ABBEYSMONASTERIESANDPRIORIESEXPLAINED

TREVORYORKE

COUNTRYSIDEBOOKSNEWBURYBERKSHIRE

Firstpublished2004©TrevorYorke2004

Reprinted2006

Allrightsreserved.Noreproductionpermittedwithoutthepriorpermission

ofthepublisher:COUNTRYSIDEBOOKS3CatherineRoad

Newbury,BerkshireToviewourcompleterangeofbooks.pleasevisitusat

www.countrysidebooks.co.uk

ISBN1853068543

PhotographsandillustrationsbytheauthorProducedthroughMRMAssociatesLtd.,ReadingPrintedbyWoolnoughBookbindingLtd.,Irthlingborough

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

SECTIONITHEHISTORYOFABBEYS

Chapter1DEFINITIONSANDORIGINS

Chapter2CELTICANDSAXONMONASTERIES500–1066

Chapter3NORMANABBEYS1066–1200

Chapter4THEABBEYATITSPEAK1200–1350

Chapter5THELATEMEDIEVALABBEY1350–1536

Chapter6THEDISSOLUTIONOFTHEMONASTERIESANDTHEFATEOFTHEABBEYS1536

ONWARDS

SECTIONIITHEABBEYINDETAIL

Chapter7

THECHURCH

Chapter8THECLOISTERBUILDINGS

Chapter9THEABBEYPRECINCT

Chapter10ABBEYESTATESANDOTHERREMAINSINTHELANDSCAPE

SECTIONIIIQUICKREFERENCEGUIDE

TIMECHART

ABBEYSANDPRIORIESTOVISIT

GLOSSARY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

Introduction

Themedievalabbeyorprioryconjuresupdistinct images inourmind.Somemaythinkofcraggyruinsstandinglikebrokenteethamongstfieldsoragridofimposingstonewalls laidoutuponthebottomofsomeremotewoodedvalley.Othersmight imagine soaring cathedrals, a large number ofwhichwere oncemonasteries, or other great churches that still bear the title Abbey or Priory,revealing their medieval origin. Most, though, will picture hooded monkswalkinginsilencearoundcloistersorstandingwiththeshavedtopoftheirheadsexposedwhilstchantinginthechurchchoir.

I have always found it frustrating tomatchmy image ofwhat amedievalabbeywouldhavelookedlikewiththefragmentedremainsthatIcanvisittoday.Somesiteshaveonlyaninformationboardtoexplaintheruins,whilethosewithguidebooksoftenconcentrateoncharacterhistories rather than thebewilderingstonework that I have paid to see. The general publications available on thesubjecteithertendtogetboggeddownwithtechnicalandhistoricdetailsoraretoo lightweight, leaving questions unanswered and the features I seeunexplained. Itwaswith the intention of plugging the gap between toomuchinformationandtoolittlethatthisseriesofbookswasborn.

Usingmyowndrawingsanddiagrams,andphotostakenfromsitesalloverthe country, The English Abbey Explained is an easy-to-understand guidedesignedtohelpyouidentifyandunderstandthefeaturesyouseewhenvisitingthese magnificent monuments. It is broken down into three sections, the firsttakingyouonahistoricaljourneyfromtheoriginsofthesebuildingsbackinthedaysoftheRomanEmpirethroughtotheirdissolutionbyHenryVIII.Itincludesillustrations of their style and period detailswhichmay aid in identifying anddatingstructures,whileattheendofeachchapterthereisaviewof‘ExemplarAbbey’, an imaginary site designed to give the reader a general idea of whatthesemonasteriesmayhavelookedlikeineachperiod.

Thesecondsectionlooksattheindividualpartsofanabbey,fromthechurch

and cloisters to themoremundane lavatories and drains, and explains how torecognise them and how they were used. The final part is a quick referenceguide, including a time chart to helpdate buildings, a list of someof the bestsites that are open to the public and a glossary explaining some of the moreconfusingtermsthatyoumaycomeacross.

TrevorYorke

CROXDENABBEY,STAFFORDSHIRE

SECTIONI

THEHISTORYOF

ABBEYS

CHAPTER 1

DefinitionsandOrigins

DefinitionsBeforelookingintothehistoryandfeaturesofabbeys,itisworthdifferentiatingbetween the myriad of names that we associate with the subject. A religioushouseisacommunityofmonksornunslivingtogether,morecommonlycalledaconventwhenappliedtothelatter(butthetermcanbeusedforeithersex).Inmostcases,therefore,amonasteryisareligioushousecomprisingmonks,whileanunnery is a convent of nuns (it seems, though, that thewordmonastery isoften applied to all types of religious houses and to both the community ofmonksandthebuildingsinwhichtheylive).

The important words for the purposes of this book are abbey, which is amonasteryornunneryoflargesizeorhighstatus,andpriory,whichisasmallerhouse,oftensubordinatetoanabbey,althoughsomegrewinsizeandstatustobecomejustasimportant.Afriaryisthehomeoffriars,alatergroupwhoreliedupon begging for their income and spentmuch of their time preaching in theoutsideworld,asopposedtomonksandnunswhoresidedalmostpermanentlywithin their abbey or priory.Between these are canons,who are divided intotwo types: regular and secular. The former (from the word regula, meaningrule)livedlikemonksbystrictmonasticruleswithintheirownabbeyorpriory,butunlikethemalsopreachedoutside.Secularcanonswerenotconnectedwithmonasteriesandwereusuallyassociatedwithotherreligiousestablishmentssuchascathedralsandcolleges.

Theprincipalmemberofthecommunitywastheabbotorabbessinanabbeyandthepriororprioress inapriory, the latteroftenactingasdeputies to theirsuperiors at the abbey. Below these on the monastic social ladder were theobedientiaries,whoweremonksput inchargeof thevariousdepartmentsofamonastery and typically named after them, like the cellarer, kitchener andinfirmarer.

Monasticism is divided into two forms: eremitic, where monks live an

isolated existence as hermits, and coenobitic (derived from the Greek for‘common life’), where the monks spend at least part of their time within acommunity.Althoughthisbookwillfocusonthelatterformandthespectacularabbeys these religious groups built inBritain, eremiticalmonasticismwas notonly ever present here, but also appeared alongside the coenobitic formwhenmonasticismfirsttookshape.

TheOriginsTherehavebeenmenandwomenwhohaveisolatedthemselvesfromtheoutsideworldtoseekacloserunionwithGodsincetheearliestdaysofChristianity.Alife of denying themselves indulgences (known as ‘asceticism’) and spendingtheirdaysinsolitaryprayerbegantoappealtoagrowingnumberofpeoplemorethan 1,700 years ago. Perhaps inspired by Jesus and his forty days and fortynightsspentinthedesert,theysoughtasimilarenvironment,theareaalongtheRiver Nile, to the north-east of the Sahara (modern day Egypt) provingparticularlyattractive.

FIG1.1:AmapofEuropeandcloseupoftheBritishIslesshowingtheprobableroutebywhichmonasticideasspreadfromEgyptacrossmoderndayFranceandintoBritain.Thisdidnothappenasonefluidmovementbutviaindividualsestablishingreligiouscommunitiesatvariouslocationsanddates.Theflagsgiveapproximatedatesforthefoundationsofmonasteries.

Paul of Thebes was possibly the first of these pioneers, who were laterreferredtoasthe‘DesertFathers’,becomingahermitinhisyouthandlivingasolitarylifesurroundedbytheshiftingsandsuntilhisdeatharoundAD341.StAntony, known as the Father of Monasticism, lived around the same time,spendinghisfinalfortyyearsinahermitageonMountKolzim,nearthenortherntip of the Red Sea. Perhaps more relevant to our story is Pachomius, an ex-soldierwhousedhismilitarybackgroundtoformmanysolitaryChristiansintodisciplinedgroupsofmen,withhisfirstcommunityestablishedatTabennisiinaroundAD320.

Theseearlyreligioushousesspreadlikewildfire,appearingontheoutskirtsofEgyptiantownsandvillagesandinvarious isolated locationsduringthe4thcentury. They were probably unplanned settlements with wells, an area forcultivationandsimplestructurescontainingasingleroomorcellforthemonks,allwithinawalledenclosure.Mealtimesand servicesmayhavebeen theonlyoccasions on which the members of the community had contact, and it isrecordedthatevenheretheydidtheirutmosttoignoreoneanotherandpreservetheirasceticlifestyle.

This self denial and discipline reached unwelcome extremes as thesereligious loners sought to out perform each other with increasingly severepunishments. One character,Macarius, chastised himself for killing a solitarymosquito by spending six months naked next to an insect-infested marsh,emergingunrecognisableashisbodywasswollenandscarredbybites.Healsowentwithoutcookedfoodforsevenyearsfornobetterreasonthanthathehadheard another group of monks did so for the period of Lent. Eventually, thiscompetitiveness, which was itself a sin, was replaced with more reasonablebehaviour.

MuchofEurope in the4th century still formedpart of theRomanEmpireand,withitsacceptanceofChristianityundertheEmperorConstantinefromAD305, the religionwasable tospreadfreely.TheEmpirewasbuiltaround tradeand there was constant movement of goods and people between countries,makingiteasyformonasticideasfromEgypttobetransportedabroad.HilaryofPoitiers,forinstance,hadcomeintocontactwithmonasticismwhileinexileintheEastandonreturningtoGaul(moderndayFrance)hadalongwithStMartin(who had already established a monastery in Milan) set up a community atLigugé. They may have used an existing Roman villa site, a pattern which

repeateditselfacrosstheoldEmpire.Thisillustratesathemerunningthroughoutthehistory ofmonasteries – that theywere foundedbywealthy individuals ofhighstatusonestateswithintheirgift.

