinthianorder)listingthepartsfromwhichitiscomposed.Althoughthevariousordershaddifferingproportionsanddetailing,itisthestyleofthecapitalwhicheasilydistinguishesonefromanother.Theshaftcouldbeplainorfluted(verticalgroovesareshowninthisexample,)whilsttheTuscanorderwasalwaysplain.

FIG4.12:TheCorinthianorder(topleft)wasfirstusedbytheGreeksbutwasmorepopularwiththeRomansandhenceitappearsinEnglandfromthe16thcentury.TheIonicorderwithscrollswasusedbytheRomans(bottomright)andtheGreeks(middleleft)andagainappearsherefromthe16thcentury,whiletheCompositeorderincorporatesbothCorinthianandIonic.TheRomanDoricorder(topright)hadplainringsandwassimilartotheTuscanorder,whiletheGreekversion(middleright)hadashallowangledringdirectlyonaflutedcolumnandasthesewererecordedfromthemid18thcenturytheybecamedistinctiveofNeoClassicalhouses.

FIG4.13:Sashwindowswerealmostuniversalinthe18thcentury.Duringthisperiodtheyhaveincreasinglythinnerglazingbars,largerpanesofglass,andhavetheirouterframerecessedwithinand,bythelate18thcentury,hiddenbehindthewall.

FIG4.14:AclassiccompactPalladian-stylehouse(ontheChatsworthestate),withthedistinctivegableendwingsandarowofsquaresashesabovethemainfloors.ThetallarchedwindowsflankedbylowerrectangularonesinthewingsareVenetianandwereverypopularonPalladianandNeoClassicalhouses.

FIG4.15:Rusticatedmasonrycouldeitherbesmooth,withchamfered‘V’-shapedgrooves(A),vermiculatedwithcurvedchannels(B),orcyclopeanwhichisleftwitharoughhewnfinish(C)asifithadbeencutoutoftheveryrockthehousewasbuilton.

FIG4.16:RobertAdamisnotableasthefirstarchitecttoreallydesignthewholehousefromtheexteriordowntointeriordetails.Itformedadistinctstylewhichstillcarrieshisnametoday.Hisexteriorsaredistinguishedbyswags,ovalfeatures,roundmedallions,andGreekdecoration,withmostmouldingsshallowanddelicate.

FIG4.17:Manycountryhousesfromthemid18thcenturywereabitofashamwithstonecladdingasinthisexample,whereitwasusedtocoverupolderbrickworkorstucco(atypeofrender)beingusedtomakehousesappearmoreup-to-date.

FIG4.18:ThispavilionfromStoweHouse,Buckinghamshire,wasdesignedbyRobertAdamin1771.Itfeaturesshallowblankarcheswhichcancoveranumberofwindowsorevenacompletefront,anddecorativegarlandsandroundmedallionswhichwerecharacteristicofhousesinthelate18thcenturyandearly19thcentury.

FIG4.19:Apanelwithagarland;inthiscase,ofoakleaves,heldbyribbonstiedinabowandaswagwhichwasacommonNeoClassicalmotif.

FIG4.20:EXEMPLARHALLc.1800:TheownersofExemplarHallhavemadefewchangestothemainhouseotherthantogiveitaClassicalmakeover,fittingaporticoonthefrontandbuildinganewwingtotherighttoprovideextraaccommodation.Theyhavedramaticallychangeditssurroundings,however,withtheoldvillageclearedoutofthewaytoformanewlandscapedgardenandtheriverfloodedtomakeapicturesquelake.Onlytheoldparishchurchsurvivesand,asitholdsthefamilymemorials,ithasbeen

rebuiltinaClassicalstyle.

Thisperiodofintensebuildingandgardeningwastoslowdowninthelastdecadesofthe18thcenturyduetowar,firstlywithAmericaandthenFrance.Whenstabilityreturnedtherewerenewgentlemen,whohadgrownrichoncommercialandindustrialprofit,enteringtheranksofthearistocracy,whilethesearchforasuitablenationalstyleandinfluencesfromanexpandingempirecombinedtochangethefaceofthecountryhouseinitslastandmostgloriousperiodofdevelopment.

CHAPTER5

EmpireandIndustry

Regency,VictorianandEdwardianHouses1800–1914

FIG5.1:CAPESTHORNEHALL,CHESHIRE:Atfirstglancethebrickexteriorwithogee-shapedcapsuponsquaretowers,Dutchgables,andmullionedwindowslookslikeaJacobeanmansion.Itis,infact,ahouseof1719whichwasrebuiltin1837byEdwardBloreinapseudoJacobeanstyle.OftenitisonlyoncloseinspectionofdetailslikebrickworkandwindowsthattheseVictorianimitationscanbetoldapartfromtheoriginals.

The French Revolution and the subsequent war with France heralded in aperiod of change. In reaction to the threat from Napoleon, England became

severed fromEurope and became fiercely patriotic,with a number of countryhouses built like castles. Enlightened thoughts and sensibilities were quicklyreplacedbyhard commercial facts and industrial ingenuity, towhich even theoldlandedfamilieshadsuccumbedbythe1830s.Inadditiontotheincomefromagriculturalrentswhichhadsupportedtheneedsoftheirpredecessorscouldnowbeaddedprofitsfrommines,mills, factories(theseoftenbuilton theircountryestates),railways,canals,docksandshipping,investmentsinstocksandshares,andrentfromurbandevelopments.Despitethewealththeyamassed,itbecameincreasinglyeasytoloseitallashugesumswerespentonadaughter’sdowry,running election campaigns, maintaining a hunt, gambling (especially horseracing), entertaining shooting parties and on increasingly grand houses toaccommodatethisbusysociallife.Althoughmostofthelandedgentryprotectedtheirfamilyestatesandavoidedsplittingthembetweensiblings, thosewhodidget into financial difficulty could find gentlemen who aspired to join thearistocracyandsowereeagertosnapupthepropertyorwerewillingtomarryintothefamilysothattheycouldrisetothetoprankinsociety.By themiddleof the19thcentury the imageof thearistocratwaschanging.

RevolutionthroughoutEuropeinthefirsthalfofthecenturyhadawokenthemtotheneedtotakemoreofthepopulaceundertheirwinginordertohangontopowerandhencetheirfortunes.Theyweretheculturalleadersoftheirdayandpassed theirmoral codes down to an aspiringmiddle-class especially throughpublic schools. The ideal gentlemanwould be a devout Christian and a goodlandlord, could be a supporter of the arts and of improvements in health andeducation,butaboveallwouldbeafaithfulhusbandandfamilyman.

FIG5.2:BUCKINGHAMPALACE,LONDON:OneofthegreatmonumentsofthepatrioticRegencyperioddatingfrom1825-1830.Itwas,infact,arebuildingoftheexistingBuckinghamHousebyJohnNashforGeorgeIV,whosenotorietyforextravagancewaswellfoundedandthearchitect’sreputationwastarnishedbytheexpenditurelavishedonthisproject.

Inreality,manyhadlost interest in industryandcommercewithwhichtheirfathershadmadetheirfortunesandinsteadenteredpoliticalservice.Theywere

more likely to be seen enjoying themselves, hunting, shooting, smoking andplayingbilliards.NolongerdidtheycollectClassicalartefacts.Instead,the19th-centurygentlemanwouldfillhisroomswithantiquefurniture,familypaintings,Persianrugsandhouseplants,whileexotictreesfromaroundtheworldadornedhisgarden.Hecouldalsosuccumbtothenewnationalobsessionwithhistory,aslesswasbeingwrittenaboutinnovationandmoreaboutthepast,especiallytheperceived highly religious and moralMiddle Ages. The search for a nationalidentity had fused in an isolationist, mystical world of valiant knights andworthycraftsmenwhichwasprobablyasmuchareactionagainstmachinesanda fear of the new than a quest for the origins of English democracy. TheVictorians had foundmerry oldEngland on their doorstep and an empire thatwastheenvyofallothernations.Nowathometheytransferredthearchitecturefromafavouriteperiodorfashionablecountryontotheircountryhouses.

FIG5.3:HIGHCLERECASTLE,HAMPSHIRE:ThisbackdropforTV’sDowntonAbbeywasdesignedbyCharlesBarryshortlyafterhehadcompletedplansforthenewHousesofParliamentinthelate1830s.UnlikethatGothic-inspiredpiece,HighclereechoestheRenaissancestyleofthelate16thcentury(seeFig2.3)withitscastleformdecoratedwithItalianatedetailsandstrapwork.

TheStyleofHousesUntilnow,countryhouseshave fitted into fairlyneatperiodicgroupings,withtheoddwhimofanowneranexceptionandnotarule.However,fromtheturnofthe19thcentury,architectsfounditacceptabletopluckdetailsfromawidervarietyofsourceswhichinsomecaseswasjustafewexoticorhistoricdetailsthat quickly developed into the complete structure. Therewas also a growingappreciation of the picturesque, inspired byClassical landscape painting,withlakesborderedbyruggedmountains,waterfallsandruinedbuildingswhichhadbeen the blueprint for 18th-century landscape gardens and follies.Now, somecountry houseswere being designed as if they had been plucked from one ofthese pictures, freeing the architect from the strict rules of symmetry andproportionsothatpicturesquehousescoulduseavarietyoftexturesandshapesand,mostnotably,couldbeasymmetric. Itwasalso theassociationmadewiththechoiceofstyleandsite.Forinstance,acastlebuiltontopofarockyoutcropimplies power, strength, solidity and inspires awe,whichwasmore importantthanthearchitecturaldetailviewedcloserathand.Anotherfactorwhichaffectedhouseswasthenewmaterialsandtechnologyavailable:largepanesofglassforwindows;lighterslatesforroofingwhichmeantthatflatterpitchedroofscouldbe fitted; and oil, gas and later electricity providing lighting. As architecturestarted to blend with engineering, so iron posts and girders could be foundlurkingbehindthebrickorstonefaçade.

FIG5.4:Asymmetrical18th-centuryPalladianhouse(top)andanasymmetricalVictorianGothicone(bottom).

Theperiod from1800–1837which is loosely termedRegency (although thePrinceRegentonlyruledassuchinhisfather’sabsencebetween1811–1820)isnotableforawideselectionofstylesinspiredbythedramaofnativeruins,newdiscoveriesfromAncientEgyptandincreasedcontactwiththeFarEast.Itwasacceptable to deceive and imitate, most notably with brick walls covered instuccoandthenscouredandpaintedtomatchfashionablestonework.Thedetailsof the house also become more delicate, with thinner glazing bars in thewindows and intricate patterns formed by castiron used in balconies andverandas.

FIG5.5:NETHERWINCHENDONHOUSE,BUCKINGHAMSHIRE:ThisancienthousereceivedaRegencymakeoverinthelatestGothickfashionwhichincludedfacingmuchofthetimber-framedpartsinstone.NotetheperiodfeatureslikethestoutpointedwindowswithY-shapedglazingbar,battlementsandabalconybetweenthetwonearesttowers.

Gothick(the‘k’at theenddifferentiating it fromthe laterVictorianGothic)wasaratherwhimsicalinterpretationofmedievalbuildings.Itwasfirstappliedto a complete house at Strawberry Hill, Twickenham, the home of HoraceWalpole(youngestsonofthefirstPrimeMinisterRobertWalpole).Hisrestylingofthishousefrom1750wasabreakthroughinitsasymmetricaldesignanduseof Gothic details, which reflected the growing interest in romantic ruins ofabbeysandcastles.From1790afewarchitectsproducednewGothickcountryhouseswiththismoreirregularlayout,thoughformanythiswaspurelyappliedtoexistingpropertiesornewextensions.Details tolookforaresteeply-pitchedroofswithendgables,pointed-archedwindows,somewith ‘Y’-shaped tracery,dripmouldingsaboveopenings,tallTudor-stylechimneys,andapaintedstuccofinish.

FIG5.6:ARegencyGothickgable,withcharacteristicstuccofinish,steppedbattlements(A),pinnacles(B),quatrefoil(C),andhoodordripmoulding(D)abovethewindow.

Anotherpopularformwhichpeakedduringthefirsthalfof the19thcenturywas the castle, a patriotic response towarwith France or perhaps an owner’sdesire to re-assert one’s social status in the subsequent period of worker andpeasant discontent. The design had been inspired by romantic tales from thelikes ofWalter Scott and had been given acceptability by Robert Adamwhobelieved that theyweredirect descendantsof the architecture that theRomanshad broughtwith them to these shores.Hence, they linked theAncientWorldandBritain.NowalongsidethosecastleswhichhadsurvivedtheCivilWarandhad remained residences were erected new castles which, despite having theappearanceoftheirmedievalcounterparts,canbetoldapartbytheconsistencyof fine stonework throughout the building, a symmetrical façade and largewindows neatly arranged in rows and columns. The castle remained aninspirationduring theVictorianperiodandavariationcalledScottishBaronialwas popular. It developed north of the border and spread south after QueenVictoria acquired Balmoral in 1848. It is distinguished by tall outside wallssurmountedbysmallcornerturretsandroundtowerswithsteeply-pointedcaps.Foreignsourcesstillinfluencedcountryhouses,withawiderpaletteofstyles

nowavailable to thearchitect. Italianatevillas, featured in thepaintingswhichinspired the Picturesquemovementwith round towers off-set to one end, lowpitched roofs and deep overhanging eaves, and arcades of arched openings,appeared in a few locationsand inspired smallerurban residences.Napoleon’s

presence in Egypt had led to French archaeologists uncovering and makingdrawings of the great monuments they found. The Egyptian style which wasinspiredbythesediscoveriesischaracterisedbythickroundcolumnswithlotusleafcapitals,wallswhichleaninatthetopandlargeconcaveeaves,usuallyonlydetailsappliedtoahouseorgardenbuildings.IncreasedcontactwithIndiaandChina inspired a number of houses, most notably the Prince Regent’s RoyalPavilion atBrighton. Its onion-shaped domes, exoticwindow and door styles,andchimneysdisguisedasminaretscoverwhatwas,until1815,amodestNeoClassicalhouse.

FIG5.7:LOWTHERCASTLE,CUMBRIA:Atfirstglanceitlooksaveryconvincingcastle,butlookagainandahouseemerges.Notethecentralblockhastallwindows,withsmallersquareonesabove,andpavilionsateachendofthebuilding,justlikeaPalladianmansion.Thetheatricalarrangementoftowersinthecentre,theperfectsymmetryandtheregularly-positionedwindowsconfirmthatitwasbuiltbyRobertSmirkefrom1806–11.Thefamilymovedoutinthe1930sanditwaspartlydemolishedin1957leavingjusttheshellalthoughpartialrestorationoftheshellandthegardensisnowunderway.

FIG5.8:CRONKILL,SHROPSHIRE:Itsstarkgeometricshapesalmostgiveita20th-centuryfeel,butitwasthecreationofJohnNashin1802andwasinspiredbytheItalianatebuildingsinthepicturesofthe17th-centuryartistClaudeLorrain.

FIG5.9:THEROYALPAVILION,SUSSEX:ThisoutrageousblendofIndian-styledelementswasdesignedbyJohnNashforthePrinceRegentfrom1815–22.Atitsheart,though,isafarmoreconventionalNeoClassicalvilla(theleft-handsectionofthetopview)whichwasexpandedforthesupposedlybankruptPrinceandhisloverMrsFitzherbertbyaddingthecentraldomeandwingontherightin1787.ThedottedlinesshowitspositionwithintheRoyalPavilion’slastincarnation.

Despite becoming the chosen taste of the arch enemy Napoleon, Classicalarchitecture was still prominent in country house design during this Regencyperiod.ThelatestdesignswereinfluencedbythediscoveriesfromGreece,andthe temple which was seen as Ancient Greek architecture in its purest form

features in part onmany houses from this date. Themain body of the housetends to be plain,with the roof hidden from view and a portico or colonnadeprojecting from the façade, with simple Greek Doric or Ionic columns andcapitals.

VictorianandEdwardianStylesFrom the 1830s, brick comes back into fashion. A wider range of materialsallows the pitch and covering of roofs to vary according to style, andasymmetrically-placedtowersappear,oftenusedtohousetankswhichprovidedrunningwater under pressure for new toilets and bathrooms.Nowwith largerpanesofglassavailable,thesashwindowcouldvirtuallydispensewithglazingbars and give uninterrupted views across the owner’s property. Later in theperiodlargehouseswerebuiltwhichhuggedthelandscapeorweremodestlysetwithin woodland rather than dominating their surroundings. Timber-framingwhich since the 17th century had been unfashionable became popular again,sometimesjustcladding,othertimesstructuralandusuallysetontopofastoneorbricklowerstoreyandpaintedblackandwhite(alargelyVictorianfashion).

FIG5.10:SHUGBOROUGHHALL,STAFFORDSHIRE:Thegardenfrontofthislate17th/18th-centuryhouse(seeFig4.6)hadthedistinctiveRegency,shallow-bowedcentralextensionaddedbetween1803–6inaNeoClassicalstyle.Thedelicatearchedverandaseithersideofitarealsocharacteristicofthisperiod.

WhenQueenVictoria came to the throne therewas intense religiousdebatecentredongroupsatOxford,CambridgeandLondonastheChurchofEnglandfaced up to an identity crisis. This in part had been caused by the CatholicEmancipation Act of 1829 which had removed most of the restrictions forpractisingCatholics dating back to the 16th century.One convertwho rose to

prominenceatthistimewasAugustusWelbyNorthmorePuginwho,inaseriesofbooks,enthusiasticallypromotedGothicarchitecture,basedupontheaccuratestudy of medieval buildings rather than the loose theme used in the earlierGothick style.He argued that in order for buildings to havemoral value theyshould not hide their function and structure and that they should use naturalmaterials.ThispointofviewhadadramaticinfluenceuponVictorianarchitects.PuginandotherssawtheMiddleAges,inparticularthe14thcentury,asatimeof high religiousmorality and the early buildings in this newGothic Revivalstyleuseformsfromthisperiodforinspiration.Therewasnostuccohidingthematerialsused.Brickcouldonceagainbeonshow,withapreferenceforarichred colour,withwindows featuring pointed arches, tall slender towers and anasymmetrical layout being distinguishing features of early Gothic Revivalhouses.

FIG5.11:BULSTRODEPARK,BUCKINGHAMSHIRE:ThestockyGothictowerinredbrickisatypicalmidVictorianfeature.Thismuscular-lookingbuildingwithanasymmetricalarrangementofspires,gablesandbattlementswasbuiltbetween1861and1870.

FIG5.12:TYNTESFIELD,SOMERSET:ThisextravaganzaofVictorianGothicRevivalwasbuiltforWilliamGibbsfrom1863byarchitect,JohnNorton,withfurtheradditionsmadebyHenryWoodyerandArthurWilliamBlomfield.ItwaspurchasedbytheNationalTrustin2002afterover£8millionwasraisedfromthepublicinjust100days,alongwiththelargestsinglegrantfromtheNationalHeritageMemorialFund.

Fromthe1850sto’70stherewasamovetoamoremuscularformofGothic,withdramaticdecorationandstouttowers,lessinfluencedbytheEnglishMiddleAges and more by Continental sources. The most distinguishing feature ofhousesof thisdate is theuseofpolychromaticbrickworkwhere redorcreambrickwallsarebrokenbybandsandpatternsinlighterordarkercolours.Anotherpopularinspirationalsourceforcountryhousebuildingwasthe16th

century and early 17th century. Tudor red-brick houses and the imposingElizabethanandJacobeanprodigyhousesfoundferventgroundinthispatrioticperiod(Fig5.1).EvendetaildowntothestrapworkdecorationtheElizabethansso loved was copied, although the varying heights of windows depending onwhichfloorthestateroomswereintheoriginalhouseswasusuallynotimitated.QueenVictoriaandPrinceAlberthadOsborneHousebuiltinthestyleofthe

Italian Renaissance. It was inevitable that others would follow suit. Countryhouses and urban villas were designed in this Italianate style, with a peak ofpopularityinthe1850sand’60s.Itwascharacterisedbytheuseoftall,round-arched windows, with large panes of glass; towers with a series of narrow-arched openings along the top and a low pyramid roof; shallow pitched roofswith large overhangs supported on decorative brackets; and was usuallyexecuted in a light colour brick or stone. Larger houses inspired by the sameContinentalsourcesmighthaveasymmetricalfaçadewithparapetsandvases.

FIG5.13:Examplesof16th-centurybrickwork(top)and19th-century(bottom).ThesharperedgesandfinerpointingofthelaterexampleisonewayofidentifyingVictorianhousesfromtheoriginalstheywerebasedupon.Thepatternsformedbytheexposedend(header)andside(stretcher)ofeachbrickvariedthroughtheages.Englishbond(top)featuringarowofheadersthenoneofstretcherswascommoninthe16thandearly17thcentury.Flemishbondwithaheaderfollowedbyastretcheroneachrowbecamethemorepopularfromthispointupuntilthelate19thcenturywhenEnglishbondwasrevived.

FIG5.14:BRODSWORTHHALL,SOUTHYORKSHIRE:ThismidVictorianItalianatehousediffersfromearlierClassicalstylesinthemouldingsaroundthewindows,Frenchdoors,andtworoughlyequalheightfloors.NotetherearenoClassicalcolumnsonthisfaçadeasfree-standingtypeswerenotfavouredbyVictorians,exceptontheporticoacrosstheentrance(right)whichwasatypical19th-centuryfeature.

FIG5.15:WADDESDONMANOR,BUCKINGHAMSHIRE:AVictoriancountryhouseinthestyleofaFrenchchateau,designedbythearchitectDestailleur.Itwasbuiltinthe1880sforBaronFerdinanddeRothschild,amemberofalargeAustrianbankingfamilywhosevariousrelationspurchasedfiveotherpropertieswithinBuckinghamshirebecauseofitscloseproximitytoLondonandtheexcellenthuntinginthecounty.

AFrenchstyleofarchitecturebecamepopularduring thesecondhalfof the19th century due to the fashionable changeswhichwere taking place in Parisunder the reignofNapoleon III.Thisso-calledSecondEmpirestyle isusuallyrecognisable by the use of mansard roofs (which have a shallow top slope,followedby a steep lowerone) and lines of dormerwindows.Thesewindowsallowed rooms to be put into the usually limited roof void and made thempopularinurbanbuildingswherespacewasatapremium.Outinthecountrythechateaux with steeply-angled roofed towers and Baroque-type decoration alsoinspiredanumberofprojects.Fromthe1860sanewgenerationofarchitectsbegantofindinspirationnotin

mightymedievalbuildingsbutlessimposingmanorandfarmhousesofthe16thand17thcenturies.Rather thandesigningstrictcopies, theyusedthesesourcesto create new forms. They may at first seem similar to the originals, but oncloser inspection their layout can be revolutionary and the details strikinglymodern,especially in thehandsofArtsandCraftsarchitectsat the turnof the20thcentury.RichardNormanShawwasoneoftheleadingdesignersinthisOldEnglishstylewhocreatedcountryhouseswhichnolongerreacheduptotheskyand dominated their surroundings. They were more humble, low structuresdesignedwiththedemandsofthefamilytakingprecedenceovertheappearance

of the exterior.Although they could feature the latest technology andmodernmaterials,thefaçadespresentedtheviewerwiththeimpressionthatthebuildingshad grown progressively over centuries. They were characterised by long,sloping,tiledroofsoverhanginglowwalls,withexaggeratedtallbrickchimneys,andmullionedwindows filledwith leaded glasswhichwere often set in longrowstuckedrightupundertheeaves.

FIG5.16:CRAGSIDE,NORTHUMBERLAND:Thisdramatically-setmansionwasdesignedbyRichardNormanShawfromthelate1860s,withinspirationcomingfrom16th-centurymanorhouses,withtimber-framedgables,mullionwindowsandtallchimneys.Itwasnotableforbeingthefirsthousetohaveelectriclighting.

AsNormanShawturnedhisattentiontodevelopingnewstylesliketheQueenAnne-stylebaseduponthehousesofthelate17thcenturywithDutchgablesandwhitepaintedwoodwork, (most timberwaspainteddark coloursor grained tolooklikehardwoodinthisperiod),thosewhohadbeeneducatedinhispracticewentoutanddevelopedthedomesticrevivalstylesfurther.TheArtsandCraftshouses of the 1890s and early 1900s which they created used vernacularmaterials. This empowered skilled craftsmen to produce beautiful, qualityfixturesandfittings,withthearchitecttakingcontrolofthewholeprojectfromthestructuredowntothehandlesonthedoors.Mostofthebuildingsproducedbyarchitectsworkingunderthisbannerweremodestcountryhousesorsummerretreats,oftenincorporatinganolderbuildingorfeaturewhichthearchitectnowmadeaspecialpointofpreserving.

FIG5.17:WIGHTWICKMANOR,WESTMIDLANDS:AnOldEnglish-styledhouse,asymmetrical,withatimber-framedexteriorandArtsandCraftsinterior.Itdoesnottoweroveritssitebutspreadsoutwithlow-slungroofs,tallchimneystacksandanassortmentof16th-centurywindowstylessoappearstohaveevolvedovertimeratherthanhavingbeenerectedinthe1880sandearly’90s.

FIG5.18:STANDEN,SUSSEX:DesignedbyPhilipWebbintheearly1890saroundanoldfarmhousewhichhadbeenpurchasedbyawealthyLondonsolicitorJamesBeale,itnotonlyretainedelementsoftheoriginalbuildingbutalsousedlocalmaterialsandaformwhichsuggestedithadgrownprogressivelyovercenturies.

FIG5.19:HEATHCOTE,LEEDS,YORKSHIRE:ThissuburbanvilladesignedbySirEdwinLutyensin1906combinestheArtsandCrafts’useoflocalmaterials,withavarietyofClassicalsourcestocreateauniqueformofbuildingcharacteristicofthegreatarchitect’slaterwork.TheformisPalladian(seeFig4.14)butwithlate17th-century,Baroque-styledetailsandstonefromquarriesatnearbyGuiseleyandMorley.

This was a time of great nostalgia. Traditional pastimes were revived, theNational Trust was formed andCountry Life magazine published for the firsttime.ThismagazineplayedalargepartinpromotingthedesignsofayoungSirEdwin Lutyens who, after producing some of the leading Old English-stylehouses, turned his attention to Classical styles. He used his unique skills tocreate new forms guided by the orders rather than direct copies of ancientbuildings. The Edwardian period, in which the houses he created were mostinfluential, is characterised by this mix of styles from Imperial classicalbuildingstorecreationsofGeorgianhouses,withsymmetricalfaçadesfeaturingdistinctivelow-archtopstothesashwindows.

TheLayoutofHousesDespite anobsessionwith reviving thepast, the layoutofhouses reflected thechanging social climate and the demands of the new aristocracy. The pianonobilewhichdominated in thepreviouscenturywasgoneand themain roomswere now on the ground floor. The procession of state apartments became athing of the past, with more informal rooms arranged in a less strictlysymmetricalmanner.Roomswereincreasinglydedicatedtoaprecisepurposeinthe19thcentury,withmorning,breakfast,smoking,music,andbilliardsroomsfrequently appearing in the plan. In Arts and Crafts houses there was anemphasisupontherevivalofthehallasacommunalspace.Thecarefulcontrolof light and the use of different levels of floor andheight of ceilingmade for

innovative interiors.The awkwardproblemofwhere to site the service roomswasgenerallysolvedbybuildingacourtyardorrearwingoftentothenorthofthehouse.Thismeant thefoodwasnearer to thediningroomthanithadbeenwhen sited in the 18th-century pavilions.With no restriction upon size, theseserviceareascouldincorporatethelargenumberofspecialistroomsrequiredtoservicetheever-increasingdemandsofaVictoriancountryhouse.

FIG5.20:Acut-awayviewofaVictoriancountryhouse,withtheprincipalroomsnowonthegroundfloordedicatedtoamorepreciseuse.Upstairsarethebedroomsanddressingrooms,whiletheserviceroomsareintheseparatekitchencourtattherear.Notethatthecentralstairwellistoplitbyaglassceilinglight;thesemoreimaginativeilluminatingeffectsareafeatureof19th-centuryhouses.

The picturesque landscape gardens which appeared to draw right up to thehousewerebytheVictorianperiodoutdated.Nowtherewasareturntoterracesand flower beds which could be viewed from fashionable French doors andverandas.ExoticplantsandtreesfromthefurthestcornersoftheEmpirewereinvoguenowthatlargeglassconservatoriesandgreenhouseshadbeendeveloped.Thesewere often built as awing or even part of the structure of the house, adistinctivefeatureof19th-centurycountryhouses.

ExteriorDetails

FIG5.21:TwoItalianate-stylewindowswiththeirdistinctiveRomanesque(semicircular)archesandlarge,singlepanesofglasswithnoglazingbars.RaisedmouldingsaroundthewindowsanddecorativedetailsaboveandwithinthearchesoftenhelptodifferentiateVictorianhousesfromearlierwork.

FIG5.22:AnItalianate-styletowerwitharchedopenings,balustradeandurns.Anothercommondesignhadtriplearchedopeningswithaflatpyramidroof,aspopularisedatOsborneHouse.

FIG5.23:ApointedarchformedoutofbrickworkaboveasashwindowwasacommonwayofintegratingtheGothicstyleintoafaçadewithoutcompromisingthepracticalrectangularshapeofthewindow.Theuseofcream,greyandredbrickswaspopularinthe1860sand’70saswerebandsofpatternsanddecorative

crestsontheroof.

FIG5.24:RoofsonGothicandArtsandCraftshouseswereaprominentfeaturewithgabledendsexposedanddecorativebargeboardsfittedundertheeavesasinthisbeautifully-carvedexamplefromWightwickManor.Roofsweresteeperpitchedandcouldstretchdowntothetopofthegroundfloor(low-slung)onArtsandCraftshouses.Casementwindows(side-hinged)werereintroducedinthelate19thcenturybutusuallyhaverectangularleadedlights,asinthisexample,ratherthanthediamondshapeswidelyusedinthe16thcentury.

FIG5.25:ArtsandCraftshouseshadplainmullionedwindowsinthebays,asfeaturedhereatBroadleys,Windermere,byC.F.A.Voysey.Theywereoftentuckedtightundertheeavesoflow-slungroofs.Shallowbuttressesanddeepoverhangingeaveswerealsodistinctiveofthisstyle.

FIG5.26:Chimneysonceagainbecomeafeatureasarchitectswerehappytoexposethefunctionalpartsofthehouseratherthanhidethembehindabalustrade.TallstackscopyingTudorstyleswereakeypartofthedesignofmanyOldEnglishandArtsandCraftshousesinthelate19thcentury,ashereatDeaneryGardens,Sonning,bySirEdwinLutyens.

TheDemiseoftheCountryHouseOnasunnydayinMay1869,uponabarrenplainsome56mileswestofOgden,Utah,USA,thefinalspikewheretworailroadtracksmetwasabouttobedrivenhome by Leland Stanford of the Central Pacific. His stroke with the hammermissed,buttheeagertelegrapherwasalreadysendingthemessagethatthefirsttrans-continentalrailwayacrossAmericawascomplete.Nowhugequantitiesofgrainandlivestockfromthewestcouldbemovedeastbytrainandthen,aidedbybreakthroughsinrefrigeration,shippedabroad.BackinEngland,landownerssittingintheircountryhouseswerebaskinginthewarmglowofagoldenageinfarming. They were oblivious to the fact that, by the mid 1870s, Americanimports were keeping the price of corn steady and in the following decadelowering it. The agricultural depression triggered by these imports and theeffectsofageneraleconomicdownturn,meantreducedrentsandincomeforthearistocracy.Theywerealsoaffectedbyalossofpowerasmostmalesreceivedthevoteandwerehitbyincreasedbillsfromtheintroductionofdeathdutiesin1894,andhigherratesofincomeandsupertaxin1909.

FIG5.27:EXEMPLARHALLc.1900:Some40yearsbeforethisviewisdated,thelatestownerembarkedonanexpansionprogrammecreatingawingtotherightofthepicture,withadditionalroomsforleisureandguestaccommodation,aconservatory(left),atowertoholdthewatertankandanenlargedservicecourtyardintheforeground.Thiswasatimeofgreatprosperityontheestateduetohighagriculturalreturns,butby1900asharpdownturninfortuneshasresultedinthesaleofmuchofthefarmandparklandwhichisbeingswallowedupbynewvillasandterracesfromtherapidlyexpandingnearbytown(top).

Unfortunatelythesituationwouldonlygetworse,HavinglostthesoleheirduringtheFirstWorldWarandtheaginglordofthemanorshortlyafterwards,thefamily’smountingdebtsanddeathdutiesforcedittosellExemplarHallanditbecameaprivateschool.Thiswaspoorlyrunandby1939wasinthehandsofthearmedforcesasatrainingcentre.AttheendoftheSecondWorldWarthecouncilofthelocaltownwhichbynowhadengulfedwhatwasleftoftheestatepurchasedthesitebutthelackofmaintenancehadlefttheoldhallunsafeandthemajorityofthebuildingwasdemolishedinthe1960s.Onlytheoldkitchencourtyardwasretainedandhasbecomeofficeswhiletheremainderoftheestateisnowapublicpark.Afteralltheseyears,onlythechurchanditssurroundingboundaryhavesurvivedfromtheoriginalscenein1400.Manyhouseshadalreadybeensoldoffor leftemptybefore theFirstWorld

War.Worsewastocome,however,especiallyforthosefamilieswholostmaleheirs in the conflict and could not pay the tax demands and bills in the tighteconomic climate after thewar.During the 20th century these huge buildingsdesigned for amore affluent generation became a drain on the upper classes.Large numbers became schools, hotels and offices, or were partially orcompletelydemolished(Fig5.7),onlysurvivingtodayinthenameofanestatewhich was often built over, swallowed up by rapidly expanding suburbs as

happenedatExemplarHall.Thankfully,manycountryhouseshavesurvivedalthoughoftenonlythrough

diversificationintootherfieldslikethemeandwildlifeparks,museums,andaslocationsforspecialorcorporateevents.Somestillremaininthesamefamily,othersmaintainedbybodiesliketheNationalTrustandEnglishHeritage.Ifyoutake what was once the six Rothschild houses around Aylesbury inBuckinghamshire(Fig5.15)asanexample,theyarenowanRAFcamp,ahotel,areligiouscentre,anoutofboundsschool,withthetworemainingonesopentothe public through the National Trust. None of them remain in the family’shands.

FIG5.28:CASTLEDROGO,DEVON:Completedin1930andthenonamuchreducedscalefromLutyen’soriginalgrandscheme,thismoderninterpretationofacastleisoftenregardedasthelastgreatcountryhouseandmarkstheendoftheageofaristocraticrule.

SECTIONII

THECOUNTRYHOUSEINDETAIL

CHAPTER6

InteriorStructures

Panelling,CeilingsandFireplaces

FIG6.1:AVictorianinteriorwithlabelsofthekeyelementsoftheroomwhichcanbefoundinotherperiods.

If the exterior of a country housewas prone to occasional tinkering by newowners,thentheinteriorwassusceptibletowhatcouldberegularandcompletemakeovers. An Elizabethan housemight still retain its original façade despitesome new trimmings and the odd extension but inside the rooms could be amedley of later Baroque, Rococo, Neo Classical or Victorian Gothic styles.Whatwasoncethesalooncouldnowbeapicturegallerywhileawithdrawingroomcould laterhouseabilliard table.The interiorwaspersonalandcouldbe

moreopulent,exoticandoutrageousthanthepublicexteriorofthehouse,witheach owner stamping his or her personality and demands upon it. However,underneaththeseuniqueandindividualfeaturestherearesomegeneralstructuralchanges and fashionable fixtureswhich the recognition anddatingof canhelpone to unravel and better understand the development of a country house andhowitwouldhaveappearedwhenoriginallydecorated.