TheFirstBritishMonasteriesIt is still unclear when the first monasteries were established on the Britishmainland,althoughit isunlikelythat itwasbeforethedepartureof theRomanlegionsinAD410,whichiscommonlyseenasmarkingtheendoftheEmpireinBritain.RomanlifeactuallycarriedonforsometimeastheremainingRomanoBritishpopulationofsomefourtofivemillionstilldominatedthecountry,but,withthebreakdowninthemarketsystem,thelargecitiesandtownsthatithadsupported could no longer bemaintained.Although already present inRomanBritain,Germanic groups (including Saxons andAngles) began to increase innumber,so thatby the6thcentury theChristianRomanoBritishculture founditselfconfinedtowesternBritain.

Althoughitisrecordedthatmonasticsiteswerefoundedinthe5thandearly6thcentury(e.g.LlantwitMajorandBardseyIslandinWales)nositefromthisDarkAgeperiodhasbeenpositively identified. It ismost likely thatmonasticideas spread from Gaul through the Celtic regions in the west and over toIreland, as is famously recounted in the story of St Patrickwho established ahouseinArmaghsometimearoundAD450.Ourstory,though,willreallybeginin the middle and late 6th century, when Christianity returned to the Britishmainlandnotjustfromonesourcebuttwo.

CHAPTER 2

CelticandSaxonMonasteries500-1066

FIG2.1:BRIXWORTHCHURCH,NORTHAMPTONSHIRE:Araresurvivingchurch,inpartdatingfromthe8thcentury.Ignorethelatertowerandsemicircularstairturret,itisthemainbodyofthebuildingthatwaspartofanearlymonastery.Thebottomrowofroundarchedwindowswereoriginallyopenings

intowhatarebelievedtohavebeenindividualchapelsthatstoodupagainstthesidesofthewall.

FIG2.2:IONAABBEY,OFFTHEISLEOFMULL:ThestructureinthepictureisamedievalmonasterybuiltonthesiteofthereligioushousefoundedbyStColumbainAD563.Thetinypointed-roofbuildingtotheleftofthewestendofthechurch(thefivewindowsinarow)isknownasStColumba’sShrineandwasachapel,whichmaydatefromthe9thcentury.Infrontofitareanumberofstonecrosses,somedatingfromthe8thcentury,whichprobablymarkedtherouteforpilgrimstotheshrine.

BriefHistorySometime duringAD 563, there came to a small island off thewest coast ofMull,anIrishnoblewho,itissaid,wasbanishedbyholymenaspunishmentforslaughtering too many in battle (although it was more likely to have beenbecausehehadbecometoopowerful).ThemanwasColumba(laterSaint)andhislandingplacewaslona,whereheestablishedamonasteryalongthelinesofanewgenerationofreligioushouseshehadalreadyfoundedinIreland.Itwastothismonastery thatKingOswaldofNorthumbria, themostdominantpower inEnglandatthetime,turnedforhisbishopinAD635.StAidanandagroupofmonksweredespatchedandsettledonLindisfarne(HolyIsland),establishingacommunity secondonly to lona.ThisCelticChristianitywas spreadbyothersdown into the Midlands and the South while, in return, numerous southernnoblestravellednorthtobebaptised.

InAD597,theyearthatStColumbapassedaway,amissionary,despatched

byPopeGregory theGreat, landed on the south coast ofEngland.Hewas StAugustine and with the blessing of the Kentish king he began preaching theRoman form of Christianity at Canterbury, where he also established amonastery.Afterinitialsetbacks,theinfluenceoftheRomanchurchspreadoutof its heartland of Kent and Essex, and headed west and north, where itinevitablycameintocontactwiththeCelticform.

Althoughfundamentallysimilar,thetwochurchesneverthelessdisagreedonanumberofpoints.Onewasthetonsure,thehaircutofamonk,whichundertheRomanruleswasjustshavedontopbutintheCelticformhadthefrontsectionof the remaining ringofhair removedaswell.Theprincipalproblem, though,wasover thedateofEaster,whichdespitewarnings fromRome, the IrishandNorthumbrianchurchcontinuedtocalculatefromadifferentpoint.TheSynodofWhitby inAD664wasarranged to resolve the issue,with theRomanmethodbeing ruled correct, although itwas still not adopted by somemonasteries formorethanfiftyyears.

Thismixedbirthof thechurch inBritain left adisorderedstructure,whichTheodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury fromAD 668–690, set out toreform.Hedevelopedecclesiasticalorganisationandrestructuredthediocese,aswellasholdingacouncilatwhichitwasdecidedthatthemovementofmonksshouldberestrictedsotheycouldnotleavetheirmonasterywithouttheabbot’spermission. Within this more stable structure monasteries flourished, turningtheir back on the strict asceticism of the Celtic church and excelling in art,sculpture and learning, and especially illuminated scripts, which gained widerenown in Europe. Unfortunately, their reputation and wealth attracted theattention of unwelcome guests, as in AD 793, longships appeared over thehorizonatLindisfarne.TheVikingshadarrived.

FIG2.3:AnimaginaryCelticmonasterysetonawindsweptislandwheretimberissparsesoeventheindividualcells,thesmallhousesinwhichthemonkslive,aremadefromstone.Thechurches,withmonumentalcrossesmarkingtheburialground,standinthedistance,whileamonktillshisgardenintheforeground.

FIG2.4:WESTSTOWSAXONVILLAGE,SUFFOLK:AreconstructedSaxonhouse,which,althoughitisnotamonasticcell,doesgiveanindicationofhowthesesimpletimberstructuresmayhavelooked.

Surprise raids of plunder and slaughter devastated theBritishmonasteries,with only a few in the south and west surviving more than a century ofincursionsbyfirstlyNorwegiansandthenDanes.Itwasthelattergroupthatinthe870scame tosettlepermanently,only tobeheldatbaybyKingAlfredofWessex,who,alongwithhisdescendants,eventuallygainedcontrolofmuchofEngland. Under these 10th century Christian rulers, monasteries began to berefounded, especially when Dunstan, the inspirational Abbot of Glastonbury,became Archbishop of Canterbury in AD 960. He played a major part inestablishingBenedictine religious houses across the south and east, so that onthe eve of theNormanConquest some 100 years later therewere nearly fiftymonasteriesandnunneries.

AbbeysinthisPeriodFOUNDATIONSANDSITES

WithonlyfragmentsofAnglo-SaxonandCelticmonasteriessurvivingtodayandlittle reliable documentary evidence, their appearance in this period requires acertain amount of imagination until further sites like St Paul’s Monastery atJarrowcomeunderthescrutinyofmodernarchaeology.

Monasteries(referredtoat thetimeasminstersormonastrii)werefoundedbytherichandinfluential,andoftenbytheregionalroyalfamilies.Theywouldgrantestates,usuallymeasuredinhides(themeasureoflandrequiredtosupportapeasantfamily,whichvariedfrom40–120acres),whichwereusedtosupportthenewreligioushouseaswithlittleornoland,themonasterywouldfail.Thesenewestatesalsogainedfreedomfromcertaintaxesandtithes,whichaccordingtoBedeencouragedSaxonnoblestoclaimtohaveestablishedareligioushouseanddemandthebenefitsbutneveractuallyaccommodateanymonksornunsonthesite.

Many early foundations were the first Christian presence in a generallypaganareaandthemonkswereexpectedtospendsomeoftheirtimeconvertingthe local populace and maintaining services thereafter. When the churchauthorities laid out their dioceses, some of the more important of these‘missionary’monasterieswereusedastheseatforthenewbishops.Hetookthestatusofabbot(althoughthecommunitywasrunbytheprior),andtheirchurchbuildingbecamehiscathedral.Knownascathedralpriories,examplesfromthisperiodincludeCanterbury,WinchesterandWorcester.

FIG2.5:MONKWEARMOUTHCHURCH,COUNTYDURHAM:Thelowerpartsofthiswesttowerprobablydatefromthe7thcentury,whentheVenerableBedewasbeginninghismonasticlifehereattheageofseven.HelaterspentmostofhistimeattheneighbouringmonasteryofJarrow,wherehewrotehisinfluential‘EcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglishNation’,oneofthefewandmorereliablesourcesofinformationtoglimmeroutoftheseDarkAges.BothmonasterieswereabandonedinthewakeofVikingraids.

Thesiteschosenforsomeoftheearliestmonasteries,especiallyCelticones,werewindsweptanddesolate,coastalislandsandpromontories,ormarshland,asbefittingtheirstrictascetic lifestyle.Asboththecoenobiticanderemiticformsofmonasticism existed alongside each other at this time, thosememberswhosought complete isolation established separate hermitages away from themainreligious house. The remains of some of these can still be found today on anumberoftiny,rockyoutcropsaroundBritain’scoast.

SomeearlyAnglo-Saxonsiteswerechosenby thosewhowished to followaneremiticlifestyle,yetbytheirreputationtheyattractedfollowerswhoformeda community and, as a result of the trade and services required by the new

monastery, they in turnencouragedurbangrowthovermanyyears.The townsthat eventually enveloped the original monastery would probably have thehermit founder turning inhis grave!LaterAnglo-Saxonmonasterieswere lessconcernedwithisolationanddonotseemtohavehadthedispersedhermitagesof theirCelticpredecessors.Theyareoften located invalleybottomsnear toariverorstream,whichevenatthisearlydatetheybeganusingtotheiradvantage.