WallsMedievalinteriorswerenotthecoldspacesweoftenseetoday.Originallytheywouldhavebeen colourful,withwhitewashedor paintedwalls decoratedwithpatterns,textorlinessimulatingmasonry.Wallhangingsusuallymadeofclothpainted instrongcolourswereused toreducedraughts,especiallyat the lord’send of the hall. Tapestries were a luxury of the very rich and only appear incountry houses from the 14th century. By the Tudor period, wood panellingcovering the lower part or complete height of thewall became fashionable. Itwas composed of frames with moulding around the edges except along thebottomwhereitwaschamferedtomakeiteasiertocleanandwithsquarepanelsinserted.Earlieroneshaddistinctive linenfoldpatternsordecorativecarvings,whilst later ones were more usually just fielded (raised in the centre withchamferededges).Duringthe17thcentury,theproportionsofwoodenpanellingchanged,witheachwallof the finest roomsoftendivided intoa lower section(thedado),amainbodyand thenashortupper frieze,decoratedwithpilastersand classical motifs. In Restoration houses, carving reached breathtakingdelicacyinthehandsofcraftsmenlikeGrinlingGibbons,withintricatepatternsofnaturalisticfruits,flowersandswagsframingordecoratingpanels.

FIG6.2:Anexampleoflinen-foldpanellingwhichwaspopularinthelate15thandearly16thcenturies.

FIG6.3:Smallsquarepanelsfromthelate16thcentury(top),withmouldingaroundthetopandsides(A),aflatchamferalongthebottom(B)and,inthefinestexamples,strapworkdecoration(C).Bythelate17thcenturylargepanelswithclassicalproportions(bottom)couldincorporatepanelleddoorsandbolectionmouldedfireplaces.

Bythistime,though,plasteringthewallwhichhelpedreducethefireriskwasbecoming fashionable.Theplasterwasmade from limeorgypsum,oftenwithhair,straworreedwithintogiveitstrength.Thiswasthenappliedoverwoodenlathes(thinstripsofwood)whichhadbeenpinnedtothewall.Thesurfacewaspunctuatedbymouldingsmadefromplaster,stuccoorevenpapermaché,whichformed classically-proportioned panels, cornices and decorative pieces, withwoodendadorailsandskirtingstoprotectitfromthebacksofchairswhichwerepositionedaroundtheedgeoftheroomatthisdate.

FIG6.4:Asectionofwallshowinghowtheplasterwasappliedtothelathes,projectingoutoftheleft-handside,andthenbuiltupinlayersbeforethemouldingwasapplied.

Where decoration was applied, flamboyant Baroque shapes were stillacceptable even in later Palladian houses. By the mid 18th century a newvariationknownasRococo(fromtheFrenchwordrocaillewhichdescribedtherockyencrustationswhich featuredon the fashionablegrottosof the time)waspopular. This was distinguished by deep, flamboyant, naturalistic forms likeshells set in asymmetrical patterns andoftenpainted inwhite andgold. In thesecond half of the 18th century, architects likeRobertAdam,who created hisowninteriordesignstyle,wereinfluencedbynewGreek,RomanandEtruscandiscoveries,andflatter,moredelicatemouldings,withswags,vases,griffinsandgold beads decorating panels which were painted in more subdued pastelcolours.Fabricslikesilkdamasksandleatherwereusedaswallcoveringsandusually

pinnedtowoodenbattenstofixtheminplace.WallpaperswerefirstintroducedfromChina in the 17th century though theywere not glued to the surface asmodernversionsare.Flockpapermadefromleft-overwoolsprinkledongluedpattern areas of the paper featured in some 18th-century houseswhile Frenchpapers,withexoticscenesorsimulatedfabricpatterns,werestillpopularintothe

Victorianperiod.InlaterGeorgianhouses,principalroomscouldfeaturearchedrecessesorcurvedalcovesforastatueorhavecompletelyroundroomswithadome above based on examples from the Ancient World. Pairs or rows ofcolumns could also be introduced for added grandeur and to control theproportionsofaroom.

FIG6.5:Adam-stylemouldingsanddetailsreflectingthelatestGreektaste.

FIG6.6:EarlyGeorgianwallpapers(toprow)copiedfloralandpatternedfabrics,manyinspiredbyChinesedesigns.IntheRegencyperiod,stripesandAdam-stylepaperswerepopular(centrerow).BytheVictorianera,richly-coloured,three-dimensionalpaperswerecommon(bottomleft);inthesecondhalfofthecentury,lighter,simplifiedandoftentwo-dimensionaldesignsgrewinpopularity(bottomright).

By the 19th century it had become fashionable for furniture to be scatteredaroundtheroom,withtablesandchairsarrangedinintimatecirclesratherthanupagainstthesidesoftheroom.Asaresult,wallswithafullheightofhangingpaperorfabricandwithouttheprotectivedadorailappear,althoughtherailandpanels still remained acceptable in certain rooms. The more refined and palepatternedpapers and fabricsof theRegencyhomegaveway to strong coloursandbolddesigns in theVictorianGothichome; this in turngivingway to lessintrusivetwodimensionaldesigns,lightercoloursandarevivalofoakpanellinginlaterArtsandCraftshouses.

CeilingsCeilingsdidnotexist inmostmedievalhalls as thecentralhearthnecessitatedtheroofbeingopenedtotheraftersalthoughthetrusseswhichsupporteditcouldbelavishlycarvedandcolourfullydecorated.Theintroductionofthechimneyonasidewallpermitted theowner to inserta roomaboveand thereforeaceilingwhichcouldhaveexposedmouldedbeams,joistsanddecorativebossesattheirjunctions.Wooden panels were fitted between tomake a flush surface whichcouldbepainted.ByElizabethan times,a timber roofcouldbedecoratedwithraised plaster geometric patterns. By the late 17th century, skilled plastererswerecreatingClassical-styleceilings,withlargeovalorrectangularcentrepiecesfeaturing paintings surrounded by delicate flowers and swags. In Palladianhouses,architectsendeavouredtocreateroomspaceswhichwouldformasingleordoublecube.Aspleasingtotheeyeastheseproportionswouldhavebeen,theimmensely tallwallswouldhave left paintings anddecorations toohigh to beviewed.So,largeconcavecoving(cofferedceilings)wereusedsotheycouldbedisplayed in the new lower wall space below. In late 18th-century Adaminteriors, the plaster moulding became flatter and more delicate. Pale colourswereintroducedtohighlightthedesigns,withcombinationsofpinksandgreens,bluesandreds,andgreen,yellowandblackoftenused.Domesandflatbarrel-shapedceilingswerealsopopularwiththeNeoClassicaldesigners.Inthe19thcenturyskylightsofironandglasscreatednewlightingeffects,especiallyoverstairwells,whileacentralflowerormedallionmouldingfromwhichachandeliercould be hung also became popular; while later Arts and Crafts designersreintroducedbeamedceilings.

FIG6.7:Abeamedceiling,ineffectthemainbridgingbeamsandjoistssupportingthefloorabove,which,asinthisexample,couldbemouldedandhavedecorativebossesfittedacrossthejunctions.

FIG6.8:Examplesofalate16th-centuryplasterceiling(left)withdeepgeometricpattern,alate17th-centuryone(centre),withapaintedscenewithintheoval,andalate18th-centuryone(right),withcolourhighlightingtheshallowplasterwork.

FIG6.9:AsectionofRococo-styleceilingwhichhasbeenrestoredtoitsformergloryinwhiteandgoldattheparishchurchwhichstandsalongsideWitleyCourt,Worcestershire.

FloorsThe original ground floors of most medieval houses would have been ofcompoundedearthmadebyraking thesurface, flooding itwithwaterand thenbeatingitwithpaddleswhendry.Additiveslikelime,sand,bonechips,clayandbulls’bloodcouldalsobeusedforstrengthorappearance.Bythe16thand17thcenturiestheseroomscouldbeexpectedtobecoveredinstoneslabsorperhaps

theDutch fashion of black andwhitemarble tiles. Bricks and clay floor tileswere becoming common in the south and east, with the earliest ones beinggenerallylargerandunglazed(glazedversionsappearinthe18thcentury).In the Georgian period the grandest rooms would have polished stone or

marble floors, with brick vaulting below to support the weight now thatbasements were common. Other floors were composed of boards with earlyplanks wider, or of irregular width, and butted up against each other; thinnerregular-sizedboardswith tongueandgroovesonly appear in the19thcentury.Hardwoodboardswere polished, cheaper softwood ones painted or grained toappearlikeabetterqualitywood,thenmostofthesurfacewascoveredbyrugs,carpets or floor cloths. Parquet wood patterns were popular in the early 18thcenturyandwererevivedagainbyArtsandCraftsdesigners.

FIG6.10:ParquetflooringoftenlaidinaherringbonepatternasinthisexamplewasfrequentlyusedinearlierhousesandwasrevivedbyArtsandCraftsdesignersinthelate19thcentury.

Carpets first appeared in the17thcenturyaspieces laid in the centreof theroom.Fully-fittedversionsmadebysewingsectionstogetheronsitewereusedinsomeofthefinestroomsfromthemidGeorgianperiodbutsmallermovablepieceswhichwereeasier toclean remainedcommonuntil the20thcentury. Inthe late 18th century as one person increasingly controlled the interior designscheme,anorderwouldbeplaced for thecarpet tobewoven intoapattern tomatchtheceilingdesign.In Victorian houses the wider range of architectural styles and greater

specialisation of rooms results in a broad range of surfaces from contrastingstone ormarble squares tomedieval patterned floor tiles. New encaustic tileswith coloured patterns based on medieval designs were popular in Gothichouses, with plain unglazed ones in terracotta, black or buff used in serviceroomsandareasofheavyuse.

FireplacesIn the great medieval hall, the smoke from the central fire escaped usuallythroughalouvre(Frenchforopening)intheapexoftheroofandwasoftenleftburningovernightwithapotterycolandercalledacouvre-feu(Frenchforafirecover from which we get the word curfew) placed over it. The firstimprovementscamewithascreenwhichtrappedthesmokefromahearthatoneendoftheroom,oralargehoodoftenmadeoftimberanddaubwhichhungoverafirealongthewall,untilfinallythefireplaceandchimneydeveloped.Intheseearly examples, the term ‘chimney’ (derived from the Greek word kaminormeaning‘oven’)appliedtothewholefireplaceandstacktogether.Thesurroundor chimney piece was typically a wide, flat-arched opening in Tudor houses,whichwasrequiredtofitalargelog-burningfire.Duringthe16thcenturycoalfrom thenorth-east (shipped toLondonandhenceknownas seacoal)becameavailable to therichand later fireplacesbecamesmalleras thisnewfuelcouldproducethesameheatinamorecompactlump.Unfortunatelyforthemenwhoused to climb up the chimney to clean it, these new typeswere too small, sofromthisperiodon,youngboyswereused.

FIG6.11:Inlatermedievalhalls,thehearthcouldbemovedinacorner(A)andasectionabovepanelledtoformasmokebay(B)tochannelthesmokeup,whileanotheralternativewasasmokehood(C).BytheTudorperiodrecessedfireplacesbehindafour-centredarch(D)oralintelwasfashionablewithcobirons

(E)whichsupportedthespitsonwhichfoodwasroasted,whilethelogswereheldinplacebythefiredogs(F).

FIG6.12:Alate16th-century,four-centred,archedopening,withadecorativeovermantelabove.

Bythelate16thcenturythefireplacehaddevelopedintoaprincipalfeatureinaroomandwaslavishlydecoratedwithanornamentalovermantelaboveit.Inthelate17thcenturyamorerestrainedtypeofsurroundwithbolectionmoulding(raisedfurtheroffthewallnearthecentre)wassetwithinthepanelling.Duringthe18thcentury,stoneormarbletypeswithashelfaboveandClassicalcolumnsorfiguresupthesideswerepopular,withbroadermantelsandthelatestinNeoClassical motifs in the later Georgian period. By the 19th century, coal waswidelyavailableandmoreefficientregistergrateswithdecorativetilesupeachsidewerecommonfromthe1870s.ArtsandCraftsarchitectsoftenpreferredlogfiresandreintroducedthemintoinglenookfireplacesorcreatedwidesurroundsfeaturingshelvingandglasscupboardspaintedwhitewithbrightgreenandbluetiles.

FIG6.13:Alate17th-centuryfireplacesurroundwithdistinctivebolectionmouldingallthewayaroundtheopening.

FIG6.14:Alate18th-centurychimneypiecedesignedbyRobertAdam.Hisexamplesareoftendistinguishedbyhumanfigures(caryatids)inplaceofcolumnsateachsideandbyaplaquewitharaised

decorativesceneinthemiddle.Ratherthanthefiredogswhichheldlogs,thenowsmalleropeningfeaturesafiregratewhichholdscoalinacompactblocktoincreasecombustion.

FIG6.15:AdistinctiveArtsandCrafts-stylefireplacewithwoodenovermantelandsurroundfeaturingglasscupboards,shelvesandseating.

DoorsEarlydoorsweremadefromverticalplanksofwoodfixedbynailstohorizontalbeams,andheldontothesurroundbyironhingesorpins.Theseandtheirmoredecorative variants may have sufficed in a Tudor manor but the Renaissancegentlemanandhisdescendantsdemandedsomethingtofitinwiththeirclassicaldecoration.Panelleddoorsthusdeveloped.Earlyoneshadjusttwopanelsbutbythe18thcenturythefamiliarsix-paneldesignwascommon.Notonlywerethesedoors elegant but theywere also lighter, so smaller butt hinges could be usedwhich could be concealed out of sight between door and frame. Woods likemahoganyandoakwere left exposed,but if cheaper softwoods likepinewereused theywouldalwaysbepainted.This same ruleapplied toanyotherwoodpanellingorcarvingintheroom.Victorianstendedtousefour-panelleddesignswith the later revival of oldEnglish styles seeing a return to plank andbattendoorswithhighlydecorativeironstraphinges.

FIG6.16:AlatemedievalorTudordoorcomposedofverticalplankswithhorizontalbattensontheotherside.Thesedoorsclosedontothebackofthewallorframe.

FIG6.17:ARegencysix-panelleddoor,withlabelsofitsparts.Theconcentriccirclesorbulls’eyesinthetopcornersaredistinctiveofthisperiod.

AftertheRestoration,thesurroundswhichhadbeenpartofthestructurewithmouldedandcarvedsidesand topsbecamelavishdoor-casesembellishedwithcolumns and Baroque decoration with entablatures and a pediment across thetop. Sometimes a double set of doors was fitted, usually to help keep foododours out of adjoining rooms; while the famous green baize door whichseparatedthemainhousefromtheserviceroomshadthematerialpinnedtoonesidetokeepoffensivenoisesatbay.

StairsTheearliestwayofascendingtowhatfewupperroomstherewereinamedievalhousewas by stairswhichwere littlemore than a sturdy ladder or, in amoreimpressive stonebuilding, anarrow spiral staircase.As roomsonupper floorsgainedimportance,widerandmoreelaboratestairswererequiredtoreachthem,ofteninaseparatetowerorshortextensionattherear.Bytheearly17thcentury

themore familiar closed string staircasewas becoming popular,with separatetreadsandrisersrunningintoasidestringcoursewhichwassupportedonthickcornerandendpostscallednewels.Theywereconsideredagreatstatussymboland their oak posts and balusters were beautifully decorated, often displayingcoatsofarmswithcarvingsofbeastsand,later,classicalfiguresandnaturalisticdetails. Their importance could be further emphasised by being built in aseparateroomoftenattheendofthehall,afewexamplesstillhavingcarveddoggatesatthebottomwhichwereusedtokeeptheanimalsinthehallatnight.

FIG6.18:Anearly17th-centuryclosedstringstaircase,(wherethetreadsandrisersrunintothesidesupport),withdecorativebalusters(A)andnewelpost(B),withadoggateatthetop.

As joinery techniques improved, thenewel posts ceased to rest on the floorand the steps appeared to float up the staircase (although they were actuallycantileveredoffthewall).Somehadtheirnowexposedundersidesplasteredlikea ceiling, with decorative mouldings and even pictures; while others hadbeautifulparquetfloorsfittedonthelandingsandelaboratecarvedposts.Duringthe 18th century staircases have open strings with the nowmore elegant andthinnerbalusters(oftensetinpairsorthrees)restingdirectlyonthetread;cast-irontypeswithmahoganyhandrailsandspiralendsbeingverydistinctiveofthe

laterGeorgianperiod.Victorianstaircasesreflected thestyleof thehousewithreplicas of a past age common; only Arts and Crafts designers made newinventiveformswhichheraldedinthemodernstylesofthe20thcentury.

FIG6.19:Regencycast-ironbalusterswhichrestuponthetreads(openstring).

FIG6.20:Alate17th-centurybalustrade,withrichwoodencarving.

CHAPTER7

TheUpstairsRooms

Halls,DrawingandDiningRooms

FIG7.1:BLACKWELLARTSANDCRAFTSHOUSE,WINDERMERE,CUMBRIA:Themedievalhall,TudorfarmhouseparlourandVictorianbilliardsroomarecombinedhereinonebyHughMackayBaillieScott.He,alongwithotherArtsandCraftsarchitects,reinventedthehall,makingitonceagainthesocialcentreofthehouseafterithadbeenrelegatedtoaglorifiedpassageintheGeorgianperiod;anexampleofhowtheroleandimportanceoftheprincipalroomsofthehousecouldchangeoverthecenturies.

Theroomswithinthemainbodyofthehousecouldbedividedintothoseforreceptionandentertainingorfortheprivateuseofthefamily.Asthepriorityformostownerswastoimpresstheirguests,itistheformergroupwhichtendtobe

themostlavishandfashionable.ThedegreeofsplendourwithintheseprincipalroomswouldreflectthewealthoftheownerandhowclosehewastoCourtandpolitical life. The more private ones reflected the owner’s personal taste anddailyrequirementsalthoughsinceguestsmayhavebeenreceivedinthesefamilyroomsatsomepoint theywouldstillhaveadegreeofclass.With theconstantredecoratingandbuildinginthemostfashionablehouses,theseroomsmayhavechanged not only in appearance but also in the role for which they wereoriginallydesigned.Althoughthefurnishingswillusuallyreflectthetasteofthelast or current owner, there are characteristics like the position of the roomwithinahouse,thesizeandproportionsofthespaceandthetypeoffittingsusedwhichcanhelpidentifyitsoriginaluseandhowitmayhaveonceappeared.

TheHallThehallintheearlymedievalperiodwasthecentreoflifeforthehousehold–alarge open space in which the lord of the manor, his fellow nobles, personalarmyandservantswouldeat,drinkandsleep.Itwaswherelocaljusticecouldbeadministered, farmland managed, men gathered with arms and guests wereentertained.Itwastheheartofthecommunity,whereallclasseswereaccepted.Inthemiddleofthistallspacewouldhavebeenahearthwiththefumesfromthefiredriftingupthroughagapintheroof,withatoneendaraisedplatformcalledthedaisonwhichthelordsat,oftenwithalargewindowilluminatingit,andtheotherascreenwhichhelpedkeepoutthedraughtsfromthemainentrance.

FIG7.2:Aviewofalatemedievalhall,withthelord’sendontherightandthebutteryandpantry

accessedthroughthedoorsontheleft.

Sleepingwith a group of belching servants, snoring soldiers and scratchingdogs, upon filthy and muck-ridden straw somehow lost its appeal to latermedievalgentry!Theybuiltawingontotheirhalltocreateprivateroomsatoneendandsometimesabutteryandpantry,withapassagebetween toaccess theseparate kitchen at the other end. The laterMiddle Ageswere also a time ofgreatsocialchangesacceleratedbytheBlackDeath,whichsawthebreakdownof the old feudal system and the renting out of manor lands, such that thedecisions onmanaging the fieldswere increasinglymade by the new yeomanfarmers. Therefore the hall’s role as the centre of the estate and communitybegantofade.Bythe16thcentury,inmostcountryhouses,thehearthwasbeingmoved to the side of the room, ceilings inserted and a great chamber createdabove,with theold spacebelowbecominga servants’hall.However, in somehouses,thelargecommunalroomlastedwellintothefollowingcentury.

FIG7.3:Twoviewsofthesamemedievalhallbefore(top)andafterafireplaceandupperfloorhavebeeninserted(bottom)inthe16thcentury.

AsElizabethangentlemenwereerectingnewhousesfordisplay,theyusuallyincorporatedalargehallinthecentreofthehouserunninglengthwaysacrossitwhenviewedfromthefront.Forthefirsttime,though,atHardwickHall,itwasturnedninetydegreesandbecame the long, thinentrance roomweassociate itwith today.Asguestswouldnowpass through this space, servants eating andsleepingwithin itwasno longeracceptable,soseparateaccommodationoutofsightwasprovided.Inthisperiodthehallwouldusuallybepanelledwithanew,patterned,plasterceilinginthefinesthouses,withabeautifully-carvedstaircasebywhichguestscouldascendtotheprincipalroomsseparatedoffatoneend.Bythe 18th century it had risen in importance again, forming part of the pianonobile,withexternalstepsleadinguptoit.Theywereoftenofarefinedclassicalstylewith columns, alcoves, pale plasteredwalls and a floor of light-colouredstone or marble. These cool rooms were also used for dining in the heat ofsummer, aswell asbeing spacious enough towelcomeapartyof guests or toserveasanantichamber.Althoughthehallfellfromprominenceduringthe19thcentury,itsoriginalformwasrevivedinArtsandCraftshouseswherearchitectskeen to replicate its medieval communal role formed large open spaces withinglenookfireplaces,galleriesandseatingwhereguestscouldbereceived,meetbeforedinnerandbeentertainedafterwards.

FIG7.4:KEDLESTONHALL,DERBYSHIRE:Inthe18thcentury,fantasticmarbleandstonehallswereafeatureofPalladianhouses.ThisexamplebyRobertAdamhasflutedcolumns,archednichescontainingsculpturesandahugecofferedceilingabove.

TheGreatChamberOneof the first rooms to appearwhen theowner soughtmoreprivacywasanupperchamberinwhichhecoulddineandsleepcalledthesolar(fromsolariumwiththerootsol,meaning‘sun’).Foodwasbroughtupinaprocessionfromtheserviceroomsattheotherendofthehall,pasthishouseholdsittingalongtablesin the hall and then up a staircase at the side of the dais.By the laterMiddleAges,though,thelordwaslikelytobereceivingguestshereandeatinginstateso,with its increased status, the roombecamemore lavishly decoratedwith aseparatebedchamberleadingoffit.Whatwasnowreferredtoasthegreatchamberwaspopularduringthe16th

and early17th centuries. It couldusuallybe foundupstairs in a crosswingorbuilt directly above the hallwhen thiswas divided horizontally by inserting aceiling.Itwasusedasashowroomforhangingtapestriesorfamilyportraits,forimportantmeals and even formusic, plays and dancing.Wood panellingwasfitted to thewallsandhorsehaircoversputonchairsas theydidnot retain thesmellofmealseatenwithin(althoughmostpeoplestillsatonbenchesandstools

atthisdate);whiledetailslikeroyalcoatsofarmsabovethechimneypieceandthemes like hunting depicted in the decoration were popular. Later greatchambers started to increase in scale, with coved ceilings, paintings built inabove the chimneypiece and richly-carved decorations showing fruit, flowersandbirds.

TheBanquetingHallOnceguestshadfinishedtheirmaincoursetheycouldretiretoaseparateroomtoeataluxuriousselectionofwafersandspiceswhich,inthe16thcentury,wasreferred to as a banquet. In some larger houses an impressive banqueting hallwasbuiltspecificallyforthisrole,eitherasastand-alonebuildinginthegarden,aroomwithinthehousewithaccesstotheoutside,orinsomecasesbuiltontopoftheroofsotherelaxingdinerscouldadmiretheviews.

TheParlourGreatchambersandbanquetinghallsbecametooexcessiveforeverydaymeals,soaparlourwouldhavebeenprovidedfor thefamily.ParlourcomesfromtheFrench verb parler, meaning ‘to speak’, which reflects its other role assomewhere to hold private conversation. The parlour can be found in countryhousesfromthe15thcenturyandwasusuallysimplydecorated,withagate-legtablewhichcouldberemovedaftermeals.Ithadlittleotherfurnitureasmassesofplatesandcutlerywerenotusedatthisdate.Guestsbroughttheirownknifeandspoon(forkswerenotingeneraluseuntilthe18thcentury).Largerhousesmayhavehadmore thanone,perhapsagreatand littleparlour,while in18th-and19th-centuryhouses theseprivate family roomswereoftencalledmorningorbreakfastrooms,withtheparlourbecomingacommonfeatureinmiddle-classhousing.

FIG7.5:Banquetscouldbeheldinmodesthallswithinthehouse,aswellasinlargebanquetinghousessetinthegardenasinthisexampleattheformerCampdenHouse,ChippingCampden,Oxfordshire.

TheDiningRoomBythe18thcentury, thegreatchamberwasreplacedbytworooms:thesaloonand the dining room. The latter was used for important meals and became amajorelement incountryhouseswhere itwasasmuchforshowasforeating.Wallswere usually plastered or stuccoedwith floral, fruit and animal designsaround the cornice and friezes, while shutters were recommended in place ofcurtainsastheydidnotretaintheodouroffood.Itwasamasculinespace,withstrong colours used mainly to set off the gilt-framed paintings which guestscould admire and discuss. The gate-leg table and chairs could be pushed upagainstawallwhenthemealwasoverasroomswerestillratherflexibleintheirroleatthisdate.Victorianswerebetteratergonomicsthantheirpredecessorsandwouldrather

receivetheirmealshot,sothediningroomwouldnotbepositionedtoofarfromthe kitchen. A serving area would be nearby where the different courses thatmadeupthemealwerecollectedbeforetheywerebroughtintotheroom.Somedining rooms even had hidden doorways so that servants could emerge toremove dishes with minimal fuss. It was only at the beginning of the 19th

century that the table became a fixed piece of furniture in themiddle ofwhatwas now a permanent dining room, with ladies retiring after meals and thegentlemenlefttofillitfullofsmokeanddrunkenlaughter.

FIG7.6:Amid-Georgiandiningroom,withdistinctivestrong-colouredwallstoactasaneffectivebackgroundtothegilt-framedpaintingshangingonitswalls.

FIG7.7:CALKEABBEY,DERBYSHIRE:Thisdiningroomcreatedin1794isdecoratedwithdelicateplastermouldingsframingsmallinsetpictures,whilethealcovebehindthecolumnsfeaturesasideboardwhichcouldbeusedwhenservingmeals.Notethedoorjustbehindtheright-handcolumnwhichcouldgiveservantsdiscreetaccesstotheroom.

TheSaloonThesaloon(aFrenchwordderivedfromtheItaliansalameaning‘ahall’)was

usedforentertainmentanddisplay.InBaroqueandPalladianhousesittendstobeonthecentralaxisbehindtheentrancehall,withthediningroomanddrawingroomoneachsideandviewsover thegarden to therear.Thisgreat roomwasregarded as essential in 18th-century houses andwould be as tall as the hall;evenifthismeantliftingtheflooroftheroomaboveifitwasbeingfittedintoanexistingsuiteofrooms.Asoneofthegreatshowrooms,thearchitectcouldmakeuseof itsgrandscaleandproduceroundordouble-cubedspaceswithalcoves,apses, imposing coffered or domed ceilings and shallow bowed windowslookingoutacrossthegardens.Itwashere that thebest piecesof artwork, sculpture and furniture couldbe

displayed,whileconcerts,ballsandotherentertainmentwereheldwithin.Astheroomwasnotusedfordining,wallcoveringsofdelicatefabricscouldbeusedandpaintingshungupon them.By the19thcenturymanysaloonshadbecomenomorethanpicturegalleriesandwerereferredtoassuch,becomingmoreofamuseumnowthatdancesandgreatgatheringswouldtakeplaceintheballroom.Glasspanelswereoftenfittedintheceilingtocastmorelightonthecollectionsondisplay.

TheDrawingRoomAs the medieval solar developed into the more luxurious great chamber, aseparatebedroomwasusuallybuiltoffitfortheowner.Betweentheseroomsanante chamberwas suppliedwhere the owner could take a privatemeal in thedaysbeforeaparlourandhisservantcouldsleeponastrawpalletandguardthedoor to his bedroom; a small space which was referred to as a withdrawingroom.By the late16thandearly17thcenturies thishadbecomemoreofaprivate

sittingroomwheretheownercouldkeephisfavouriteormostvaluablepiecesofart. InBaroquehouses, though, it formedpartof the stateapartmentsandwasnearlyalwayspositionedbetweenthesaloonandthebedchambers,becominganintimateroom,oftenwithalowerceilingthanthesaloonandhall,withdelicatefabrics on thewalls and curtains with pelmets around thewindows (before itbecame fashionable tohang them inall rooms). Itwas regardedas a femininespace.While the men smoked and drank back in the dining room, the ladieswouldwithdrawtowhatwasnowgenerallyreferredtoasthedrawingroom.Itsrolewasvague–youcouldfindcardtables,spinningwheelsorapianowithin,withmusic often being the theme of the decoration. Throughout the Regencyperiodtheinformalitygrew,withchairsgroupedaroundtheroomratherthanupagainst thewalls.TheFrench fashion forhangingamirrorabove the fireplace

becamepopular and therewas increased comfort and luxury,withupholsteredsofas and large draped pelmets gathered above the curtains. It retained itsfemininerolethroughoutthe19thcentury,alwayswithlighterdecorationandafemininetouch.Inmanyhousesitbecamethefinestorbest-positionedroom.

FIG7.8:Importantroomsinnew18th-centurycountryhouseswouldpreferablyformasingleordoublecube.However,whenrefittinganexistinghouse,movingwallstocreatetheseproportionswasnotusuallypractical.AtSyonHouse,London,RobertAdamwasfacedwithalongthinroom(A),soheinsertedascreenofcolumns(B)andanapse(C),thusmakingthespacebetweenthemadoublecube.

FIG7.9:AGeorgiandrawingroom,withalightercolourschemethanthediningroomandalessformalappearance.Smalltablesforplayinggames,especiallycards,wereverypopular.

BedchambersAs owners sought greater privacy during the 16th century, so a separatebedchamber became common. Although it could shut the owner off from hishouseholdatnight,itwasstillapublicroominwhichfriendsandguestscouldbe received.The four-poster bedwas the dominant and singlemost expensivepieceoffurniture in thehouse; itscurtainskeepingoutdraughtsandprovidingprivacyfromservants.Itwasusuallypositionedontheoppositesideoftheroomfrom thewindowwhich had a dressing table on thewall between.The ownerwould dress,wash and bathe in this roomalthoughby the late 17th century aseparatespaceforthiswasprovidedandtheolddressingtablebecamemoreofashowpiece.

FIG7.10:Abedchamber,witharailclosingoffthealcovecontainingthefour-posterbedandadoorwaytotheleftofitgivingaccesstoaprivatesleepingroom.(Railswereonlyashortlivedfashionandrarelysurvivetoday).

InthelargeBaroquehousesofthisdatethestatebedchamberwasattheendof the enfilade after the saloon and withdrawing rooms, although it was lessornatethanthosewhichprecededit.Therewasalsoafashionforpositioningthefour-posterbehindrailsorwithinanalcovedividedofffromtherestoftheroombycolumnswhichhelpedkeeptheroomclearforotherusesduringtheday.Itmadeagrandclimaxtotheprocessionofretiringtothestatebed(althoughtheremayhavebeenahiddendoortothesideofthealcovefortheoccupanttoaccessanothermoreprivatebedaftertheceremony).In the 19th century, as the principal roomsbegan to be sited on the ground

floor, the bedrooms moved upstairs, although it was usual to retain abedchamber on the ground floor for infirm or elderlymembers of the family.ThesenewroomstendedtobesmallerthantheoldstatebedchambersbutmorenumerousastheVictoriangentlemanwaslikelytobeentertaininglargepartiesofguestsratherthansmallerfamilygroups.

DressingroomsBythelate17thcentury,aseparatedressingroomwasusuallyprovidedoffthebedroom. The gentlemen’s version was known as a cabinet. It was whereWilliamIIImethisclosestcircleofministers; theword‘cabinet’still refers tothe seniorministers inagovernment today.Corner fireplaces,oriental artworkand small pictureswere popular in these rooms as they tended to have lowerceilingsthanthebedroom.Inthelate18thcenturyalady’sversionknownasaboudoir(fromtheFrenchverbbouder,meaning‘tosulk’)waspopular.Itwasaprivatesittingroomwhere the ladycouldsewor read in increasing luxury.As

bedchambersmoved upstairs and became the conventional bedroom, themalecabinetsnexttothemwereknownsimplyasdressingrooms.Anothersmall roomoff thebedchamberordressing roomwas thecloset,a

roomforkeepingtheclosestool(basicallyachamberpotcoveredbyahingedtop).Inearliermedievalhousesachamberpotwouldhavebeenusedinthegreatchamberbytheowner,whiletherestofthehouseholdusedseparategarderobeswhichweretinyroomsofteninatallextensionwithasimpleholeinaboardtoformatoiletseatandwitheitherearthbelowwhichcouldafterwardsbeusedasfertilizer or with a drop down directly into themoat. In 16th-century countryhousesaseparateclosetcouldholdtheclosestoolandmayhavebeennomorethanacupboard-sizedroomwithnolightorventilation.Thiswasbadenoughforthedignitarywhohadtouseit,butevenworseforthepoorservantwhohadtowalkthroughthehousewithapotfullofeffluentafterwards.Bythelater17thcentury,theclosethadbecomemoreofaprivatesanctuary,alargerroomwheretheownercouldexpecttobeseatedonsomethingmoreluxuriouslikeveneeredwoodor even a velvet seat, until the development of flushing toilets from thelate18thcenturymadeclosetsathingofthepast.

TheLongGalleryElizabethanswerewellawareofthelimitationsoftheEnglishweatherandbuiltthemselves huge long rooms, illuminated bymasses of glass windows, whichthey could use for recreation. These long gallerieswere in high fashion for arelatively short period from the mid 16th to mid 17th century; yet theirdistinctivelong,thinformisanotablefeatureofnumerouscountryhousesevenafterlateralterations.Theycanbemorethan150ftinlength,haveatleasttwowallsfullofglass,withwoodpanellingelsewhereandalongboardedflooronwhichpeoplecouldpromenade,whilstenjoying theviews.Theywereusedbyall the family for sports like real tennis, games, including billiards or shovehalfpennyonlongshuffleboards,andevenforworkoutsonearlydumbbellsorexercise chairs. Other long galleries were more educational, with portraits ofimportant dignitaries lining one of the long walls and symbols with hiddenmeanings in the plasterwork. Their shape, however, did not fit easily into thelater Baroque houses and although some were built in the 18th century forartwork, dances and after-dinner chats, many of the existing ones becamelibrariesorpicturegalleries.BytheVictorianperiodtheirrole,aswasusual,hadbeen takenoverbynumeroussmaller rooms,with thechildrennowplaying inthenursery,malerecreationinthebilliardsroom,theladiesusingtheirboudoirordrawingroom,topicaldiscussionsheldinthestudyanddancingtakingplace

intheballroom.

FIG7.11:LITTLEMORETONHALL,CHESHIRE:Agarderobeextensionwhichprotrudesfromthefrontofthebuilding;somethingwhichwouldneverbeacceptedonalaterhouse.Theright-handpictureshowstheinteriorofoneofthegarderobeclosets,withtheholeleadingdirectlydownintothemoat.

FIG7.12:LITTLEMORETONHALL,CHESHIRE:Thisspectacularlonggalleryisperchedontopofthesouthwing(seeFig1.1).Realtenniswasprobablyplayedhereastwoearly17th-centuryballswerediscoveredbehindthepanelling.

LibraryThe Renaissance gentleman educated in the Humanities may have startedgathering books but these precious items would not be kept in one particularplace until the 17th century. His collection was usually stored in the closet(keepingabookornewspaperinthetoilettodayisnotsuchanewidea!).Infact,

earlylibraries,whichatthetimewereverymuchamalepreserve,canoftenbefoundbuiltoffthecloset.IntheGeorgianperiod,collectingbookswasafashioninspired by an intellectual thirst for art and politics. Thus, the importance ofliteratureelevatedthelibrarytoastateroom,increasinglyusedbyallthefamilyasaplaceforletter-writing,playingcardsorasameetingplaceforguests.Openbookcasesbecamepopularfromthemid1700s,replacingearlierglasscabinets,while the awakening of interest in English history and literature later in thecenturyinspiredafashionforGothic-styledlibraries.

FIG7.13:Earlybookcasesusuallyhadglassdoorstoprotectthepreciouscontents.