PLANSANDSTRUCTURESCelticandearlyAnglo-Saxonmonasteriesdonotseemtohavebeenlaidouttoastandardised plan.They aremore likely to have appeared as loosely dispersedstructureswithinaroundorrectangularenclosure.Thechurch–sometimestherewasmore than one – and possibly a number of communal buildingswere theonly structures likely to be of stone. By the 8th century these were probablyalignedalonganeasttowestaxisandmayhavebeenarrangedinrows(ashasbeenfoundatJarrow).Theyweresurroundedbycells,whichweresmalltimberor stone houses for the monks, with an altar or chapel inside and a gardenoutside.Burial groundswithmonumental crosses,workshops,wells and someformof guest accommodationmayhave also stoodwithin the precinct,whichwasenclosedbyaditchandbanksurmountedbyastonewallortimberpalisade(fence).

While the Vikings were beginning their reign of terror upon Britishmonasteries, there emerged in Central Europe an empire, the first of this sizesince the Romans, which under the rule of Charlemagne and Louis the Piousreacheditspeakintheearly9thcentury.AtsynodsheldinAachenduringAD816 and 817 it was decided that the religious houses within this CarolingianempireshouldadheretotheRuleofStBenedict,anItalianmonkoftheearly6thcentury. At the same time they probably adopted some form of standardisedplan, which included a single church, with other principal buildings arrangedaround a square cloister below it.When Dunstan refounded the monastery atGlastonbury in AD 940 and others such as Aethelwold restored communitiesacrossthesouthandeast,theybuiltthemalongthelinesofthesenewEuropeanmodels.Mostofthese10thcenturymonasterieslieunderlaterbuildingsorhavebeenlostwithinurbanareas,althoughexcavationhasgivenglimpsesofcloistersandchurches,whichatthisdateweresmallerversionsofthemedievallayouts.

TheMonksandtheOrdersAlthoughmonks and nuns are often perceived as remarkably self disciplined,

there have been periods of dissent. While the early Celtic monasteries wererenowned for their adherence to a strict ascetic lifestyle, some Welsh andEnglish monasteries gained a reputation for greed and excessive eating anddrinking.Onemonkisrecordedas leavinghisreligioushouseindisgustat thedrunkennessofhisabbot,amanwholaterbecameasaint!

FIG2.6:EXEMPLARABBEYCIRCAAD800:Onashallowpromontoryabovethejunction(A)ofastreamtotheleftandthemainrivertotheright,monkshaveclearedthesitefortheirmonastery.Theprincipalbuildingsofchurchesandcommunalhallsstandonthehighestpoint(B)withthemonks’individualcells,nomorethansmallhutswithaplotofland,scatteredontheterracesbelow(C).Downbytheriverinthebottomrightcornerareworkshopsalongsideasmallquay(D)thatwasusedforbringinginsomeofthebuildingmaterials,whilethewholesiteissurroundedbyaditchandfence,bestseeninthebottomleft(E).ThissuccessfulestablishmenthasprobablyheardofadistantVikingthreatbutisunpreparedforthedevastatingcenturyitisabouttoenter,leadingtoitsviolentanddramaticdemise.

In the pre-Viking period, the monks and nuns seem to have followed nostandardised rule but lived by one produced locally, possibly a combinationinspiredpartlybytheirfounderandpartlybythatwrittendownbyStBenedictof Nursia. This latter Benedictine rule, reformed on the Continent in the 9thcentury,wasadoptedbyDunstanandhis followers for their refoundedAnglo-Saxon monasteries. After a Great Council meeting held in AD 973 it wasdecided that themonksandnunswho lived in the fortyor so religioushousesshouldallbeBenedictine.

StillOutThere

FIG2.7:STEDWARD’SCHURCH,LEEK,STAFFORDSHIRE:TheremainsofaSaxoncross,probablydatingfromthe11thcentury.Examplesfromthe7th-11thcenturiescanbefoundinvariousparishchurchyardsandmonasticsitesacrossthecountryandcouldhavebeenusedasapreachingplace,burialcross,ormarkerforpilgrims.

FIG2.8:ThissectionofmasonryfromaSaxoncirculartowerhasdistinctivebandsofstonelaidat45°inwhatiscalledaherringbonepattern,astyletypicalofthe11thcentury.

FIG2.9:BREEDONONTHEHILL,LEICESTERSHIRE:TheAnglo-Saxonmonasterywhichoncestooduponthisnotablehillislongsincegone,yetinthelaterparishchurch,whichstandsprecariouslyaboveaquarrycliffface,fragmentsofremarkablecarvingsofsaints,monstersandgeometricpatternsfromthisearlyreligioushousecanstillbeviewed.

FIG2.10:RIPONCATHEDRAL,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Buriedbelowthebodyofthemedievalbuilding,accesseddownaninconsequentialstaircase,isasimple,dimlylitSaxoncrypt.ThisraresurvivorprobablydatesfromtheoriginalmonasticchurcherectedonthissitebyStWilfredinthe8thcenturyandwasusedtohouseholyrelics,withdoorwaysinandoutfortheflowofpilgrims.

FIG2.11:DEERHURST,GLOUCESTERSHIRE:Saxonwindowsweregenerallycrownedbyeithersemicirculararchesortriangularshapedheads,asintheexampledatingfromthe10thcentury.AtthetimethischurchwasaBenedictinepriory.

FIG2.12:BRIXWORTHCHURCH,NORTHAMPTONSHIRE:SomeSaxonwindowsweresimplycutfromasinglestone,asinthisexample.Originallyallthesewindowswereopen,withshuttersoroiledskinstokeepthedraughtsout;theglassinthispictureismuchlater.

FIG2.13:BRIXWORTHCHURCH,NORTHAMPTONSHIRE:ThetriumphalarchleadingfromthechancelintothecurvedapsebeyondhasasemicircularheadcomposedofRomanbricks,reusedbySaxonmasonsfromalocalruin.Undertheapsewerestoredholyrelics,whichcouldbeviewedbypilgrimsfromtheambulatorythatranaroundtheoutsideandwasaccessedfromdoorwaysinthechancel–notetheblockedoneinthebottomrightofthewall.

FIG2.14:STJOHN’SCROSS,IONA:Areplicaofan8thcenturyhighcross,infrontofwhichpilgrimswouldprayenroutetoStColumba’sShrine,whichisthesmallbuildingdirectlybehindit.

CHAPTER 3

NormanAbbeys1066-1200

FIG3.1:STALBANSCATHEDRAL,HERTFORDSHIRE:WhenthefirstNormanabbot,PauldeCaen,wasinstalledaftertheConquest,hesetaboutrebuildingthechurchwithhismastermasonfromNormandytodirecttheSaxonworkmen.Withlittlelocalstoneavailable,theyreusedthebricksthatlayaroundfromtheruinedRomantownofVerulamium.Muchofthisworksurvivesinthisview:thenorth

transeptontheleft,thetowerinthecentreandthenaveontheright.

BriefHistoryThearrivalofWilliamtheConquerorandhissuccessat theBattleofHastings

ledinitiallytoanintenseroundofcastlebuildingastheFrenchbarons,whohadflockedtohisbannerwith thepromiseofrichpickings,endeavoured tosecuretheirnewEnglishestates.Theselandshadbeengrantedtothembythekingashe replaced the Saxon hierarchy with Norman nobles, including abbots fromleading religious houses like Jumièges andBec inNormandy.Here there hadbeenvigorousmonasticreformsduringthe11thcenturyandtheexistingEnglishabbeyswereinevitablyinfluencedbythesespiritualandculturalchanges.

Althoughanumberofabbeyswereerectedintheyearsfollowing1066,mostnotablyBattleAbbey,foundedbythenewkingonthesiteof theconflictnearHastings,William’sbaronswere initiallymoreconcernedwith themonasteriesback in Normandy. The major investment required to rebuild and found newabbeys was only forthcoming when the Normans felt more sure of their newpossessions,towardstheendofthe11thcentury.WhereastheSaxonstendedtovenerateoldbuildingsanderectedseparatenewstructureswhenadditionalspacewasrequired, theNormanssimplyflattened theoldEnglishabbeysandstartedfromscratchwithnew,massive, elongated, stonechurchesdesigned to fill thelocalpopulacewithawe.Thesewerenotnecessarilyofbetterquality,though,asAnglo-SaxonswererenownedacrossEuropefortheirsculpture,metalworkandilluminated manuscripts, and were regarded by many as artistically andculturally superior to the Normans, whose descent from their pagan Vikingancestorsspannedonlysixgenerations!

Asmonasticism continued to grow, the new abbeys and priories began toreflect changes on the Continent and they were no longer exclusively of theBenedictineOrder.TheabbeyatClunyinFrancehadgrownininfluenceacrossEurope since its 10th century foundation, becoming ever more willing todespatchitsmonkstokingstoadviseonreforms,establishnewfoundations,actas ecclesiastical advisers and even as abbots or bishops.With aweak papacythey were allowed to develop independently, so by the 12th century a newversionoftheBenedictineOrderhadevolved.KnownastheCluniacOrder(theAnglicised names ofmost new orderswere derived from that of the abbey inwhich theywere conceived), the first foundation in Englandwas at Lewes in1078.

Another group to arrive from the Continent before 1100 were the canonsregular,who,unlikeBenedictineandCluniacmonks,wentoutintosurroundingcommunities topreach.TheearliestcanonsfollowedthewordofStAugustineandtheirfirstsitewasatColchesterinaround1093.

FIG3.2:STBOTOLPH’SPRIORY,COLCHESTER,ESSEX:AlthoughthisAugustinianpriorywasthefirstinEngland,foundedaround1095,thisdramaticwestfrontofthechurchdatesfromthelate12thcentury,withthecharacteristicsetofdiminishingarchesaroundthedoorwaysandbandsofblindarcadingabove.AsatStAlbans,thiswasbuiltwithreusedRomanbricks,whichwerealreadysomeeighttoninehundredyearsoldatthetime.Althoughitmaylookdulltoday,atthetimeitwasusualfortheexteriortoberenderedorwhitewashedover,withdetailsandstatuespickedoutinbrightcolours.

FIG3.3:FURNESSABBEY,CUMBRIA:ThisstripofdecorativetileswasfromtheoriginalSavignacabbey,whichwasfoundedin1127afterthefirstsiteatTulkethnearPreston,Lancashirehadprovedunsuitable.Quiteafewreligioushousesmovedsitesinthe12thcentury,particularlyCistercian.WhentheCistercians,whoabsorbedtheSavignacsin1147,rebuiltthechurch,theyreincorporatedthisstripinoneofthesouthtranseptchapels.

Thechurchhadbattledformuchofthe11thcenturytoseparateitselffromlaysociety,sothat itsbishopsandabbotswerenotgrantedtheirofficesbythekingbutwereindependentrepresentativesofGodthroughStPeterandthePope.Itwasthoughtthateventhelowlypriestshouldbeseenasanindividualabovethelevelofordinarymen,somarriagewasbannedandcelibacyencouraged.Thereformed monasteries, influenced by Cluny, further enhanced these ideals,perceiving themselves as Noah’s Arks in a sea of violence and disorder,sanctuarieswheregiftedanddevout individualscould leadaseparate lifefromtheturbulentsocietyaroundthem.InFrancetowardstheendofthe11thcentury,though, a number of monks broke away from these so-called reformers,disillusioned that they were increasingly immersing themselves in lay societythrough their advisory roles and displaying the trappings of wealth, withelaboratechurchbuildings,decorationandceremony.Thiswasalongwayfrommonasticism’srootswiththeDesertFathersin4thcenturyEgyptanditwastheirexamplethatinspiredtheseindividualstoformnewhouseswhichgrewintothenewordersofthe12thcentury.

ThemostnotableoftheseneworderswasthatoftheCistercians,foundedin1098atCiteauxinBurgundy(WestFrance),whoarrivedontheseshoresin1128atWaverley in Surrey. Another early group were the Savignacs, whose mostnotablehousewasFurnessAbbey inCumbriauntil theywereabsorbedby theCistercians in 1148. The Gilbertines were the only English order and werefounded by a Lincolnshire landowner, St Gilbert of Sempringham, in 1131.

Premonstratensian canons (from Prémontré in France), who modelledthemselves on the Cistercians, arrived a little later, in 1143, at Newsham inHumberside.

This was the boom time for monastic foundations, so that the fifty or somonasteries in existence at the Conquest had increased to about five or sixhundredby1200.Forallthepopularityoftheneworders,though,Benedictinehousesstilldominatedinnumberandtendedtobethewealthiest.

TheAbbeyinthisPeriodFOUNDATIONSANDSITES

Inthisearlymedievalperiod,itbecamefashionablethatafteragruesomebattleorbarbaricmurdertheremorsefulnoblecouldredeemhissininthefaceofGodbydonating land to an existing religioushouseorbyestablishinganabbeyorpriory.This, itwas assumed,would protect the soul of the benefactor and hisfamily,andwasoneof theprincipaldriving forcesbehind the freneticboutofmonasticbuildinginthe12thcentury.

InthefirstdecadesaftertheNormanConquest,though,thenobilitytendedtogrant their new English estates to abbeys back in France rather than riskfounding new houses in an unstable and unfriendly country. The fortunateFrenchabbeymightdespatchacoupleofmonks tomanagethefarm, landandchurch from amanor house complex, so that nomonastery as suchwas built,while others founded small priories which operated along similar lines. Thefamous abbey at Bec in Normandy was granted such land, and this is stillrecorded in theEnglishplace-namesofWeedonBec inNorthamptonshire andTootingBec inLondon.Because they transferredwealth to France,with littlespiritual return, however, these establishmentsquicklybecame resented and inthe anti-French fervour of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453), they werelabelled‘aliencellsandfoundations’andwereeventuallyabolished.

FIG3.4:Twoplansofcloisters,showingin(A)alayouttypicalofasmallprioryandsomeoftheearlyNormanabbeysandin(B)alargerestablishment,whichmayhavebeenalaterexpansionof(A).Notetheroundendedchapels,presbyteryandchapterhousein(A)andtheshortsquareendtothechurch,aswasthefashioninthelater12thcenturyin(B).

OncetheNormanswereestablishedinpower,therewasaboominmonasticfoundations,fuelledbythekingsandgreatnoblesoftheage.Theywouldgrantasiteforanewabbeyorpriory,alongwithanumberofestates,theproduceandincomefromwhichwouldsupportthenewfoundation.Themorelandthatwasclose to the religioushouse, thewealthier themonasterywouldbedestined tobecome,asitwouldbeeasiertomanageandcontrol.Itdidn’tnecessarilymatterwhether the landwas suitable, as thewell-educated and practicalmonksweregiftedat landclearanceandagricultural improvement,especiallywhen itcametodrainage.

The type of site chosen for the patron’s foundationwould to some extentdepend upon which order was invited to run it. Many Cluniac houses weresituated near to the major castles of their royal or baronial founders. TheAugustinian canons attracted large congregations to hear their preaching andtheir houseswere usually located near population centres in towns and cities,although somewere foundedonancientmonastic sites.Thenewordersof theearlyandmid12thcenturysoughtsitestoreplicatethebarrensandsenduredbytheDesertFathers,butinourwetclimatetheyhadtomakedowithwasteland,marshorforestinremotecornersofthecountry.TheCisterciansarewellknown

forfindingsuchlocationsandarerecordedasbravelyhackingoutanexistencefromtheseinhospitableplaces,especiallyinthenorthofEngland.Thetruthwasoftenlessdramatic,though,asbythe12thcenturyinmostpartsofthecountrythere was someone eking out a living, however meagre. The Cistercians areknown to have picked locationswhere a hermitage already existed or to havemovedwholevillagesfromtheirprospectiveabbeyorpriorysitejusttomaintaintheirisolation.

A factor which was appreciated by nearly all orders by this timewas theneed to position monasteries near to a water supply, usually beside a river.Althoughfloodingwasaproblemandanumberofabbeysandpriorieswerere-sitedforthisreason,theflowofwaterwascrucialforcleansingpurposes.Riverswere diverted inman-made channels, running under kitchens and flushing outtoiletsbefore returning to theiroriginalcourse (see fig9.10). Itwasalsoquitecommonforthewholelengthofriveradjacenttothenewmonasterytoberuninto a new channel along one side of the valley bottom to provide room forbuildingsorfields(seefig10.5).

PLANSANDSTRUCTURESAs religious houses sought to provide an isolated sanctuary, cut off from theoutsideworld,thearrangementoftheprincipalbuildingsinasquareenclosingacloister,whichhadappearedinthelaterSaxonmonasteries,stillprovedtheideallayout.Althoughthescaleoftheplangrewandtheincreasingnumberofordersmademinoralterations to it to suit their individual requirements, thisenclosedarrangementwastolastthroughouttheMiddleAges.

The basic layout placed the most important building in the complex, thechurch,tothenorthofthecloisterinordertoprotecttheopenareafromthecoldwinterwinds,althoughiftherewereobstructions,liketheRiverWyeatTinternAbbey, then theplanwas reversedand it stood to the south.Thechurch itselfformedacruciformshapeontheground,withthelongbodyalignedonaneast-westaxis.Thewingsofthecrossplan(thetransepts)andthesectionattheeastendcontainingthepresbyterytendtobeshortandstubbyonNormanchurches,althoughtheywereoftenlengthenedatalaterdate.(Lookatthewallsinsideandoutforachangeinstyletopointedarchestoindicatewhereasectionhasbeenaddedonorrebuilt.)Theeastendwasoftenroundedwithsmallcircularroomsbuilt along either side or spread around its perimeter, each one containing aseparate chapel or tombs, until by the later 12th century a square end hadbecomethefashion.

FIG3.5:AviewofaNormanabbeychurchasitwouldhaveappearedinthe12thcentury,withacut-outexposingtheinteriorandlabelshighlightingthestyleofitsvariousfeatures.

ThestyleofNormanchurchesisRomanesque,atermcoinedbyVictorians,meaningsimply‘inaRomanstyle’.Thismeanttheyusedtheroundarch,which,becauseitreliesonbeingaperfectsemicircleforitsstrength,cannotbewidenedorstretchedverticallyifalargerbuildingisrequired.Withtheselimitations,theNormanssimplybuilt thick inorder tobuildbig. Immensewallswitharubblecorebetweentheinnerandouterstoneskins,stockycircularcolumnsandsquarepiersforsupport,androundarchedopeningsstackedinbandsuponeachothertogain height all helped form their massive structures, which were intended toleaverebelliousSaxonsawestruck.

FIG3.6:FURNESSABBEY,CUMBRIA:ThisstunningsetoffiveNormanroundarchesarequitelateforthisstyle,datingfromtheearly13thcentury.Thethreenearestonesmarktheentrancetothechapterhousewithabookcupboardeithersideofitsentrance,thelasttwoarchesopenedontoaparlourandaslype,anarrowpassagewhichledouttowherethemonkshadredirectedthewatercoursetoflowunderthereredorter(toilets)andkitchen.

The roof of the main body of the church was usually of lighter timberconstruction.Thetechnicalknowledgerequiredtobuildelaboratestonevaultedceilings over these wide spaces was beyond most Normans, though theyachievedsimpleversionsalongthenarroweraislestotheside.Themajorityofwindowsaroundthemonasterywouldhavebeenopen,withshutters,oiledclothoranimalskinusedtokeepoutthechill.Importantwindows,especiallythoseinthechurch,couldhavebeenfittedwithstainedglass, imported fromFranceorGermany(wecouldonlymakelimitedclearglassintheearlyMiddleAges),andheldwithinanarmatureornetworkofmetalbars(thestonetracerybarswhichdividemostchurchwindowstodaydevelopedinthe13thcentury).