ChapelTheimportanceofreligionindailylifeinmedievalEnglandmeantthatitwouldbeunthinkablenottohaveachapelorchurch,andusuallyboth,forthelordandhishouseholdinwhichtoworship.Theprivatechapelwasusedfordailyprayerswhile theparishchurchnextdoorwouldbeattendedby theowner,his family

andhouseholdeverySunday.Inlargerhousesthechapelwouldusuallyhaveacomfortablegalleryabovefor the lordandhis familywhichcouldbeaccessedfromtheirprivateapartments,while thehouseholdcoulduse themainbodyofthe room below. Chapels that survive today are often in the earliest part of ahouse, as very few new ones were built after the Reformation of the 1530s,althoughmanyhadalaterClassicalrefit.The situation, though, was very different for the Catholics who especially

after persecution in the wake of the Spanish Armada had to practise theirreligion in secrecy. Itwas from this date and into the 17th century that priestholes were built into the homes of practising Catholics, with their sons sentabroadtobecomepriestsandthenreturningassecretmissionaries,oftenbasingthemselvesatremotehomesofstaunchsupporters.Ingenioushidingplaceswerethus requiredforwhen thedreadedpursuivants (priesthunters)cameknockingandmanycountryhouses stillhavehiddenpassagesor secret chambers today.By the late 18th century, as anti-Popish feelings died down, Catholics werepermittedtohaveachapel,perhapsjustaconvertedroom,butitwasnotallowedtobevisibleassuchfromtheoutside.ItwasnotuntiltheCatholicEmancipationActof1829thattheycouldonceagainbuildnewchapelsandchurches.

FIG7.14:BADDESLEYCLINTON,WARWICKSHIRE:Thissacristy,aroomoffthechapelwherethevestmentsandsacredvesselswerestored,hasaninnocent-lookingboxwithacrossuponitonthefarwall.This,however,coversasecretpassageleadingtoapriestholewhichwasusedwhenthehousewasraidedin1591.TheCatholicpreachersmayhavehesitatedthoughiftheyhadrealisedtheholetheyweredroppingdownwaspreviouslythegarderobeshaft!

CHAPTER8

TheDownstairsRooms

Kitchens,SculleryandDairy

FIG8.1:Onecornerofanearly19th-centurykitcheninthebasementofacountryhouse,withanadjustableopenrange(left),dresserandtablebeingthemaincomponentsofthiskeyserviceroom.

It was one thing to excite guests with architectural magnificence and lavishdecoration, but the country house owner would also have to satisfy theirstomachs in order to leave them with a positive impression of his or herhospitality.Medievallordsareknowntohavespentanythingfromhalftothreequartersof theirentire incomeonfoodanddrink.EveninVictorianmansions,

vastsumswerespentonmaintainingspecialiststaffandbuildingsfortakingtheraw ingredients produced on the estate in at one end and supplying a widevariety of exotic meals at the other. The fittings and layout of most serviceroomswhichsurviveincountryhousestodaydatefromthisperiod.Bytheturnofthe20thcentury,foodanddomesticsupplieswereincreasinglycomingfromalocal wholesaler and hence there was less need for areas to process rawingredients, and many service areas became redundant or were converted tootheruses.

FIG8.2:Anarrangementofserviceroomsaroundakitchencourtyardofa19th-centurycountryhouse,witharrowsshowingthedirectionbywhichingredients,foodandthenthefinishedmealscouldreachthediningroom.TheVictorianswerethefirsttoplanthelayoutoftheserviceroomswitharealunderstandingofergonomics.Theroomswerecarefullyarrangedtomaketheproductionprocesssmoothwhilethebutler’spantryandhousekeeper’sroomwerelocatedwhereaneyecouldbekeptonpreciouscommodities,aswellasonthestaff.

Thestatusandmixofpeoplewhomannedtheseroomsalsochangedoverthecenturies.Thestricthierarchicalstructureofdiscreetservants,dressed inblackandwhiteuniformswhowouldneverspeakdirectlytotheiremployerisaratherlate development and far removed from earlier arrangements. The medievalhousehold was an all male community ranging from knights down to localpeasantswhowouldservetheirlordbutalsoeatanddrinkathistable.Themovetowards greater privacy gradually broke up this arrangement and by the 18thcenturytheengineroomofacountryhousewascomposedofmaleandfemaleservants,withawiderrangeofspecialistroomscoveringallaspectsofstorage,production, cooking and cleaning. Itwasonly in theVictorianhouses that thestructureofservantsstrictlyadheringtotherulesandregulationswithwhichwearefamiliarfromwatchingperioddramasontelevisionreacheditszenith.

TheKitchenThemost importantroomaroundwhichtheotherserviceroomswerearrangedwas the kitchen. Its position in relation to the country house was mainlydependant on a constant battlewith fire safety and the removal of the odoursproducedincooking.Itwasasmelly,noisyanddangerousplaceandnoteverylord thereforewanted it right next tohisdining room.The earliest kitchens inmedieval houseswere timber-framed or stone structures, often square in plan,withpointedroofsandalouvreopeningatthetop.Theywereseparatebuildingsinordertoreducetheriskofburningdownthemainhallifthekitchenwentupinflames.Thefoodwasbroughtfromherealongacoveredway,intothehousevia thekitchenpassage, throughthehallandupto thedaisorprivatechamberforthelord,afterwhichthehouseholdwereserved.By theTudor period, though, thekitchenwasoftenpart of themainhouse,

typicallyoneoftheroomsaroundthecourtyardorwithintheserviceendofthehall.Wallsmightbelime-washedplaster,withfloorsofstoneorbrickcoveredinstraworrushes.Ahearthsetinawidefireplacewasusedforroastingmeat;baking ovenswith arched openingswere built into thewall nearby; and therewouldhavebeenacharcoalstoveonwhichdelicatedisheslikesaucescouldbesimmered. Some had a separate boiling house with a large copper in whichstews, stock andmeats could be boiled. Although there would be a table forpreparation, there was limited other furniture since there were few cookingutensilsandimplementstostore.In the 17th century, the division which opened up between the polite and

servicesidesof thecountryhousesawthekitchenincreasinglymovedinto thebasementtokeeptheservantsoutofsightofthefamilyandguestsabove.Some

of the kitchens had stone-vaulted ceilings abovewhich helped reduce the fireriskwhile open rangeswith raised, iron fire baskets, holding the increasinglyavailable coal rather than wood, first appeared. In later Palladian houses thekitchenwasonthemoveagain,thistimeoutofthewayinaseparatepavilionorwingalthoughmanyofthemale-dominatedareaslikethebutlers’andstewards’roomsand thepreciousbeerandwinecellars remainedbelow themainhouse.Some still had large hearths, but most featured ever more elaborate roastingrangeswithmechanicalspitsandhobareastothesides.Wallsweresometimespaintedblueasitwasbelievedtorepelflies.Thehugekitchenswithmassesofstrange and elaborate deviceswhich feature on country house tours today areusually a product of the 19th century. In the earlyVictorian period it becamedifficulttoretainstaffasmanyvillagerswentofftoworkinthefactories,sothelady of the house became increasingly involved in the running of the kitchen.This prompted many to improve the standards below stairs or build better-designedservicecourtyardstotherearorsideofthehousefeaturingnewcast-ironranges,runningwater,betterventilationandnumeroustime-savinggadgetswhichweredesignedtomakelifeeasierandmorehygienic.

FIG8.3:STANTONHARCOURTMANOR,OXFORDSHIRE:Oneofthefewremainingmedievalkitchensinthecountrywhichhadacoveredpassage(apentize)leadingtothehallandparlours,withlouvresjustbelowtheconicalrooftoletoutthesmoke.

FIG8.4:This17th-centurykitchenhadthefire(A)containedwithinthemetalfiredogscookingthefoodsupportedoncobirons(B)andthespit(C).Aclockworkmechanismspinsthewheel(D)attheendofthespitthoughatthisdatemostwereprobablyturnedbyyoungboys.Thefatdrippingfromthejointsiscaughtinatraybelow(E);otherfoodisheatedinpotshangingfromtherail(F)andsparespitsarestoredabovethefire(G).Inthecornerisabakingoven(H)andastove(I),withfuelstoredintherecessesbelow(J),whilethegaps(K)aboveallowedairintofeedthecharcoalsheldonroundgridironsabove(likeamodernbarbecue).Potswereheldabovetheheatonmetaltrivetsorfromacrane(L)allowingthefoodtobecookedgently.Afeatureofcountryhousekitchenswhichappearsinallperiodsisthelargecentraltable(M)onwhichthemealswereprepared.

FIG8.5:AVictoriankitchenwithaclosedrangebuiltintoanoldfireplaceontheleftandanopenrangeretainedonthefarwall,withaspitinfrontturnedbyasmokejack.Thekitchenwastheengineroomofthehousewhichalongwithotherserviceroomswasfocuseduponprovidingthefamilyandguestswithaconveyorbeltofdeliciousandexcitingfoodandallthetrappingstheywouldexpecttoaccompanythemeals.

FIG8.6:Adiagramofaroastingrangeandsmokejack,withthestippledareashowingtheworkingswithinthechimney.Thesides(A)oftherangewereadjustableandcontrolledthesizeofthefire.Thespitinfrontofitwasturnedbythesmokejackwhichwaspoweredbysmokerisinguptheflue(B)spinningthefan(C)above,andturningtheconnectingshaftsandgears(D)which,viaahorizontalrodabovethefireplaceandapulleyattheend,spunthespit(E)below.

FIG8.7:(A)Abainmariewhichwasashallowsinkfilledwithhotwaterdesignedtocooksaucesorkeepthemwarm.Thecopperpotswithinhadtagsonthehandlestoidentifythecontents.(B)Awarmingtrolleywithmetal-lineddoorswhichwaswheeledinfrontofthefiretoheatthecrockerywithinandatthesametimeprotectedtheservantsworkingbehindfromtheimmenseheatwhichtherangesemitted.

Wallswere still lime-washed,white or yellow now,with glazedwhitewalltiles covering areas behind the sink, the range and sometimes the remainingwallsuptoacertainheight.Theroomwasoftentall,withwindowshighuporintheceiling,withrods toopen themandventilate theroom.Dressersstored thenowmassiveassortmentofutensilsandpans,knownas thebatteriedecuisine(originallymeaningcopperandbrasswarewhichwasbatteredintoshape),alongwithnumerousstrange-shapedmouldsbecausetheVictorianslovedjellies.Newtechnologies start to appear in the kitchen like steamcooking as boilers couldsupply itunderpressure tokettlescontaining foodorwarmingcupboards.Thecentreofthekitchenwasusuallydominatedbyalargewoodentable,oftenmadeofdeal,forpreparingthemeals,withslattedboardsaroundforservantstostandupon.

FIG8.8:A19th-centuryclosedrange,withlabelsofitskeyparts.Thesehaddevelopedfromthelate18thcenturywhenanironbakingovenwasplacedtoonesideoftheoldadjustablefireandaboilerplacedontheother.IntheVictorianperiodmoreefficientclosedrangesbecamepopularinwhichthecentralfirehad

anironplateaboveitandthehotfumeswereforcedoutaroundtheovenseithersideratherthanwastedstraightupthechimney.Circularhobsontopoftherangegaveagentleheatforsimmering(replacingtheoldstove)orcouldhavetheironcentrepartremovedtogiveamoreintenseheatandahotwaterboilerwasbuiltinbehindthefire.

FIG8.9:Afree-standingroasterwasplacedinfrontoftheopensectionofarange,withaclockworkmechanismatthetopwhichturnedthemeatwhiletheheatreflectingonthecurvedbackcookedit.

FIG8.10:A19th-centuryknifepolisherintowhichabrasivepowderwaspouredthroughaholeatthetop.Theknivesweretheninsertedintotheslotsnexttoitandwhenthehandleturned,itrotatedfeltpadswhichpolishedthebladeswithin.

Bakehouse,PastryandStillroomIn larger houses separate rooms were provided for some types of cooking orpreparation.One of thesewas the bakehousewhere bread, cakes, and biscuitswereproduced.Itwasideallyinaseparateblockoratleastasfarfromthehouseaspossiblesothattheflourdustandovenodourswouldnotpenetrateindoors,and tomake deliveries of food stuffs and fuel easier. The earliest ovenswerebrick and beehive-shaped,with a small arched opening andmay have taken anumber of days to reach the correct temperature. They proved to be better atbakingthanthecast-ironovenswhichwereintroducedwith19th-centuryranges,andmany survived into the 20th century. The roomwould also contain floorchests, bencheswith a trough for kneading the dough, and a sink forwashingutensilslikethepeel(thewoodenpaddleusedtoliftthebreadinandoutoftheoven).

FIG8.11:Thebeehive-shapedovenwasfirstfilledwithwood,coaloralocalfuelandheateduptotemperature.Thecharcoalorashwasthenremovedandthebreadputinbeforethedoorwassealedforbaking.Laterbricktypeshadadistinctivearcheddoorsetintothewall,usuallytothesideofthefire.

Afewlargerhouseshadapastryroomwhichoriginallywaswheremeatpiesand pastries were made, although by the 19th century it was used for theproductionof confectionery, sweets and tarts.These roomsareoften foundonthecoolnorthernsideoftheserviceblock,withtheoveninanadjoiningroominorder to keep the temperaturedown.The roomwould contain shelves andpinracks,bencheswithmarbletopsforrollingpastry,andbinsbelowforflour.Thestillroomwasoriginallyusedfor theproductionofperfumes,medicines

andcordialwaterswhichweremadefromflowers,herbsandspices.ThiswasanimportantroominmedievalandTudorhouseholds,usuallybeingrunbytheladyof thehouse.By the late17thcentury itwassited in thebasementand,as thearistocracywouldneverbeseen there, thehousekeeper tookchargeand itwasoften located next to her room. Polishes,waxes and soaps could be producedhere but these, along with distilling, died out during the 18th century as itbecameeasiertobuyintheproducts.Inthe19thcenturyitwasmainlyusedformakingpreserves,picklesanddesserts,andforstoringingredientsandpreparinglightmeals.

DairyThedairywasrareamongtheserviceroomsinthatitcouldbelavishlydesignedand decorated. Originally this was due to the involvement of the lady of thehouse who, up to the 19th century, could be found running its production ofunadulteratedmilk, butter, cheese, etc. By the late 18th century, however, thegentleman of the house became interested in all forms of agriculturalimprovement and the application of science to farm production, including thedairy. The room then became one with white tiled walls, a marble floor and

shelves,andinsomeacentralfountaintocooltheroom.Themilkwaspouredintoshallowpansandtubs,thenskimmersremovedthecreamwhichsettledontop.Thiswaseitherstoredinvasesorchurnedintubstomakebutterandcheese.Heatedpipeswouldhelpkeepthetemperaturesteadyinwinterat50–55degrees,whiletherewouldusuallybeacleaningareaoraseparatescullerynextdoorforwashingtheutensils,pansanddishes.Insomehousesthedairyworkwascarriedout in the scullery, with the dairy itself just being used for storage, a role itincreas ingly playedduring the 19th century asmore productswere bought infromoutsideratherthanmadeonsite.

FIG8.12:Adiagramshowing19th-centurydistillingequipmentwhichcouldbeusedtoproducecordialwaters.Thefurnace(A)heatedupamixofflowerpetalsorherbsinliquidwithinthebottomofthestill(B)andthesteamroseupandalongthethintube,condensinginthespiralwithinthewormtub(C)whichwasfullofcoldwater.

FIG8.13:Aviewshowinghowhygienicandyetornamentalsomedairieshadbecomebythelate18thandearly19thcentury.Thefountaininthemiddleemittedaspraytohelpkeepthetemperaturedown;whileskimmingdishes,pans,vasesandchurnsstanduponthelowstonetablearoundtheperimeter.

BrewhouseAnotherimportantproductionroomwasthebrewhouse.Inthedaysbeforesafedrinking water became available, beer was drunk at mealtimes, including atbreakfast. The brewhousewas tall in order to fit the copperswithin, andwasusually distinguished by louvre openings high up for ventilation. It would bepositioned to provide as easy access as possible for the deliveries ofmalt andhopstothetrapdoorandchutewhichledtothebeercellarunderthehouse.Thebeer produced varied in strength depending on its intended use,with small ortable beer made from the weaker wort produced in the final third mash andconsumed aswewould soft drinks today.Amedium strength brew called alewasmadefromthesecondmash,whileastrongaleormaltliquorwasproducedbyaddingextramaltintothefirstmash.Thislatterbrewwasusuallyforspecialoccasionslikethebirthofanheir,whenthealewasbottledandthenstoreduntilhiscomingofagecelebrations.

FIG8.14:Adiagramofthebasicbrewingprocess:(A)Waterisheatedtojustbelowboilingpointinalargecopper,withafirebeneaththetankandadoorwaybelowthisfromwhichtoremovetheashes.(B)Thewaterispouredintothemashtunandmaltaddedtoproducewortwhichispouredintotheunderback

below.(C)Thewortispumpedupintoeithertheoriginalcopperor,asinthisexample,intoasecondoneandisboiledupwithhops.(D)Thefinalmixtureisrunoffintocoolingtraysandthenintocasksforstorage.

SculleryThescullery (derived fromtheLatinwordscutellameaning‘asalverordish’)was where plates and dishes were washed. In the country house it was moreversatile and many of the messy tasks like peeling, chopping and washingvegetables, preparing meat for roasting and gutting fish were done here andhence it is usually found next to the kitchen. The sinks would preferably beunderthewindowsothosewashinguphadthebestlightinwhichtomakesurethe crockery and utensilswere clean. Early sinkswere carved out of stone ormade from wood lined with lead. By the 19th century, earthenware or chinasinks with wooden draining boards to the sides and plate racks above werecommon. In the days before centrally heated water was available, a separateboileroronebuiltintoarangewasessential,withthelatteralsousefulforsomecooking tasks.Therewouldhavealsobeenapumpforcoldwateruntila tankmountedinatowerenabledittobesuppliedunderthepressureofgravitytotapsprotrudingoutofthewallabovethesink.

ButteryandPantryTheword‘buttery’isofFrenchorigin,andcomesfromthesamesourceas‘butt’and‘bottle’.Itwaswherethecasksofbeerandotherdrinkswerestoredwhiletheywerebeingdispensed.Long-termstoragewouldusuallybeinthecellaroroutbuilding.Theword ‘pantry’ isderived frompanis, theLatin forbread, andwasoriginallywherethegrainandbreadwerekept.Itwasthususuallysitedatthe serviceendof themedievalhall so these staplepartsof themealcouldbeeasily distributed. The pantry was the responsibility of the pantler, while thebutterywas the responsibilityof thebutler.Although the latternamesurvived,thebutteryitselffadedfromuse,itsrolebeingtakenoverbythebutler’spantry.Thisisnottobeconfusedwiththepantrywhichstillappearsinlaterhousesandwasusedfor thestorageofdairyproductsandsomecookeddishes,aswellasbread,thoughinVictorianhousesitwasoftencalledthedrylarder.