Benedictine and Cluniac houses received elaborate decoration, withintersectingarchescarvedinstoneformingblindarcadesonwalls,andzigzagorchevronpatternsradiatingaroundwindowsanddoors.Bythelate12thcentury,deeply recessed doorways surrounded by decorated, graduating stone archeswere popular, a fashion taken from Henry II’s newly conquered lands in

southernFrance.These featureswerenot just confined to the church,with thechapterhouseontheeastsideofthecloisteroftenblessedwithastunningtripledoorway,sculpturedwallrecessesandastonevaultedceiling.

Incontrasttothisgloriousandimposingarchitecture,thenewordersofthe12th century – especially the Cistercians – built simply, with plain interiorsdevoidoflavishdecorationandwithtowersofonlymoderateheight.Theydid,however,importwiththemtheideaofapointedarch,althoughatthisearlydatethesewerelittlemorethanakinkatthetopofasemicircle.Thismoreadaptableformwastochangethewholestructureanddecorationofstonebuildingsinthefollowingcenturies.

Fig3.7:BUILDWASABBEY,SHROPSHIRE:Thismonastery,likethatatFurness,wasfoundedbytheSavignacOrder,onlytobeabsorbedbytheCisterciansin1147.Thisphotoshowsthenaveofthechurchand(typical)ofearlyCistercianconstruction,itissimpleandplain,theonlydecorationbeingsmallscallopsaroundthecapitalsabovethestockyroundcolumns.Alsonotethatthearcheshaveaslightpoint,astyleimportedbythisFrenchorder,althoughtherowofclerestorywindowsabovearestillsmallandroundheaded,typicalofNormanchurches.

TheMonksandtheOrdersWhereastheSaxonmonksfollowedalifestylelaiddownbyStBenedict,withafew local variations, the post-Conquest monks were guided by new andinvigorated interpretations of the rule and different ways of organising their

monasteries,mostofwhichoriginatedinthegreatabbeysofFrance.TheBenedictineswere never really an order butmore of a community of

relativelyindependentmonasteries.Theyworeblackcapesandcowlsovertheircassocks andwere thus known as theBlackMonks, only being referred to asBenedictines later in theMiddleAges.Theywere renownedfor their learning,teaching,writingandartandflourishedinthereignsofWilliamIandhissons,with their largest abbeys, such as Glastonbury, becoming some of the mostimportantandwealthiestinthiscountry.

CluniacfoundationswerealldaughterhousesofthemotherchurchatClunyandwere thereforeonlyprioriesunder thecontrolof theabbot inFrance.Thiscentralisation,alongwithunderstaffingandlackoffinancerightfromthestart,meantthatfeweverdevelopedintoefficientmonasteries.Despitethistheirorderwas both generous and glorious. They did much to support pilgrims and thepoor,yet lavishlydecorated theirchurchesandspentmuch time involvedwithworship,liturgyandceremonies.

AugustinianorAustincanonswerealsopriests,soalthoughtheyfollowedaruletheycouldalsogooutsideoftheirprecincttopreach.Theyprovedpopularwithnobles,whocouldemploythemtotakeservicesinchurchesforwhichtheywere responsiblewithout having to find a permanent incumbent, a factwhichmight partly explain their rapidgrowth,with140new foundations in the12thcentury.Theywerealsonotableforfoundinghospitals–twosurvivorsbeingStBartholomew’sandStThomas’inLondon.TheirblackcloaksgainedthemthenameoftheBlackCanons.

With the new orders of the 12th century came changes in the way themonasteries were organised and the monks lived. In their remote and austeresurroundings, Cistercian monks led a life based around prayer and manuallabour.Despite this,muchof theirworkwasactuallydoneby theconversi,orlaybrothers.Theydifferedfromthequiremonks(thefullyliteratemonkswhospent their time at prayer in the church quire, or choir) by having shortenedperiods of prayer and a better diet to aid their time out in the fields andworkshops (meat, eggs, cheese and butter were restricted for quire monks).Conversi were never taught to read or write and lived in separate wings topreventanyambitionorideasofprogress!

TheCistercian order also rejected the incomes from churches and gifts ofsettled lands, endowments which financedmost other institutions at the time.Instead, theyestablishedanetworkofmonasticfarmsknownasgranges,oftenon some form of waste or upland area, where they most notably bred sheep.Controlover theseself-sufficientmonasterieswasadministered throughannual

chapter meetings at Citeaux which each abbot had to attend. The dramaticincrease in the number of new foundations in the 1130s and 1140smade thisdifficult, so the foundation of newCistercianmonasterieswas forbidden from1152 (although their numbers still increased). Their austerity even ran to thebanningofwarmunderclothesandfurs,leavingjusttheirhabitsofundyedwool–whichresultedinthembeingknownasWhiteMonks.

FIG3.8:IONANUNNERY,OFFTHEISLEOFMULL:Aviewofthechurchdatingfromaround1200atthishouseofAugustiniannuns,oneofthefewnunnerieswithsubstantialremainstoday.

PremonstratensiancanonshadasimilarinterpretationoftheAugustinianruleas the Cistercians did of the Benedictine. They, too, chose remote sites,emphasisedmanuallabour,usedconversiandhadannualmeetingsatthemotherchurch atPrémontré. In their role aspriests, though, they still held services atotherchurches, including thosebelonging tocanonessesof thesameorderandCisterciannuns.

AlthoughdoublehousescontainingbothmonksandnunswerenotunusualintheSaxonperiod,theywererareaftertheConquest.TheGilbertines,theonlyhome-grown monastic order, had them, with Augustinian canons and

Benedictine nuns living in the same complex but never permitted to see eachother. They might share the same church and hear the same service but adivisionbuiltwithinpreventedeyecontact.

FIG3.9:EXEMPLARABBEYc1100:Shortlyafterourlastvisit,300yearsearlier,themonasterywasdevastatedbyVikingraidersandlargelyabandoned.Intherevitaliseddaysofthe11thcenturyithasbeenrefoundedandanewsetofmonasticbuildingserectedaroundacloisteronthesiteoftheoriginalchurch(A),butaswasoftenthecasemoreaccuratelyalignedinaneast-westdirection.Accommodationforthemonksisnowincommunaldormitories(B),sothesurroundinglandwithintheprecinctcanbededicatedtovegetablegardens,orchards,farmbuildings,fishponds,workshopsandanewmillbytheriver.Thestreamwhichfloweddowntheleftsideinthelastviewhasbeenre-channelledwithadiversiontakenoffinthetopleftcorner(C)andintothemonasticcomplextoservethekitchensandflushoutthedrains.Alongsidethenewchannelafewbuildingswiththeirownchapelbytheabbeyentrancehaveappeared(D)althoughtheoldsettlementontheeastsideisalsoexpanding.

KnightsTemplarswerefightingmonks,establishedoutoftheCrusades,whocombinedtheirmilitarydutieswithadherencetotheCistercianwayoflife.Theyhadanetworkofpreceptoriescentredupon theLondonTemplebut theirgreatwealthledtotheirdownfallin1312whenthePopesuppressedtheorderunderpressure from Philip IV of France,who had half an eye on theirmoney. Theword‘temple’inaplace-namemayindicatethatitwasoneoftheirestatesorthesite of a preceptory. The Knights Hospitallers, another military order whofocuseduponhospitalwork,tookovermanyoftheTemplars’houseswhentheyweredissolved.

TherewerefarfewernunsinmedievalEnglandthanmonks(atbestonlyoneinfive),whichisthereverseofthesituationtoday.Theymainlycamefromthe

upperclassesandcouldbeunmarrieddaughters,widowsofnobles,relativesofseniorecclesiasticalfigures,orrejectedwives.Theirhouseswereusuallysmall,andfewevergrewtoanynote.Theyfollowedtheruleinmuchthesamewayastheir counterpartmonks. Being female theywere unable to take services so amonkofthesameorderwouldhaveofficiated–orinwealthierhousesaseparatechaplainmay have been provided (this was not a problem in double houses).Therewerealso limitationswithadministering theirestates, soamale stewardmayhaveresidedwithintheprecincttofulfilthisrole.

StillOutTherePERIODDETAILS:ROMANESQUE/NORMANSTYLE

FIG3.10:Normancolumns.Earlieronestendtoberoundandstockywithplaincapitals,althoughsquareandpolygonalshapeswereused(sometimesalternatingwithroundones).Latertypeshadmoredecoration,scallopedandcushioncapitalsbeingpopular.

FIG3.11:MUCHWENLOCKPRIORY,SHROPSHIRE:AsectionofwalldecorationinthechapterhouseofthisCluniacmonastery,withintersectingarches(blindarcading),whichwerepopularinthe12thcentury.Originallythesewouldhavebeenwhitewashedoverandthendecoratedinvibrantcolours.

FIG3.12:STALBANSCATHEDRAL,HERTFORDSHIRE:Aroundheadedopeningwithtwointernalarchessupportedonacolumnfromthetowerofthemonasticchurch(seefig3.1),apopulardesignfor

manyNormanwindows.NotethereusedRomanbrickinitsconstruction.

FIG3.13:MALMESBURYABBEY,WILTSHIRE:Thisspectacularlate12thcenturyporchentranceisthebestexampleinthecountryofthefashionablerecedingbandsofhighlydecoratedarches,astyleimportedfollowingHenryII’sconquestsinsouthernFrance.

FIG3.14:GLOUCESTERCATHEDRAL,GLOUCESTERSHIRE:ANormantriforiumopeningfeaturingcolumnswithscallopedcapitalsandchevronorzigzagdecoration.

FIG3.15:TEWKESBURYABBEY,GLOUCESTERSHIRE:Twoviewsofthiswell-preservedNormanabbeychurch.Thetoponeisofthetower,typicallystockywithrowsofblindarcades,roundarchesandzigzagpatterns.Noteatthebottomthetriangularmarksonthewalls,whichiswheretheoriginalNorman

roofstood.Roofsatthisdateweresteeplypitchedandcouldbecoveredwithtiles,oakshinglesandeventhatch.Thesecondviewisofthewestfrontwiththeimpressiveconcentricarches,whichalongwiththetowerdatefromthemid12thcentury.

CHAPTER 4

TheAbbeyatitsPeak1200-1350

FIG4.1:CROXDENABBEY,STAFFORDSHIRE:ThisratherlateCistercianfoundationof1178featuresbuildingscompletedintheearly13thcenturyinthenewGothicStyle.Gonearethesemicircularforms;nowthearchesarepointed,withthetwolancetwindowsonthetallruinsofthesouthtransept(inthebackground),typicalofthisEarlyEnglisharchitecture.Thediagonalmarksformingatriangleover

thesearefromtherooflineofthedorterrange,whichbutteduptothiswall.

FIG4.2:WHITBYABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Thisdramatichilltopruinisofthechancel(eastend)oftheBenedictinechurcherectedearlyinthe13thcentury,withthecontemporaryrowsoftalllancetwindows.Ithadbeenrefoundedin1078asapriory,onlyrisinginstatustoanabbeysometimeinthefollowingthirtyyears.

BriefHistoryThe13thcenturymarksahighpointinmedievalhistory.Englandwasrelativelystableandnotembroiled inexpensive foreignwars.Trade, especially inwool,was profitable and, thanks in part to improvementsmade bymonastic groups,agricultural yields were increasing. Yet even this was proving insufficient tosupportagrowingpopulation,whichfromafigureofaroundtwomillionatthetimeoftheConquesthadmorethandoubledby1300.

Theboominmonasticfoundationsandnewreligiousorderswasdrawingtoaclose.Thechurchlegislatedinthe1220sthat thereshouldbenoneworders,yet at the time the differences between the old ones, theBenedictines and theCluniacs, and the later reformed orders, such as the Cistercians and thePremonstratensians, were disappearing. For all their attempts at isolation theCistercians and others had, like the Cluniacs before them, become wealthy,influentialandmoreinvolvedinsecularsociety,resultinginarelaxationoftheiraustere rule.With rich returns fromagriculture,newandoldmonasteriesalikecould afford to erect impressive new churches and cloister buildings toaccommodategreaternumbersofmonksandlaybrothersortofurtherenhancetheirglorificationofGod.Manyofourfinestruinstodaydateprincipallyfromthelate12thtotheearly14thcentury.

Atthispointtherewasanotherbid,thelastduringtheMiddleAges,toreturntoanaustereandstrictformofmonasticism,fromwhichthenewordersofthe12thcenturyhadbeentemptedaway.Thiswasmadebythefriars,who,likethecanons in the century before, were preachers and divided into orders, in thiscase: the Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites and Augustinians (not to beconfusedwiththeAugustiniancanons).Thedifferencewasthat thefriarsweremendicants– that is, they reliedonbeggingand livedwithoutpossessions.Astheydidnotneedanoble togrant themanendowmentbefore theycouldstartpreaching, these evangelical groups spread rapidly across Europe, arriving inEnglandinthe1220sandbecomingapresenceinmostofthemajorcentresofpopulationbytheendofthecentury.

FIG4.3:RIEVAULXABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Itwascommonforthepreviouslyshorteastendsofmonasticchurchestoberebuiltintheprosperous13thcentury.Herethespectacularpresbyterydatingfromthe1220sstandsagainstthetransepts,althoughthewestendbeyondhaslongsincegone.

FIG4.4:MATTERSEYPRIORY,NOTTINGHAMSHIRE:ThisGilbertinehousefoundedin1185wastypicalofmanylate12thandearly13thcenturysmall-scalefoundations,anditslimitedendowmentwas

stretchedtothelimitwhenmostofthesitewasdestroyedbyfirein1279.Thepictureshowstheruinsofthehumblerefectory,whichtodaystandattheendofamuddytrackintheflatopenlandscapeneartheLincolnshireborder.

All levels of society relied fundamentally upon the success or failure ofagriculture,eitherdirectlyfromgoodsproducedorthroughtherentschargedforotherstofarmtheirland.Therewereonlyafew,small-scaleindustriesforothersources of revenue should the harvest fail. Monasteries, for instance, wereefficient at utilising all aspects of their estates, including lead mining, ironsmeltingandstonequarrying,fromwhichtheymademoneyandproducedrawmaterialsfortheirbuildings.Bythelate13thcentury,however,itwasapparentthattoomuchwoodlandhadbeengrubbedupinordertoplantcrops(assarting)andtheCistercianswereamongthefirsttoregulatethecuttingandreplantingoftrees to reverse this trend.With virtually no new land available for corn, thegrowingpopulationoverstretchedthesystemanditwouldonly takeonemajorcatastropheforittobreakdown.Unfortunatelythereweretwo.

Achange in theclimateand theresultingfailureofharvests from1315–17resulted in famine across the country and left a weakened population, moresusceptibletodisease.Anyreductioninoutputwouldmeanlessincomeforthemonasteries, soonewayof assuring a regular sumofmoneywas to leaseoutfarmlandforafixedrent,sothatsomeoneelsetooktherisk.Thishadstartedtoprovepopularamonglandownersinthe13thcentury,buteventheCistercians,whosewholestructurerevolvedarounddirect farmingof theirgranges,hadby1325begundoing the same.Thisdownturn, though,wasnothingcompared tothehorrorsthatlayaroundthecorner.Inthesummerof1348,shipsarrivingatports along theDorset coast unwittingly imported rats infestedwith fleas, thecarriers of the bubonic and pneumonic plagues that had decimated Asia andEurope.TheBlackDeathhadarrived.

TheAbbeyinthisPeriodFOUNDATIONSANDSITES

By the early 1200s, the explosion of monastic foundations was petering out.During the 12th century it had been the kings and nobilitywho had endowednew houses but now it was minor barons and local lords who followed thefashion of advertising their status by establishing amonastery.However, theirrestrictedfundstendedtoresultinsmallprioriesthatwereoftenshort-lived,withahandfulofmonksandonanunsuitablesite.Bythemid13thcenturyeventhistypeoffoundationhadbecomerare.

FIG4.5:Aviewprimarilyshowingadistinctivefriarychurchwiththewalkwayunderthesmalltowerdividingthenaveandchancelandthecloisterrunningbelowthebuildingtotheleftforeground.

Themajorityofnewfoundationsinthisperiodwerethoseofthefriars.Theyrapidly established themselves in urban locations to be close to the largecongregations they wanted to preach to, so that by 1300 the Dominicans,Franciscans,AugustiniansandCarmeliteswerepresentinallofthemaintownsandcities.Asbythisperiodmostoftheseurbanareashadbeenwelldeveloped,therewaslittleroomleft,sothefriarshadtomakedowithsmallandawkwardlocations,oftenonpoorland.

PLANSANDSTRUCTURESThesomewhatlimitedsitesgrantedtothefriarstendedtoshapetheplanofthebuildingstheyeitherconstructedortookpossessionof.Somewerenevermorethanamodestcollectionoftimberstructures,whichmayhavesufficed,astheygenerally lived in small groups and spent much of their time out and aboutfulfilling their missionary role. Larger friaries had a layout based around acloister but its alley was often pushed under the enclosing buildings to saveroom. Their churches had large naves, sometimes with wide aisles down the

sides,inwhichtheypreachedtoacongregation,andaseparate,thinnerchoiratthe other end. Between the twowas a passage that probably led from amainentranceintothecloister,sometimeswithatoweraboveit.

The plans of the existing monasteries still centred upon the cloister, andalthoughmanyofthebuildingsarounditwereenlargedinthe13thcentury,thesecludedsquareoflandinthemiddleusuallyremainedthesame.Onecommonsolutiontotheproblemofcreatingalargerrefectorywastoturnthebuildingatan angleof90° so it couldbe extended in length, thuspreserving theoriginalcloister(seefig3.4).Anotherfashionfromthelate13thcenturywastobuildthechapterhousetoapolygonalplan,usuallywithacentralcolumnsproutingribsatthetoptoformtheceilingandsupporttheroof(seefig8.6).

In this period of feverish rebuilding, it was the new Gothic style, basedaroundthesteeplypointedarch,ashaddevelopedinFranceinthe12thcentury,whichshapedthestyleofstructureanddecoration.Asmostreligiousordershadregular contactwith their founding abbeys on the other side of theChannel itwasinevitablethatthelatestarchitecturalfashionsthereshouldeasilypassovertoourshores.Althoughtrickiertobuild,thepointedarchwasmoreflexibleandgraceful.Overherewetendedtouseit inastylethatbecameknownas‘EarlyEnglish’.

Steeplypointed,archeddoorsandtall,thinwindowsknownaslancets,setinpairs or groups of three and five, were popular. Small columns attached to acentralcoreorbanded together to forma largesolidpier (compositecolumns)can still be seen from this date and hadmore decorative capitals than before,withsimplenaturalisticorfoliagepatternsontop(seefig4.11).Nowmasonryceilingssupportedbycurvingstoneribs(ribvaulting)couldspanlargerspacesandwerefoundcoveringthecentralbodyofthechurchandhidingthewoodentrusses that held the steeply pitched roof above it. Although the roofs rarelysurvive in ruined abbeys, the corbels (supportingbrackets) and thebottomsofsomeoftheribscanstillbeseenhighuponinteriorwalls(seefig4.13).