LardersandcellarsThe larder (from the Latin lardum meaning ‘bacon’) was originally anoutbuildingwheretherawmeatwassaltedandstored.Bythe19thcenturytherewouldbeanumberofthemforspecificuses:thewetlarderwastheonewherepieces of meat were prepared and stored (it was called a butchery if whole

carcaseswerebroughtin);thedrylarderhadasimilarroletothepantry;whilefishandbaconlardersareself-explanatory.Gamelarderswereoftenaseparateroundoroctagonalstructurewheredeerandbirdswerehungbutbythelate19thcenturywhenshootscouldbagthousandsofgamebirdsatatime,largerroomswererequired,somewithprimitiveformsofrefrigeration.Thelarderhadtobecoolandsoisoftenfoundonthenorthofthebuilding.Ifnot,ithadoverhangingeavesorplantsshadingitswalls,whilewetclothmightbethrownovertheroofin the hottest ofweather.Windows could be part-or fully-covered in gauze topermita throughdraughtand tokeepout insects.Around thewhitewashedortiledwallswouldbe slate, brickormarble shelves,withhooks in the roof forhangingmeatandperhapsaniceboxforfishandcolddishes.Cellarswerealsoused for the long-term storage of beers and wines and, later, for the hugequantitiesofcoalwhichwererequired.

FIG8.15:Acoppersetinacornerofascullery.Waterwasheatedinthecirculartankheldwithinabrickorstoneframe.

FIG8.16:Anoldwoodenoctagonalgamelardersetintheshadeoftreesjustbehindtheserviceblockofacountryhouse.

Servants’roomsAstheownerseparatedhimselffromhisstaffandthey, in turn,becamewage-earning servants of a general, lower status, a separate servants’ hall wasprovided.Thismeant that theycouldeat theirmealsamong theservicerooms,out of sight of the lord and his guests and not cluttering up his splendid newmarbleandstoneentrancehall.Sometimescalledthecommonhall,theseroomswere provided with a long table and, in some, a little beer barrel on wheelswhichcouldrunupanddownitforthedispensingofdrinks.Althoughtheseniorservantswoulddinewiththerestofthestaff,theywouldusuallyretiretooneoftheirprivaterooms.Thebutler’spantrywasusuallyinthemainhouse,closetothediningroomsothatthebutlercouldtakechargeofservingthefood,butalsowith convenient access to the cellars and themain entrance.Within could befound thecontainersofdrink, table linen,crockery,cutlery,andglasseswhichwere in regular use, plusmaterials to clean them and perhaps a brick safe inwhich themorepreciouspieceswouldbestored.As itwasalsohisofficeandliving room, a table, chairs, wash-basin, fireplace and a bed could be foundcrammedintowhatwasoftenonlya12x12ftroom!

FIG8.17:Afeatureoffishlarders,beforethedaysofrefrigerators,wasaniceboxwhichwasusedforstoringfishandcolddishes.Icefromtheestate’sicehousewasputintothecompartmentatthesidewhichcooledthelead-linedinterior.

FIG8.18:Alineofbellswouldhavehungneartothebutler’spantrytotellhiminwhichroomservicewasrequired.Thebellswereconnectedbywiresintubestoeachroom.Previously,servantshadtositandwaittobesummonedbyhand-heldbells.

Itwasonlyfromthelater17thcenturythatwomenstartedtotakeasignificantrole within the country house and the housekeeper first appears. Heraccommodationwasusuallypositionedneartheserviceroomswhereshecouldkeepaneyeonthestaff,andwithadoorleadingdirectlyintothestillroom.Thebulkofthecrockerycouldbestoredhereonshelves(lateroneswithglassfronts)or in a separate china store close by, and also the table linen which she wasresponsible for cleaning and repairing. Again, as it was an office and sittingroom,therewouldbesimilarcontentstothebutler’spantry.Mosthouseswouldhaveastewardwhowasresponsiblefortherunningoftheestate,andhewould

usuallyhavebeenprovidedwithhisownroom,whilethecookwouldgenerallyusethehousekeeper’sroomforofficework.

FIG8.19:Ashallowstonesinkandpump,withvariouspiecesofequipmentusedinwashingwhichcouldbefoundinthelaundryorwashroom.

LaundryThelaundryorwashroomoriginallyhadalargecopperforboilingclothesandapump to bring inwater,while thewetwashingwas often simply draped overhedges and lawns to dry. Later houses would often have two rooms: a wetlaundrywhere thewashing took placewith boilers providing hotwater and aventintherooftoletthesteamout;andthedrylaundrywheretheairing,ironingand folding took place. This would contain drying racks suspended from theceiling, a rangeor stoveonwhich the irons could be heated and a large tablewhichwould have been coveredwith sheetingwhen in use.The centre of theroom was often dominated by a box mangle, a large, flat-bed trough which,when filled with stones, pressed down onto a bed below and flattened thepartiallydrylineninbetween.

CHAPTER9

TheGardensandEstate

Terraces,ParksandGatehouses

FIG9.1:LAMBETHPALACE,LONDON:ThegatehousewasoftenthemostimportantbuildingafterthemainhallinamedievalandTudorcountryhouse.Itnotonlydisplayedtheowner’spowerandwealthbutalsohousedaseniormemberofthehouseholdinitsupperrooms.Itisjustoneofthebuildingswhichcanbefoundtodayaroundthemainhousewhichwereoncevitalpartsofthegardensandestate.

TheGardens

There is evidence thatgardenswere laidoutwithin thegroundsofmedievalcastles and country houses. Some were small areas for growing herbs and

flowers,orforplayinggamesandrelaxing,whileotherswerepossiblylargerinscale.During the16thandearly17thcentury, as the countryhousedevelopedfrom an inward-looking defensive building to an outgoing display of wealth,gardensbecamean importantpartof thedesign.Theywereaplaceof leisure,withgames,playsandmasquesactedoutupon their lawns, andcontemplativewalks taken through flower beds and arbours. Knot gardens, with geometricpatterns formed from low box hedging (some designs reflecting theElizabethans’ love of secret symbols), were popular, as well as sundials,brightly-paintedstatuesandaraisedwalkwayoralargemountforviewingthescheme(lookforagrassed-overmoundupagainsttheedgeofagardentoday).Mazes were often laid out although at this date they were formed from lowhedgeswhichtheviewercouldseeover;thetallhedgedmaze,correctlytermedalabyrinth,wasalaterdevelopment.DuringtheRestoration, thereturningRoyalistsbroughtwiththemnewideas

on gardens from France, with rectangular beds of low hedging containingflowers and coloured gravels called parterres (a Frenchwordmeaning ‘on theground’) spread out from the house on amuch larger scale than the previousknot gardens. Terraces with balustrades, long rectangular water features withcascadesand fountains, and topiarycut intogeometric shapeswereamong thefeatures tobe found.With theaccession to the throneofWilliamandMary in1688, Dutch gardens became fashion able; usually smaller than their Frenchcounterparts, with more elaborate detailing, trees in tubs, lead statues and amania for tulips! Many shrubs were grown purely for their foliage and wereknownasgreens,beingbroughtinsideinwintertothegreenhousewhich,atthisdate, was a conventional building, often with accommodation above for thegardener.Thevalueoflighttoplantgrowthwasnotappreciatedatthisdate.

FIG9.2:TherearofanElizabethancountryhouse,withaknotgardenintheforeground,amazebehindthat,abanquetinghouse(rearleft)andamount(rearright)fromwhichtheschemecouldbeadmired.

FIG9.3:POWISCASTLE,POWYS:Aviewfromtheterrace,withitsbalustradesandstatues,overthislate17th-centurygarden.Theplainlawntotherightoriginallycontainedparterres,geometric-shapedpondswithfountains,statuesandacascadeflowingdownfromthenowdensely-woodedwildernessbeyond(farright).

The gardens also began to spread out into the estate, with arrangements ofhigh clipped hedges in geometric patterns called a wilderness laid out forwalkingwithin, althoughwhere this name survives today the area tends to bemoreappropriatelynaturalandwooded.

Duringthe18thcentury,thelandscapegardenwasdeveloped.Itwasinspiredby17th-centurypaintingsofclassicalscenesfeaturingexpansesoflawn,lakes,ruinedcastles, towersandtemples.ThegardendesignerswhotransferredtheseimagestotheEnglishcountrysidewereincreasinglyprofessionalmen,themostfamous of whom was Lancelot ‘Capability’ Brown, who gained the name‘Capability’ from his habit of informing clients that their gardens hadcapabilities.Inordertocreatethesevastexpansesofprivateparkland,theownerwould removevillagesand turnover fields.Thedispossessed localsmayhavebeen housed in a new village, well out of view of the house, butmanyweresimply evicted andmoved to the towns to findwork in the new factories andmills.The land they leftbehindwas transformed intogently rollingpark land,interspersedwithclumpsoftreesandlargeserpentinelakes(inalong,curvingshapelikethatofaserpent)andboundedbyathickbandoftrees.Despitethesesubsequent changes, the faint banks and ditches which marked the originalhomesandfieldscanstillbeseeninmanyparkstoday.

FIG9.4:Anaerialviewofan18th-centurylandscapegarden,withlabelshighlightingsomeofthefeaturestolookoutfortoday.Thehouseisnearthebottomrightcornerandissurroundedbyahaha(A).Inthemiddledistanceisaserpentinelake(B),formedbydammingthelocalstream,whichiscrossedbyaclassical-styledbridge(C),carryingthemaindrivefromthesimilarlytreatedgatelodges(D).Fromthedrive,visitorscanviewthevariouseyecatchingbuildings,includingamocktemple(E)overlookingthelakeorwanderdowntothegrotto(F),formedaroundthewaterfallcreatedonthedam.Tracesoftheoldvillage(G)andtheridgeandfurrowsoftheopenfields(H)whichweremovedwhenthegardenwascreatedcan

stillbeseenintheformoflumpsandbumpsintheopengrasswhichispunctuatedbyclumpsorindividualmaturetrees(I).

FIG9.5:MapsofNunehamCourtney,southofOxford,showingtheoriginalvillage(inred)nexttothemanorhousein1700andthere-sitedsettlementacenturylaterbuiltalongsidethenewturnpikeroadtomakewayforthenewNunehamHouseanditslandscapepark.

The17th-centuryformalgardenwasdesignedtobeviewedonfootfromfixedpoints, with straight avenues leading the eye into the distance. The landscapegarden, however, was to be appreciated by guests arriving in carriages, soclumpsof trees and eyecatching follieswere arranged so that the view slowlychangedtorevealdistantobjectsasvisitorsweredrivenalongthewindingroad.Withagrowingappreciationofnatureandthepicturesqueinthesecondhalfofthe18thcentury,ruinedgardenfeatures,grottos,shell-linedcaves,andfurnitureand buildings made from bark-covered wood became popular. The park alsocamerightup to thefrontdooralthoughthismeant that thedeerand livestockcouldwanderuptothehouse,too.Therefore,ahahawasdevised,(aditchwithaverticalwall one side and a slope theother), to stop the animals getting tooclose.

FIG9.6:Asectionthroughahaha,designedsotheownerlookingoutwouldseeview(A)wheretheditchisvirtuallyinvisible,givingunbrokenviewsoverthepark,whilethedeerlookingtowardsthehousewouldseeview(B),withawallpreventingitgettingclosertothehouse.

Bytheturnofthe19thcenturythearistocracywerebecomingboredwiththeplain expanses of green. A new breed of designers like Henry Reptonreintroduced formal beds of flowers, gravelwalkways and terraces around thehouse,whilethickerblocksoftreeswithgreatervarietywerelaidoutinthepark.Theseschemeswereoftensmallerthantheprecedinglandscapesso,inorderthattheownerwouldappeartohavealargerpark,eyecatchingfeatureswereerectedondistanthigherground.Theseremotetowersandobeliskscanoftenbefoundtodaymanymilesfromthehousefromwhichtheywereintendedtobeviewed.

FIG9.7:BIDDULPHGRANGE,STAFFORDSHIRE:ArestoredVictoriangardenlaidoutincompartments,withdifferingthemeslinkedbyserpentinepathsandtunnels,andcharacterisedbyexotictrees,rockyoutcropsandstructuresinspiredbybuildingsfromaroundtheglobe.

Victoriangardenswereinspiredbyavarietyofhistoricandexoticsourcesbutwere often compartmentalised. Different areas could be given over to formalplanting, water features, scenes from distant lands, or woodland. Priority wasgiventothecontentratherthanthestructureofthedesign,withplantsandtreeslaid out in such away that the individual plantwould be displayed at its bestratherthanforanycollectiveeffect.Shrubsandtreesfromallaroundtheglobecould now be nurtured in glasshouses before being planted out, especiallyconifers which, along with rhododendrons, formed distinctive dark barriersaroundcountryhouses.Sometreesandshrubswereplantedtomakearboretums;if only conifers were grown they were known as pinetums. Rock and wildgardens, shrubberies and ferneries were also popular towards the end of thecentury.Inthe20thcenturytheexpenseofrunningalargeteamofgardenersproved

toomuchformanyowners.Landwaseither left togrowwild,oftenbecomingovergrownwithrhododendrons,orwassoldoffforfarmingorbuilding,withtheoccasionalmature tree or garden feature appearing inmodern housing estates.Severalofthosegardenswhichhavesurvivedtothepresentdayhavenowbeenrestoredtotheiroriginalformorasnearaspossibletohowtheymighthaveonceappeared.

OrangeriesandconservatoriesIn the late 17th century therewas a fashion for growing orange trees in pots.Orangerieswere constructed to protect the trees inwinter,with the additionalbenefitthatthebuildingscouldbeusedforsocialfunctionsinsummerwhenthepotswereplacedoutside.Theseearlytypeswereoftenbuilt intoaterracewithjusta rowofwindowsexposedat the front; lateroneswerebuiltoffawallormightbefree-standing.Theyweretypicallybrickorstonestructures,withatiledroofandarowofsouth-facingwindowssetwithinalineofarchways(aloggia),althoughsomehadglassroofsinsertedlaterwhentheywereusedtostoreexoticplantsallyearround.Conservatories became a distinctive feature of 19th-century gardens. They

were built onto the house, with largemetal frames often cast with decorativearchesandwithvastareasofglasstohouseplantsfromaroundtheEmpire.Hotwater heating systems were used, while heat might also be obtained from afireplaceandflueontheothersideoftherearwall.Thehighmaintenancetheserequiredmeantthatmanywereabandonedorremovedinthe20thcentury.

Follies,monumentsandgrottosTherehavealwaysbeengardenstructureswithinwhichtosocialize,contemplateor appreciate the surrounding flora. In the 16th and 17th centuries therewerebanquetinghouseswheredinerscouldretireafteramealandenjoysweets(seeFig 7.5), and gazebos or summer houses from which they could admire theowner’sclevergardendesignsanddiscusstheirhiddenmeanings.Itwasinthe18thcentury, though,that thestrange,monumentalandexoticstructureswhichwetermasfollieswerebuiltaspartofthelandscapegardens.Theywerenotasuseless as the title implies, though.They acted as eyecatching features and asvenuesforgardenparties,musicrecitalsandsocialmeetings.

FIG9.8:TATTONPARK,CHESHIRE:Thisconservatorywasdesignedin1818butunlikemostlaterversions,itwasafree-standingstoneandglassstructureandstillholdsexoticgreenerytoday.

Althoughthemainhousehadtobebuiltwithstrictrulesandfashionsinmind,architects were given a much freer range with garden structures. Some werecopiesoftheroundtowerswhichfeaturedinthepaintingsofartistslikeClaudewhichhadinspiredthelandscapegardeninthefirstplace.OtherswerecopiesofRomanand laterGreek temples, triumphantarchesand rotundas,piecesof theAncientWorldrecreatedfortheownerfreshbackfromhisGrandTour.Gothicarchitectureappearsonthecountryestateinthemid1700s,agenerationortwobefore it would be considered suitable for the main house. With a growingappreciationofnatureandallthingBritishinthelate18thcentury,shamcastles,ruinedstructuresandfakeprehistoricstonecircleswereerected.AnothersourceofinspirationwastheexoticFarEast,withChinesepagodasandbridgesproving

especiallypopular.Statuesandmonumentsalsofeaturedintheseparkschemesanditisnotunusualtofindanimpressivestonepinnacleerectedtothememoryofafavouritepet.Inthe19thcentury,compartmentalisedgardenbuildingsfromahistoricperiodordistantlandaddedthesignaturetoagardentheme.

FIG9.9:Aselectionoffolliesrangingfrom(clockwisefromtopleft)Classicaltemples,Egyptianbuildings,Chinesepagodas,andGothickstructures(whichlookednothinglikegenuinemedievalbuildings).Theseexoticstyleswereoftenconsideredtoodaringforthemainhousebutwerehappilyusedinthegarden.ThefinestcollectionintheiroriginalsettingisprobablyatStoweLandscapeGardens,Bucks.

Lakes,fountainsandbridgesMoatswhichsurroundedlatemedievalmanorhouseswereprobablypartdisplayandpartfishpond(freshwaterfishwasavitalfoodsource).Fewwereeverbuiltto keep an army at bay. In the finest 17th-century gardens, long rectangularponds, often referred to as canals,were a distinctive feature. Some camewithcomplicatedwaterschemestosupplyfountainswithinthemandcascadesatthefarend.Inthe18thcentury,hugelakeswerebuiltaspartoflandscapegardens.They were usually formed by building a dam across an existing stream andflooding the bottom of the valley. To carry the main road up to the house,ornamentalbridgeswerebuilt.Oftendesignedby leadingarchitects, theywere

usually beautifully proportioned Classical structures with round or segmentalarches,balustradesandniches,andcarefullypositionedtofitinwiththeoverallscheme.

TheEstateTheestatewasthefoundationuponwhichallcountryhouseswerebuilt. Itnotonlyprovidedtheownerwithfinancialincomebutsuppliedthehousewithfood,materialsandmanpower,makingitrelativelyself-sufficientevenuptothe20thcentury. These estates are most likely to have been formed in the generalreorganisationoflandownershipwhichtookplaceafter theNormanConquest,althoughsomeestateboundariescandatebackmuchfurther.Duringthefeudalmedievalperiodthemajorityofthemoperatedasmanors,runbythelord(orhistenant in chief if the lord resided at another estate), from a castle or principalhouse(manorhouse).Theestateswouldcompriseademesne,landonwhichtheproducegrownwasforthelord’stableonly,whichthevillagerswouldhavetosenda familymember towork,aswellas supplyacertainamountofproducefrom their own fields.The remainder of the fieldswere used by the villagers,withdecisionsonhow itwouldbe farmedmadeat themanorhousewhich, inadditiontoitsroleaslocalcourthouseandcloseproximitytotheparishchurch,madeitthecentreofthecommunity.

FIG9.10:STOWELANDSCAPEGARDENS,BUCKINGHAMSHIRE:Classical-styledstonebridgeswereadistinctivefeatureoflandscapegardensandwereoftendesignedbyleadingarchitectsratherthanengineers.ThisPalladian-stylebridgewasapopularforminthemid18thcentury.

FIG9.11:WITLEYCOURT,WORCESTERSHIRE:Fountainscouldbedesignedwithhugejetsofwaterbutnonesotallasthisrestoredexample.Mostwerepoweredbygravity,withatankorlakeonhighergroundfeedingwaterdownpipestoasmalloutletwhichfocusedthejet.

Famine and then the Black Death in the 14th century played their part inbreakingupthissystem.Unabletofindpeasantstofarmtheirfieldsthelordofthemanorgrantedthelandtoanewbreedofindividualsinreturnforrent.Thus,the feudal peasants slowly became tenant farmers and the gentry becamelandlords. Themanor housewould still be fed by produce from its own land,althoughasthelandscapewasreorganisedbyenclosuresfromthe15thto19thcenturyahomefarmwasusuallyestablishedfromwhichitwouldbemanaged.ThevillagewhichhousedthestaffworkingtheestatewasoftenmovedorrebuiltduringtheGeorgianandVictorianperiod,principallysothattheapproachtothehousewouldcomplementthegrandbuildingandalsosotheownercouldkeepatightreinonwholivedthere.

StablesandCoachHousesEvery country house would have had stables close by in which were housedsaddlehorses,coachhorsesandcarthorses,togetherwiththeirfoals.Mostdatefrom the 17th to the 19th century and are usually foundwith a large archwayfeaturing a cupola and clock above which leads into a courtyard housing thestables,coachhouses,blacksmiths, joinersanda tackroom, the latterhavingafireplace to keep the leather warm and access up to a hay loft. Coaches hadbecomepopularwithalllevelsofthegentrybythelate17thcentury,andmostwouldhavetwo,abasiconeforeverydayuseandanotherofgreaterluxury.

HuntingandRacingHunting was the favourite pastime of medieval lords of the manor and mostestablisheddeerparksnear theirhouse inwhich tocontain theanimals.Thesewere usually roughly circular enclosures of up to 200 acres surrounded by aditchandbank,withafencealongthetopfromwhichthedeercouldbereleasedatthetimeofahunt.Asthisformofhuntingdeclinedinpopularityduringthe17thcenturysotheolddeerparkswereoftenturnedovertoagriculturealthoughtheirdistinctiveroundshapecanoftenstillbespottedonmapstoday.

FIG9.12:DUNHAMMASSEY,CHESHIRE:Thisstableblock(usedasacoachhouse)withitsdistinctivewhitecupoladatesfromthe1720sandoriginallycontainedabrewhouse,abakehouseandalargespaceforthecarriagehorses(ridinghorses,carthorsesanddairycowswerekeptinaseparateblock).

The fox had become the quarry of choice by the 18th century, bringingtogetherallranksoftheestatewiththemaster,usuallythelordhimself,leadingthepack,ahuntsmanresponsibleforlookingafterthehoundsandhuntservantstoorganisetheevent.Developmentsingunmakingmeantthatfromthelate17thcentury shooting replaced hawking and by the 19th century had become thepreferredsportofthearistocracy.

FIG9.13:Theoldditchessurroundingdeerparkscansometimesstillbefound.Theydifferfromthosewhichkeptlivestockoutofoldwoodswhichwouldhaveabankontheinsideedge(top).Becausetheyweredesignedtokeepthedeerwithintheenclosure,thebankwasontheouteredge(bottom).Thesefeatureswillbemuchreducedinheighttoday.

All these activities would have left somemark on the estate. For instance,therewould be kennels for the pack (usually on one of the estate farms) andstripsofwooded landoften labelledascoverts inwhich foxesandgamebirdscouldbeprotectedbeforethehuntorshoot.Anotherpopularpastimeinthe18thcenturywashorseracingandtheremayevenbeacircularorovaltrackmarkedonoldestatemaps.

HomeFarmsThefashionfornoblestobecomeinvolvedinagriculturalimprovementfromthe18th century produced a spate of new farm building, featuring the latesttechnologies.Bythemid19thcentury,thehomefarmoftheestatehadbecomemore like an efficient factoryproduction line rather than a rustic collectionofbarns. It would ideally be formed around a courtyard, with brick or stonebuildings containing some of the earliest farm machines At first these werepoweredbyahorsewheel(lookforaroundorpolygonalstructureonthesideofthefarminwhichtheanimalwalkedround),awaterorwindmill,andlaterbya

steam engine, the chimney ofwhich often survives today. Other buildings onthese model farms could have contained cattle stalls, stables, store rooms,poultry houses, cart sheds, and sometimes a dairy. The brewhouse andbakehousemightalsobehereratherthanintheservicerooms;oftennexttoeachother as the same skilledmanwas required for both processes. Outside therewouldbeahouseforthebailiff,stewardormanager,fromwhichaneyecouldbekeptonthefarm-hands’comingsandgoings.

DovecotesAnother essential feature of the estatewhich provided the owner of the housewithamorediverseassortmentoffood,especiallyinwinter,wasthedovecote.Thiswas a round or square structurewith a pointed roof and openings in thegables fromwhich thebirdscould flyout. Inside, thepigeons (doveswerenotkeptastheywon’treturnhome)nestedinrecesses,withaladderforservantstogain access to them.Although someearly examplesdo survive,most of thosewhichyouwillfindtodaydatefromthe17thto19thcentury.

FishpondsandWarrensAset of ponds inwhich fishwere reared for the lord’s tablewas an essentialfeature of anymedieval house, usually often in the form of a row of roughlytriangularpoolstieredoneaboveanother.Althoughmostwerelaterabandonedor filled inas sea fishbecamemorewidelyavailable, somewere incorporatedwithinlatergardenschemesandtheirdistinctiveshapecanstillbeidentifiedorspottedasdriedoutindentationsontheground.Themedievalestatewouldalsoprovidethehousewithanotherdelicacy–rabbit–whichwasintroducedbytheNormansandbredinpurpose-madelowbankscalledwarrens.

FIG9.14:Adovecote,withitsdistinctivetallformandaccessforthepigeonsinthetop.

ChurchesMostcountryhouseshaveachurchstandingnearbyandifthelatterbuildingismedieval in origin, then it can indicate that the site has been occupied by asubstantialhouse, insomecasesforovera thousandyears. ItwascommonforSaxon andNorman nobles to establish a church next to their halls as a statussymbolinordertoclimbthesocialladder.Thisonlyfellfromfashioninthelate12th century, by which time most medieval parish churches had beenestablished.Whenvillageswerelaterre-sitedorfellintodecline,thechurchwasleft behind next to the house, often receiving a Classical makeover or beingcompletelyrebuilttocomplementthestyleofhouse.TheCatholicEmancipationActof1829alsomeant thatsuppressedCatholicnoblescouldprayopenlyandfashionableGothicbrickchurchesappearedonsomeoftheirestates.

FIG9.15:WITLEYCOURT,WORCESTERSHIRE:An18th-centuryClassicalchurch,withitsdistinctiverectangularform,semi-circulararchedwindowsandclocktowerwithcupola,whichhadreplacedanolddecayingmedievalstructure.TheratherplainexteriorisinstarkcontrasttothespectacularwhiteandgoldRococointeriorwhichisoneofthefinestinthecountry.

Theownerofalargecountryhousewouldusuallyhaveaprivatechapel.Heand his family would only attend the parish church on a Sunday when theywouldexpectaprivatesetofpewsandevenafireplacesotheydidnothavetosuffer thesermonindiscomfort. Itwasalso thepracticefor thechurchtoholdthe familymonuments, usually in a side chapel or aisle.Evenwhen thenobledecidedtomovehisseattoanotherofhishouses,familyburialswouldstilltakeplaceintheoriginalparish.

IceHousesIcehouseswerebuilttokeeplargequantitiesoffrozenwateravailableallyearround. Theywere insulated pits covered by a brick domewith an air vent toreduce damp (which acceleratedmelting), with access through a small tunnelwith at least two sets of doors to keep the interior cool. The ice would becollected inwinter froma lake,pondor canalbyestateworkers,usinghooks,malletsandrammers.Itwasthendraggedalongtotheicehousewhereitwouldbebrokenupandcompactedinthebottomofthepitwithstrawlaidbetweenforinsulation.Fortheicetolastthewholeyear,thepositionandconstructionoftheicehousewerecritical.Forconvenience,itwasusuallysitednearthesourceoftheiceandbuiltintoaslopesothatanymeltwatercouldflowoutofthebottom.

Itwasoftensurroundedbytreesforshade.Asyoucanimagine,theicecollectedoffthetopofthelakecouldbeprettymuckyandwasonlyusedtocoolbottlesorwasplacediniceboxes.Onlyimportediceavailablefromthemid19thcenturywasofgoodenoughqualitytobeplaceddirectlyintodrinks.

FIG9.16:Asectionthrougha19th-centuryicehouse.Doorssetalongthetunnelwouldleadtothepitinwhichtheicewasheld,withanironorwoodengrateatthebottomwhichallowedanymeltwatertodrainoffviathepipewhileasandwichofbrick,stone,charcoalandclayinsulatedtheinterior.Allthatmaybeseentodayisthegatedentrancetoatunnelsetinthesideofamoundwithinawoodedarea.

GatehousesandLodgesGatehouseswerebuilttostrengthenthedefencesoftheentrancetoacastleand,later,towalledmanorhouses.Bythe15thcentury,though,theyweremorefordisplay than for military reasons. A senior member of the lord’s householdwould reside in the roomabove thegatewhileaporter controlledentry to thecourtyardbeyond (as is still thecaseatmanyancientuniversitiesandcollegestoday).Thelastgatehouseswerebuiltintheearly17thcentury.Afterwards,withtheboundaryoftheparkmovingfurtherawayfromthehouse,apairoflodgeseither side of the entry to themain drive became the norm.Classically-styledlodges in the18th century andquaintGothicor Italianate cottages in the19thcenturyusuallyhousedanelderlymemberofstaffwho,atthesoundofahornorwhistlefromanapproachingcoach,wouldopenthegates.

FIG9.17:STOKESAYCASTLE,SHROPSHIRE:A16th-century,timber-framedgatehouse,withaccommodationaboveforaseniormemberofstaff.

FIG9.18:BURTONAGNESHALL,DRIFFIELD,EASTYORKSHIRE:Anearly17th-centurygatehouse,withdistinctiveogee-shapedcapstothetowersandoddproportionstotheClassicalornamentsabovethesemi-circulararchedopening.Thehallbehindwasbuiltfrom1601–10toadesignattributedtoRobertSmythson,althoughnexttoittheoriginal12th-centuryhallcanstillbevisited.

SECTIONIII

QUICKREFERENCEGUIDE

PLACESTOVISIT

This is a list of thehouses featured in thebookwhich are open to thepublic.HousesmaintainedbytheNationalTrustaremarked(NT)andthosebyEnglishHeritagemarked(EH).See theFurtherInformationonpage121fordetailsonvisitingtheseproperties.

BaddesleyClinton(NT),RisingLane,BaddesleyClinton,Knowle,SolihullB930DQTel.01564783294Fig7.14Acharmingmedievalmoatedmanorhouse,withsecretpriestholes.

BeltonHouse(NT),Grantham,LincolnshireNG322LSTel.01476566116Fig3.1Abeautifulandlargelyunalteredlate17th-centuryhouse.

BaddesleyClinton

BiddulphGrangeGardens(NT),Biddulph,StokeonTrentST87SDTel.01782517999Figs5.22,9.7,9.9NotableVictoriangardensrestoredbytheNationalTrustaroundanItalianate-stylehouse.

Blackwell,theArtsandCraftsHouse,Windermere,CumbriaLA233JTTel.01539446139;www.blackwell.org.ukFigs6.15,7.1OutstandingArtsandCraftsinteriorfromtheturnofthe20thcentury.

BlenheimPalace,Woodstock,OxfordshireOX201PXTel.08700602080;www.blenheimpalace.comFigs3.5,3.9DesignedbyJohnVanbrughforthe1stDukeofMarlboroughandbuiltbetween

DesignedbyJohnVanbrughforthe1stDukeofMarlboroughandbuiltbetween1705–22.ItisoneofthefinestBaroquemansionsinthecountry.

BlicklingHall(NT),Blickling,NorwichNR116NFTel.01263738030Figs2.6,2.11Anexcellentexampleofanearly17th-centuryJacobeanhouse,withanotablelonggallery.

BrodsworthHall(EH),Brodsworth,Doncaster,YorkshireDN57XJTel.01302724969Fig5.14Abeautifully-restoredmidVictoriancountryhouse,withgardensreplantedtotheiroriginalform.

BlackwellArtsandCraftsHouse

BuckinghamPalace,LondonSW1A1AATel.02077667300;www.royalcollection.org.ukFig5.2TheoriginalBuckinghamHousewasrebuiltbyJohnNashandEdwardBlorefromthe1820sandrefacedin1913toformthefamouspalaceweseetoday.

BurghleyHouse,Stamford,LincolnshirePE93JYTel.01780752451;www.burghley.co.ukFigs2.2,2.10Largelyintact,late16th-centuryprodigyhousebuiltforElizabeth’sLordTreasurerWilliamCecil,with18th-centurylandscapedparklandbyCapabilityBrown.

BurtonAgnesHall,Driffield,EastYorkshireYO254NBTel.01262490324;www.burtonagnes.comFig9.18AnElizabethanhouse,withanotablegatehouseandtheoriginalNormanhallstillstandingnexttoit.

CalkeAbbey(NT),Ticknall,DerbyshireDE737LETel.01332863822Fig7.7Aremarkablyuntouched,early18th-centurymansion.

CapesthorneHall,Siddington,Macclesfield,CheshireSK119JYTel.01625861221Fig5.1Anancientsite,withahouserebuiltintheEarlyVictorianperiodinanearly16th-centurystyle.

CastleDrogo(NT),Drewsteignton,ExeterEX66PB

ExeterEX66PBTel.01647433306Fig5.28Anearly20th-centurycountryhouse,builtinthestyleofacastletodesignsofSirEdwinLutyens.

CastleHoward,Malton,NorthYorkshireYO607DATel.01653648333;www.castlehoward.co.ukFig3.4OneofthegreatcountryhousesdesignedbySirJohnVanbrughin1699andbuiltintheBaroquestyle.

BurtonAgnes

Chatsworth,Bakewell,Derbyshire,DE451PPTel.01246582204;www.chatsworth.org

Fig3.6OneofthemostfamouscountryhouseswhichhasbeenintheCavendishfamilyforover450yearsandwhichhasdevelopedpiecemeal,withnotablelate17th-andearly18th-centuryfaçades.EdensorvillageisanexcellentexampleofarelocatedvillagebuiltwithpicturesquehousesintheearlyVictorianperiod.

ChiswickHouse(EH),BurlingtonLane,LondonW42RPTel.02079733292Fig4.2ImportantearlyPalladianhousebuiltfrom1725–29byLordBurlington.

Cragside(NT),Rothbury,Morpeth,NorthumberlandNE657PXTel.01669620333Fig5.16Domesticrevivalhousebuiltinthe1870stodesignsbyRichardNormanShawfortheinventiveLordArmstrong.

Cronkhill,AttinghamParkEstate(NT),Atcham,ShrewsburySY56JPTel.01743708123Fig5.8AnItalianatevilladesignedbyJohnNashin1805andpartoftheAttinghamParkEstate.

DunhamMassey(NT),Altrincham,CheshireWA144SJTel.01619411025Fig9.12Ahousewithelementsofmostperiods,whichretainsitsmedievalmoatanddeerpark.

HaddonHall,Bakewell,DerbyshireDE451LATel.01629812855;www.haddonhall.co.ukDramaticallysituatedmedievalhouse,withnotablelonggallery.

HamptonCourtPalace,KingstonuponThames,SurreyKT89AUTel.08444827777;www.hrp.org.uk/HamptonCourtPalaceFig1.4andpage114FamouspalaceoriginallybuiltbyCardinalWolseyuntilhefelloutoffavourwithHenryVIIIwhotookitoverandextendedit,withfurtherworkbyWreninthelate17thcentury.

HardwickHall(NT),DoeLea,Chesterfield,DerbyshireS445QJ.Tel.01246850430Fig2.1Famouslate16th-centuryprodigyhousebuiltforBessofHardwicknexttotheoldhall(managedbyEnglishHeritage)whichwascompletedonlyafewyearsbeforeshebeganworkonthecurrentbuilding.

HatfieldHouse,Hatfield,HertfordshireAL95NQTel.01707287010;www.hatfield-house.co.ukFig2.8AmagnificentJacobeanhousewhichhasbeenintheCecilfamilyforover400years.

HighclereCastle,HampshireRG209RNTel.01635253210;www.highclerecastle.co.ukFigs5.3,9.9AnEarlyVictoriancastleformhouse,usedrecentlyasTV’sDowntonAbbey.

HolkhamHall,Wells-next-the-Sea,NorfolkNR231ABTel.01328710227;www.holkham.co.ukFig4.3Aclassicmid18th-century,Palladian-stylehousedesignedbyWilliamKent,withaspectacularmarblehall.