FIG4.6:Aviewofa13thcenturyabbeychurchwithacutoutexposingtheinteriorandlabelshighlightingthestyleofitsvariousfeatures.

Duringthe13thcentury,largerwindowsweredesigned,atfirstwithsimpleopeningsappearingtobecutoutofaflatpieceofstone–knownasplatetracery–thenfromthemid13thcenturythemorefamiliarbartracerybecamecommon,using bands of stone to make more elaborate shapes. This developed intodramatic sinuous (curvilinear) patterns marking the Decorated style, whichdominated ecclesiastical architecture in the early 14th century. These couldmakestunningadditionstoexistingchurchesandprincipalabbeybuildingsandoften replaced earlier simple openings (hence be cautious in dating a buildingpurelyfromthestyleofwindows,astheymaybelaterinsertions).

Normanbuildersreliedonthesheermassofthewallstocounteracttheforceof the pitched roof as it tried to push the sides of the structure outwards. Aswindows became larger and more numerous, the now weaker walls requiredmoresupportandthepreviouslythinbuttressesbecamemorepronouncedinthe13thcentury,althoughinchurchesmuchoftheirmassishiddenwithintheaisles

whichrunupthesides.

TheMonksandtheOrdersAlthough strictly speaking notmonks – as theywere outwardlymobile ratherthan confined to cloisters – the impoverished friars, full of enthusiasm forpreaching and teaching, and willing to work as well as beg for their living,became very popular with lay society in the 13th century. Their numbersboomedwithnewrecruitsandbenefactors,muchtotheconcernoftheexistingreligious orders and secular priests whose roles and incomes they threatened.Friarsalsomadevaluablecontributionstotheestablishmentofuniversities,andpupilsincludedthephilosopherandscientistRogerBacon,whohimselfbecameaFranciscanfriar.

The Dominicans, also known as the Black Friars after the colour of theirhabit,were the first toarrive in thecountry,around1221atOxford,andwereclosely associated with the fledgling universities. The Franciscans, or GreyFriars, spread rapidly across the country in the following decade, taking inrecruits from the lower classes (whereasmostmonks and nunswere of noblelineage). The Carmelites, or White Friars, were initially hermits (their namederivedfromMountCarmelinPalestine,wheretheywerefirstestablished),withsites in remote parts of the country, but after reform in themid 13th centurythey, too, founded communities in the towns and cities. The Augustinian orAustinfriarswere thefinalmajorgrouptoarrive, formedbythePopein1256fromgroupsofhermits.Theyalsohadsitesinboththetownandcountryside.Itisnottheremainsoffriariesthataremostnotableonamaptoday,butthenamesof the different orders – for instance,Greyfriars andBlackfriars – can still befoundinanumberofourtownsandcities,indicatingwheretheyonceresided.

Thedramaticsuccessofthesemendicantorderswasincontrasttothedeclinein benefactions for the establishedmonasteries,with the abandonment of theirfounding values and increasing wealth tarnishing their haloes in the eyes ofpatrons. Royalty and nobles began to look elsewhere for sacred groups bestequippedtoguidetheirsoulthroughtheafterlife.

Althoughtherewerevariationsbetween thedifferentordersand,ofcourse,the seasons, themonastic day was always divided up by a strict timetable ofchurch services, the first three ofwhichwere often before daybreak.You canimaginehalf-consciousmonksfilingdownthenightstairsfromtheirdormitoryintothechurchformatinsat2am.Betweentheservices,timewassetasideforstudy, meditation, work, rest and chapter, which was a meeting held every

morningwheremattersconcerningtheabbey’sbusinessandtheconfessionsandpunishment of monks could take place (a chapter from the rule of that orderwouldalsoberead,hencethenameofthemeetingandtheroominwhichittookplace, the chapter house). Communal mealtimes in the refectory wereaccompanied by further sermons and a limited repast, perhaps no more thanbreadandvegetables,althoughinthisperiodofrelaxingrules,fish,cheeseandwineswerealsoconsumed.

FIG4.7:Thefirstpicture(opposite)showsearlyplatetraceryfromthemid12thcenturyatMuchWenlockPriory.Thesecondview(left)fromtheValleCrucisAbbeyshowslaterbartracery,which,composedfrommasonryribs,hasformedcurvilinearpatternstypicalofthefirsthalfofthe14thcentury.

Forafewofthequiremonks,knownasobedientiaries,therewereadditionalresponsibilities.Theprecentorwasinchargeofthechurchservices,thesacristanoftherobesandholyvessels,thecellarerwasresponsibleforfoodanddrink,thekitchenerlookedafterthecookingandthefraterertheservingofthedishes.Theremainderofthecloistercameunderthechamberlain,whileoutsideitsconfinesthehospitallerprovidedawelcomeforguestsandpilgrims,theinfirmarerlookedafterthesickandold,andthealmonerdistributedalmstothepoor.Allofthesewereundertheprior,whohimselfwasresponsibletotheabbot,selectedbythemonks themselves as a father figure to the community. He originally wouldspendmostofhistimeworkingandsleepingalongsidehisfellowbrothers,but

as thewealthand importanceof themonastery increased, theabbotmight findhimself a lord of many estates, mingling with royalty and nobles, and evensitting in Parliament. Abbots increasingly expected to live like their secularcontemporaries,whichputpressuresupontherulesandlayoutoftheabbey,justoneofthechangeswhichwouldshapemonasteriesinthefinalcenturies.

FIG4.8:EXEMPLARABBEYc1300:Increasingwealthandnumbershaveenabledthemonkstorebuildtheeastendofthechurch(A)anderectanewrefectoryatrightanglestothecloister(B)soasnottolimititlength.Theabbeywasalsoresponsibleforlayingoutanewmarketplaceandhouses(C),aplanneddevelopmentpopularwithlandownersinthelate12thand13thcenturies,designedprincipallytobringinextraincomefromrentsandfees.Thesuccessofthishasalsoresultedinanewbridgeacrosstheriver(D)asthissmallsettlementevolvesintoafledglingtown.Thefuturelooksbrightforallinvolved!

StillOutTherePERIODDETAILS:GOTHIC,EARLYENGLISHANDDECORATEDSTYLES

FIG4.9:BYLANDABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Thisfragmentedwestfrontdatingfromtheearly13thcenturystandsuplikeabrokentoothfromthesurroundingfields.Itshowsthepointedarches,threetalllancetsandthebaseofahugeroundwindow,aswaspopularatthetime.

FIG4.10:JERVAULXABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Arowofnarrow,pointedlancetwindowstypicalofthosefoundon13thcenturybuildingswithintheprecinct,withthesefineexamplesdatingfrom

1200.

FIG4.11:Columnsandcapitalsfromthisperiod.

FIG4.12:SHAPABBEY,CUMBRIA:Thebaseofacompositecolumn.Thepetalshapedgrooverunningaroundthebaseoftheshaftswasacommondetailinthe13thcentury.

FIG4.13:ROCHEABBEY,SOUTHYORKSHIRE:Ribvaultedceilingsrarelysurviveinruinedabbeysbutasinthisearlyexamplefromthelate12thcenturytheimpostwhichsupportsafewremainingsectionsoftheribsabovecanoftenbefoundhighuponthewallstoshowwheretheyoncestood.Notethestifffoliagedecorationonthecapitalsatthebottomofthepicture.

FIG4.14:BATTLEABBEY,EASTSUSSEX:The13thcenturymonks’dormitoryhastypicallynarrowpointedwindowsandmorepronouncedbuttressessupportingthewallscomparedwiththeshallowtypesusedonNormanbuildings.

FIG4.15:HAILESABBEY,GLOUCESTERSHIRE:A13thcenturydoorwayleadingfromthecloisterintothechurch.Thisabbeywasalatefoundation(1246)andtwenty-fiveyearslaterwaspresentedwithaphialofholyblood,arelicwhichattractedpilgrimsandadditionalincome.

FIG4.16:GLOUCESTERCATHEDRAL,GLOUCESTER:Anexampleof13thcenturyribvaulting.Althoughitrarelysurvivesinruinedabbeystoday,thelowersectionsthatspringoffthewallcanoftenbefound(seefig4.13).

FIG4.17:STALBANSCATHEDRAL,HERTFORDSHIRE:Asectionofthenave,showingtheearlier

NormanworkwithitsplainandmassiveconstructionontherightandalaterGothicpointedarchandfinercompositecolumnsontheleft.

CHAPTER 5

TheLateMedievalAbbey1350-1536

FIG5.1:FOUNTAINSABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:DespitetheoriginalrestraintofCistercianarchitecture,imposingalterationsseemedtohavebeenpermissiblebythelate15thcentury.AbbotDarntonreroofedtheChapelofNineAltars(itselfadramaticadditionofthe13thcentury)andinsertedthelargewindowinthemiddleofit(centreofthepicture).Morenotableisthehuge170fttowerbuiltontothenorthtranseptbyhissuccessor,AbbotMarmadukeHuby,intheearly16thcentury.Thisworkdemonstratesthat

thesemenwereobviouslyconfidentofaprosperousfuturefortheirabbey.

FIG5.2:THORNTONABBEY,HUMBERSIDE:Themostflamboyantandlargestofmonasticgatehouses,rebuiltinitspresentformafter1382whenalicencetocrenellatewasreceived,probablyinreactiontolocalunrestinthepreviousyearofthePeasants’Revolt.Behindthefaçadeofveryearlybrickwithstonedressingwasrefinedaccommodationfortheabbotandhisguests.Theprojectingwallsofarcheseithersideoftheentrancepathformabarbican,addedinthe16thcentury.