KedlestonHall(NT),DerbyDE225JH

DerbyDE225JHTel.01332842191Figs4.4,4.5,7.4Amid18th-centuryPalladianhouse,withsomeofthebestexamplesofRobertAdam’swork.

LittleMoretonHall(NT),Congleton,CheshireCW124SDTel.01260272018Figs1.1,7.11,7.12Famoustimber-framedhousedatingfromthelate15thto16thcentury,withnotableglazedwindowsandlonggallery.

Longleat,Warminster,WiltshireBA127NWTel.01985844400;www.longleat.co.ukFig2.5Oneofthefinestcountryhousesbuiltfromthe1560sbySirJohnThynne,withalandscapedparkbyCapabilityBrown.

LowtherCastle,Askham,Penrith,Cumbria,CA102HGTel.01931712192;www.lowther.co.ukFig5.7Beautifullyset,early19th-century,castle-stylemansion,nowjustashellbutwiththegroundsundergoingrestorationandopentovisitors.Visitthewebsitefordetails.

LymePark(NT),Disley,Stockport,CheshireSK122NXTel.01663762023Figs2.12,4.1A16th-centuryhouse,withagraceful,early18th-centuryfrontoverlookingthelake.

NetherWinchendonHouse,nrAylesbury,BuckinghamshireHP180DYTel.01844290101;

www.netherwinchedonhouse.comFig5.5Ahousewithmedievalorigins,butwithamakeoverinthelate18thcenturyintheGothickstyle.

LymePark

PowisCastle(NT),WelshpoolSY218RFTel.01938551929Fig9.3Medievalcastleinoriginbutnotablenowforitsgardens.

RoyalPavilion,Brighton,EastSussexBN11EETel.01273292746;www.royalpavilion.org.ukFig5.9AreworkingofanearlierhouseinanIndianstylebyJohnNashfrom1815–23.

ShugboroughHall,Milford,StaffordST170XBTel.01889881388;www.shugborough.org.uk

Figs4.6,5.10,9.9AreworkingintheNeoClassicalstyle,ofanearlierhousewhichisnotabletodayasaworkingestate,muchasitwouldhavebeeninthe19thcentury.

Standen(NT),EastGrinstead,WestSussexRH194NETel.01342323029Fig5.18OneofthefewArtsandCraftshousesopentothepublic,designedbyPhilipWebbwithMorrisandCointeriorsanddemonstratingthemovement’sideasofusinglocalmaterialsandretainingoriginalfeatures.

StantonHarcourtManorHouseandGardens,MainRoad,Witney,OxfordshireOX295RJTel.01865881928Fig8.3Medievalsite,withrarekitchen.

StokesayCastle(EH),CravenArms,Shropshire,SY79AHTel.01588672544Figs1.2,1.8,9.17Anotablemedievalfortifiedmanorhouse,completewithitsoriginalhall,solar,fortificationsandlatertimber-framedgatehouse.

StoweHouse,StoweSchool,BuckinghamMK185EHTel.01280818229;www.shpt.org.Figs4.18,9.9,9.10Amagnificent18th-centuryhouse,withhugemarblesaloon.Thehousewassoldin1922andisnowpartoftheschool,whilethenotablelandscapedgardensaremanagedbytheNationalTrust.

SudburyHall(NT),Sudbury,Ashbourne,DerbyshireDE65HTTel.01283585305.Figs3.2,3.15Alate17th-centuryhouse,withearlierJacobeanelementswhichmadeitrather

outdatedwhenitwasbuilt.Notablelonggalleryandcarvedstaircase.

SuttonScarsdaleHall(EH),Chesterfield,DerbyshireS445URTel.01604735400(regionaloffice).Fig3.14TheshellofanearlyGeorgianhousewhichwasassetstrippedinthe1920s.Asyouarefreetowanderaround,itgivesauniqueopportunitytoseehowthestructurewasbuilt.

TattonPark(NT),Knutsford,CheshireWA166QNTel.01625374400;www.tattonpark.org.ukFigs4.7,9.8NeoClassicalhouse,notableforitsestatebuildings,gardensandparkland.

Tyntesfield(NT),Wraxall,NorthSomersetBS481NTTel.01275461900.Fig5.12AnoutstandingexampleofaGothicRevivalcountryhouse.

Uppark(NT),SouthHarting,Petersfield,HampshireGU315QRTel.01730825415Fig3.3Anexcellentexampleofalate17th-century,Dutch-stylehouse.

WaddesdonManor(NT),Waddesdon,Aylesbury,BuckinghamshitreHP180JHTel.01296653211;www.waddesdon.org.ukFig5.15SpectacularFrenchchateau-stylehousebuiltontopofahillinthe1870sand’80s.

WightwickManor(NT),WightwickBank,Wolverhampton,WestMidlandsWV68EE

WestMidlandsWV68EETel.01902761400Figs5.17,5.24ArtsandCrafts-stylehouseandinterior.

WitleyCourt(EH),GreatWitley,WorcestershireWR66JTTel.01299896636.Figs4.17,6.9,9.11,9.15AJacobeanhouserebuiltintheearly19thcenturybutnowstandingasashell.Notablenotonlytounderstandthestructureofthehousebutalsoforthespectacularfountainsandchurchwhichhavebeenrestoredtotheirformerglory.

WollatonHall,NottinghamNG82AETel.01159153900;www.wollatonhall.org.ukFigs2.3,2.15Excellentexampleofalate16th-centuryprodigyhouse,setinparklandclosetothecitycentre.

WightwickManor

FURTHERINFORMATION

Thelargestcollectionofcountryhousesis inthehandsof theNationalTrustandmembership canoffer youunparalleledvalue to access someof the finestpiecesofarchitectureandartinthecountry.Formoreinformationandaguidetovisitingtheirhousesvisitwww.nationaltrust.org.ukAnumberofotherhousesandcastlesaremaintainedbyEnglishHeritageand

membership and visiting details can be found on their websitewww.englishheritage.org.ukForageneralguidetovisitingcountryhousesIwouldrecommendHudson’s

Historic Houses & Gardens Guide which is published annually, listing allproperties open to the public, including those in private hands. For moreinformationandtopurchasetheguide,visitwww.hudsonsheritage.com

There is an immensewealth of information nowonline about specific houses,their history and visiting them. Just enter the name of the property into yoursearch engine. Here are a few other sites with more general information andlinkstofurthersources:www.buildinghistory.org:Informationonallbuildingtypes.www.british-history.ac.uk:InformationonmanorsandhousesfromeachcountyheldwithintheVictoriaCountyHistoryseries.

www.stately-homes.com:Gazetteerofpropertiestovisit.www.dicamillocompanion.com:Briefguidestocountryhouses.www.lostheritage.org.uk:Fascinatinginformationondemolishedcountryhouses.

ThisbookformsjustpartofaseriescoveringallaspectsofperiodhousesfromtheTudoragetothe1950sandbuildinghistories,includingcastlesandabbeys.Visitwww.countrysidebooks.co.ukforfurtherinformation.

Belowarelistedafewotherbookswhichhavefurtherinformationaboutcountryhouses:

Cruickshank,DanTheCountryHouseRevealed:ASecretHistoryoftheBritish

AncestralHomeGirouard,MarkLifeintheEnglishCountryHouse:ASocialandArchitectural

HistoryJenkins,SimonEngland’sThousandBestHousesMusson,JeremyandBarker,PaulEnglishCountryHouseInteriorsPevsner,NikolausTheBuildingsofEnglandseries

(yalebooks.co.uk/pevsner.asp)Sambrook,PamelaA.andBrears,PeterTheCountryHouseKitchen1650-1900(NationalTrust)

TIMECHART

GLOSSARY

abutment:Awallwhichsupportsthearchofabridgeorvaultedceiling.aisle:Asidespacerunningalongahallandseparatedbyarowofpostsor

columns.anthemion:Adecorativehoneysuckleflower.apse:Asemi-circularareaatoneendofachurchorroom.arcade:Arowofarchesandcolumns.architrave:Thelowestpartoftheentablatureandthesurroundofadoorway.ashlar:Blocksofsmoothstonemasonrywithfinejoints.astylar:Afaçadewithnoverticalfeatureslikecolumns.atrium:Atoplitcourtrisingthroughanumberofstoreys.balustrade:Arowofdecorateduprights(balusters)witharailalongthetop.blind:Anarcade,balustradeorporticowheretheopeningsarefilledin.bonding:Thewaybricksarelaidinawallwhichcanberecognisedbythe

patternmadebytheheaders(shortendofabrick)andstretchers(longsideofabrick).TwocommonformsareEnglishbond,witharowofstretchersabovearowofheaderswaspopularinthe16thand17thcentury,andFlemishbond,withrowsofalternateheadersandstretcherswhichlargelyreplacedtheEnglishbondbythe18thcentury.

capital:Thedecoratedtopofacolumn.cartouche:Ausuallyoval-shapedtabletfeaturingacoatofarms.caryatids:Femalefiguressupportinganentablature.casement:Awindowwhichishingedattheside.castellated:Abattlemented

feature.Coadestone:Aformofceramicstonewhichwasmadeinthelate18thand

early19thcenturyandnamedafteritsoriginalmanufacturerEleanorCoade.Therecipewassubsequentlylost.

cofferedceiling:Aceilingwithsunkenpanels(coffers).colonnade:Arowofcolumnssupportinganentablature.cornice:Topsectionofanentablaturewhichalsofeaturesaroundthetopof

interiorandexteriorwalls.console:Anornamentalbracketwithan‘S’-shapedcentre.cupola:Asmalldomedroundorpolygonaltowerwhichstandsontopofaroof

ordome.dormerwindow:Anuprightwindowsetintheangleoftheroofcastinglight

intoanatticroomwhichwasusuallyusedforsleepingquarters(fromtheFrenchverbdormer–‘tosleep’).

doublepile:Ahousewhichistworoomsdeep.dripmoulding:Amouldingrunningalongthetopofawindowtoprotectit

fromrain.eaves:Theroofoverhangprojectingoverawall.entablature:Thehorizontalfeaturesupportedbycolumns.entasis:Astraight-sidedcolumnappearstocurveinwardssoGreeksmadethem

slightlythickerinthemiddletocounterthiseffect.fluting:Verticalconcavegroovesrunningupacolumnorpilaster.frieze:Themiddleoftheentablature.gable:Thetriangular-shapedtopofanendwallbetweentheslopesofaroof.hippedroof:Aroofwithaslopeonallfoursides.Agabledroofhastwo

verticalendwalls(gables).jambs:Thesidesofadooropening.keystone:Thetop,centrestoneofanarchwhichcanbeprojectedoutasa

feature.lantern:Asmalltowerontopofadomewhichletsinlighttoilluminatethe

interior.lintel:Aflatbeamwhichisfittedaboveadoorwayorwindowtotaketheload

ofthewallabove.loggia:Agalleryorcorridoropenononeside,witharowofcolumns.louvre:Anopening,usuallywithslats,throughwhichsmokecanescapefroma

hearth.mansardroof:Aroofwithasteep-sidedlowersectionandlowpitchedtoppart

whichcreatesmoreroomintheatticbelow.moulding:Adecorativestripinwood,stoneorplaster.mullion:Theverticalbarsofawindow.oculus:Acircularopening,oftenonadomeormansardroof.oratory:Asmallprivatechapel.orders:Thedifferentstylesofthecolumnandentablaturetogetherfrom

Classicalarchitecture.orielwindow:Alargeprojectingwindow.parapet:Alowwallrunningalongtheedgeoftheroofabovethemainwallor

alongthetopofahippedroofon17th-century,Dutch-stylehouses.pediment:Alowpitchedtriangularfeature,supportedbycolumnsonthetopof

aporticoorClassicaldoorway.pianonobile:Theflooronwhichtheprincipalroomsarecontained,usually

abovearaisedbasementorgroundfloor.

pilaster:Arectangularcolumnprojectingslightlyfromthewall,withthesametreatmentatthetopandbottomasafree-standingcolumn.

portico:Aporchwithaflatentablatureortriangularpedimentsupportedoncolumns.

plinth:Theprojectingbaseofawallortheblockonwhichacolumnstands.quoins:Dressedstonesatthecornerofbuildings.rotunda:Acircularbuildingwithadomeontop.rustication:Thecuttingofmasonryintoblocksseparatedbydeeplinesand

sometimeswitharoughhewnfinish.OftenusedtodistinguishthebasementofPalladianhouses.

sash:Awindowwhichslidesvertically(aYorkshiresashslideshorizontally).shaft:Themaincylindricalpartofacolumn.sill:Thehorizontalbeamatthebottomofawindow,doorortimber-framed

wall.solar:Anupperwithdrawingroombehindthelord’sendofamedievalhall.stucco:Adurablesmoothplastercoatingappliedtotheoutsideofhousesoften

overbrickinlieuofstone.ItwasparticularlypopularintheRegencyperiod.tracery:Theribsatthetopofastonewindowwhichareformedintopatterns

(usuallyonchurches,chapels,andmedievalhalls).transom:Thehorizontalbarsofawindow.tympanum:Theflattriangularspacewithinapediment.vault:Anarchedceilingformedfrombrickorstone,andsometimesimitatedin

plasterandwood.Venetianwindows:Awindowinthreeverticalsections,thecentreonebeing

tallerandarched.voissoir:Awedge-shapedstonewhichformsanarch.

INDEX

Adam,Robert37,43,49,66,67,68,72,78,81,118,122ArtsandCrafts55,56,57,58,60,66,69,71,72,74,75,77,115,116,119,120

BaddesleyClinton,Warwicks86,115Baroque26–27,28,29,30,31,34,35,36,37,55,64,66,73,80,81,83,115,

116bedrooms/chambers29,40,58,81,82–83BeltonHouse,Lincs24,115BiddulphGrange,Staffs59,104,106,115billiardsroom57,58,64,75,85Blackwell,Windermere72,75,115,116BlenheimPalace,Oxon27,30,115BlicklingHall,Norfolk19,21,115brewhouse11,88,95–96,110Broadleys,Windermere60BrodsworthHall,SouthYorks54,115BuckinghamPalace,London46,116BulstrodePark,Bucks52BurghleyHouse,Lincs16,21,116BurtonAgnesHall,EastYorks113,116,117

CalkeAbbey,Derbys80,116Campbell,Colen35,37CampdenHouse,ChippingCampden79CapabilityBrown,Lancelot102,116,118CapesthorneHall,Cheshire45,116CastleDrogo,Devon62,116CastleHoward,Yorks27,116ceilings67–69,77,78,79chapel/church11,86,110–111,120ChatsworthHouse,Derbys27,28,117chimneys13,16,21,25,26,31,35,49,51,60,67,70–71ChiswickHouse,London35,37,40,117ComptonWynyates,Warwicks12

conservatories58,61,105Cragside,Northumberland56,117Cronkill,Salop50,117

dairy87,88,94–95DeaneryGardens,Sonning60deerpark108–109,117diningrooms29,39,58,79–80,82,88,89doors/doorways10,12,22,30,72drawing/withdrawingrooms29,39,58,64,81–82,85DunhamMassey,Cheshire108,117

farms,home109–110fireplaces13,21,64,70–72,77,83,89,91floors69–70follies105–106furniture79,80,82,83,85,87,89,99

garderobe8,84,86gardens23,100–105,119,120gatehouse8,9,11,14,23,100,112–113,119Gibbons,Grinling66,122Gothick/GothicRevival47,48,49,52–53,59,60,64,66,70,119,120greatchambers20,29,78–79,81,83green/glasshouse58,101,104

HaddonHall,Derbys85,117hall9,10,11,14,17,18,19,20,23,28,29,30,39,40,58,65,73,74,75,76–77,

80,81,97,110,116,119HamptonCourt,Surrey11,114,117HardwickHall,Derbys15,19,22,77,118HatfieldHouse,Herts20,118Heathcote,Yorks57HighclereCastle,Hants47,106,118HolkhamHall,Norfolk36,118hunting/shooting46,108–109

icehouse111–112Italiante49,50,54,59,115,117

Jones,Inigo18,26,35,36,122

KedlestonHall,Derbys36,37,78,118kitchen11,14,19,20,23,28,29,40,58,80,87,88,89–93,96,119

LambethPalace,London100larder/pantry20,29,88,97–98library39,85LittleMoretonHall,Cheshire8,84,118longgallery19,20,84–85,115,117,119LongleatHouse,Wilts19,118LowtherCastle,Cumbria50,118Lutyens,SirEdwin57,60,116,122LymePark,Cheshire22,33,118

manor/manorhouse9,14,107–108MereworthCastle,Kent40morning/breakfastroom57,58,79

Nash,John46,50,51,116,117,119,122NeoClassical37,38,44,51,52,64,68,71,119,120NetherWinchendonHouse,Bucks48,118NunehamCourtney,Oxon103

palladian/Palladio26,35,37,38,40,42,48,50,57,66,68,80,90,117,118parlour20,29,75,81PowisCastle,Powys101,119Pugin,A.W.N52,53,122

ranges(cooking)90–92Renaissance16,17,20,35Repton,Henry104Rococo64,66,69,111RoyalPavilion,Brighton51,119

saloon29,40,80,81,119ScottishBaronial49scullery87,88,96–97servants’hall19,29,88,98–99Shaw,RichardNorman55,56,117,122

ShugboroughHall,Staffs38,52,106,119Smythson,Robert15,17,113,122stables/coachhouses11,27,29,108stairs73–74Standen,Sussex57,119StantonHarcourtManor,Oxon89,119StokesayCastle,Salop9,13,112,119StoweHouse/Gardens,Bucks43,106,107,119SudburyHall,Derbys25,32,119SuttonScarsdaleHall,Derbys31,120SyonHouse,London81

TattonPark,Cheshire38,105,120timberframes6,8,10,52,118,119Tyntesfield,Somerset53,120

Uppark,Sussex26,120

Vanbrugh,John26,27,30,115,116,122

WaddesdonManor,Bucks55,120wallcoverings65,66,79,81,92Webb,Philip57,119,122WightwickManor,WestMidlands56,60,120WiltonHouse,Wilts36windows6,10,11,12,17,21,23,25,26,27,28,30,31,35,37,42,43,48,49,

53,54,55,59,60,118,125WitleyCourt,Worcs43,69,107,111,120WollatonHall,Notts17,23,120Wren,SirChristopher26,117

OTHERTITLESINTHISSERIES