BriefHistoryTheBlackDeath, the devastating bubonic and pneumonic plague, ravaged thecountry from1348–49,killingapproximatelyone in threepeople.Evenabbotsand monks locked away in their private cloisters were not immune, althoughmorecruciallythelaybrethrenwhoworkedtheirestateswerebadlyaffected.Inthe aftermath of the pestilence and its periodic reappearances, these conversidisappeared from thescene,asmostmonasterieschose to leaseout their landsandmakedowithwhatwerenowreducedrentsastheirincome.

With a smaller population to work the land, those peasants that were leftbegantoexpectimprovedconditionsandopportunities,ideastherulingclassesruthlessly suppressed, igniting discontent whichmost famously erupted in thePeasants’Revoltof1381.Bythistime,surprisingly,theoncereveredmonkshadthemselves become a target for these rioters. Their displays of wealth, theirtendencytostrayfromtheiroriginalrules,andageneralfeelingthattheywereoutoftouchwithlaysocietybegantoshatterthemonasticimage.Fromthe13thcenturytherearerecordsofattacksonmonksandabbeys,theirreactiontowhichwas to erect new stone walls around the precincts and substantial gatehousesacrosstheirentrances.Inthemedievalworldmilitaryandreligiousmatterswere

never expected to be mixed (except in specific cases, such as the KnightsTemplars) so these inappropriate defensive structures with battlements andarrowloopsmusthavefurtherdistancedthemonksfromthelaypopulation.

While the country was devastated by plague and protest, England hadbecomeembroiledinwarwiththeoldenemy,France,inaseriesofbattlesfrom1337–1453,collectivelyknownastheHundredYears’War.ThisgavethekingstheopportunitytofinallyclosealingeringanomalyfromtheNormanperiod,the‘aliencellsandfoundations’,whichwerenowseenasdrainingEnglishwealthbacktoFrenchabbeysandpermittingenemyspiestoresidewithinthecountry.The larger houses gained independence or became dependencies of Englishabbeys, while much of their estates was redistributed to the new favouritereligiousfoundationsofroyaltyandnobility,oneofwhichwastheCarthusians.

The Carthusian Order, named after their original monastery in south-eastFrance, La Grande Chartreuse, where they were founded back in the 11thcentury,hadalreadyestablished twoEnglishmonasteries,both inSomerset, atWithamin1180andHintoninthe1220s.Theiraustere,solitarylifestyledidnotprove popular at the time and it was more than a hundred years before theyfound favour in the troubled 14th century. Seven more of their distinctivecharterhouseswerebuiltafter1340.

TheCarthusians’dedicationtotheirstrictwayoflifewasincontrasttotheestablishedorders,whichbegantosoften their rulesnowthat theywereoutofthereligiouslimelight.Abbotsandpriorsbuiltthemselvesprivatelodgings,hallsand chambers. Monks, who also sought better conditions, might have softbedding and a wider diet, while greater provision had to be made for anincreasing number of guests. This was a period of renewed pilgrimage, andmonasteries were expected to cater for passing travellers and visitors to theirholy relics and tombs (lucrative possessions for hard-pressed abbeys). Extrapressure for roomwas also applied from corrodians, peoplewho had paid themonastery a sumofmoney in return for a guaranteed income and lodgings intheiroldage(aformofpension).Althoughthiswasaneffectivewayofraisingcash quickly, it could drain the religious house financially at a later date andcausedisruptiontothemonks.Tomakemattersworse,thekingcouldalsoforceanabbeytoaccommodatearetiredservantorsoldierfornorecompense.Somespacewasfoundwithintheabbeybyconvertingvacantroomswhenthenumberof monks was reduced or by building new guest houses. Others solved theproblembyestablishinginnsoutsidetheprecinctandanumberoftheseancienthostelries still stand today near the sites of long since vanished abbeys andpriories.

FIG5.3:HAUGHMONDABBEY,SHROPSHIRE:Inthisperiodabbotsincreasinglybuiltthemselvesimpressivenewhallsandprivatechambers,ofteninseparatebuildings,likethisexamplewithamassivesouthwindowandtwodoorsbelowleadingtotheservicerooms.

Thedeclineinpopulationandthelackofagriculturalmanpowerhinderedthecountry’seconomyforatleastacentury.Theoldfeudalorderbrokedown,andanew breed of opportunist men, merchants and yeoman farmers becameinfluential insociety.Theabbeysthemselveshadtolookforeveryopportunityto enhance their dwindling finances and one popular method was theappropriation of parish churches. It was common for an abbey’s originalendowment to contain grants of a limited share of income and control fromparish churches belonging to their patron. However, from the early 1300s,monks often sought to gain complete authority over these finances. Despitefurther enhancing their unpopularity, this time with the bishops, the practicecarriedonrightuptothe16thcentury.Bythisperiod,thefinancialstandingofmanyabbeyshadtakenaturnforthebetterand,althoughthenumberofmonkswas stillwell below preBlackDeath figures, some abbots decided to displaytheir newwealth with rebuilding work in the latest Perpendicular style.Mostnotableare thedramaticchurchtowers theyerected,despite in theCistercians’casetheirbreachingtheiroriginalruleondiscreetarchitecture.Thesestructuresdemonstrate the abbots’ confidence that their houseswerenowover theworst

andlookingforwardtoabrightfuture.Fewthencouldhaveimaginedthesuddenanddevastatingeventsjustaroundthecorner.

TheAbbeyinthisPeriodFOUNDATIONSANDSITES

NowthatmonkshadlosttheearofGodintheeyesoflaysociety,thewealthylookedtoothersforthesafepassageoftheirsoulsthroughpurgatory.Since1274thechurchhadestablishedmethodsofintercessiontorelievethesufferinginthistemporarystatebetweenourworldandthenext,themostpopularbeingpaymentfor the chanting of mass in memory of the donor. Known as chantries,permanent memorials could range from colleges, similar in layout to amonastery andmannedby secular clergywhoseprincipal rolewas topray fortheir founder, to smaller chapels,most commonlybuiltontoa sideof aparishchurchandcontainingthepatron’stomb.

Asaresultofthisredistributionofendowments,therewaslittleleftfortheestablishedabbeys;somesmallhousesclosedwhileotherskeptgoingbylivingoff their existing possessions, although the reduced income from these and ageneral drop in new recruits hampered their ambitions.Not allwere bereft ofbenefactors. Nunneries, which relied on the dowries granted to them byincoming aristocratic novices, survived as they were willing to welcomeapplicantsfromthewealthynewmerchantclass,whilemanyfriaries,especiallyFranciscan ones, never lost the respect of townsfolk and continued to receivenewmembersandpossessions.

FIG5.4:STMARY’SCOLLEGIATECHURCH,WARWICK:Thearistocracyinthisperiodoftenattemptedtoguaranteethesafepassageoftheirsoulthroughpurgatorybyfoundingcollegiatechurchesandbuildingchantrychapels,asinthisstunningexamplefortheBeauchampfamily,theEarlsofWarwick.

In a timewhen the spectre of death hungover king and peasant alike, thestronger a prayer the more chance that the soul would be saved, and it wasbelievedthatthemoreausterethereligiousgroupthemorepotenttheirblessingwould be. It was for this reason that the Carthusians, with their severe andisolatedlifestyle,becamevirtuallytheonlymonasticgrouptofoundnewhousesin this period. Their charterhouses were endowed by the wealthiest in thekingdomandestablishedinremotelocationsinthecountryside.Anothergrouptofindroyal favourwere the reformedandstrictlyuncompromisingObservantfriars, this time after the firstTudor,HenryVII, ascended the throne in 1485.Theyhadanumberofsites,usuallyfoundednearroyalpalaces,buttheirimpact

was limited, as their patron’s son was soon to bring the curtain down on allmonasticlife.

FIG5.5:AplanofhowaCarthusianmonasterymayhaveoriginallylookedwithitsindividualcellsandgardenssetaroundalargecloister.

PLANSANDSTRUCTURESTheCarthusiansdifferedfromothermajorordersnotonlyinlivinganeremiticlifestyle (likehermits)butalso inhavingaunique layout tohouse them.Theirmonasteries were centred around a much larger than usual cloister, withindividualhousesorcellssetintheirownwalledgardenslaidoutaroundit.Asthe monks spent most of their day praying, working and eating within theirprivateenclavetherewaslessdemandforcommunalbuildingsandthesedonotdominatethesiteasinothermonasteries.

Despitefinancialrestrictions,existingreligioushousesstillmanagedtoerectnew structures during this generally depressed period. Stone walls withbattlements were raised around the abbey precinct, lightweight defencesdesignedtoholdoutrebelliouslocalsorScottishandWelshraiders.Impressivegatehousesemblazonedwithstatuesandcoatsofarmsofbenefactorswerebuilt

over the entrances, their upper floors also providing accommodation, chapelsandevenprisoncells(theabbotwasoftenlordofthemanorandresponsibleforitscourt).Astheabbotssoughttokeepupwiththeirnoblecontemporaries,theyseparatedthemselvesfromthemonks’dormitoriesandeitherconvertedtheoftenvacant east orwest side of the cloister into their private apartments or built anewhall,chambersandservicebuildingstothesouthoreastoftheinfirmary.

FIG5.6:HOLYTRINITYCOLLEGIATECHURCH,TATTERSHALL,LINCOLNSHIRE:ThisexcellentexampleofaPerpendicularwindowwiththemultipleverticalbars(mullions)runningthefullheightoftheopeningandatransomacrossthemiddleistypicalofthe15thcentury.Thepronouncedsteppedbuttressesclaspingthecornersandtheflatarchofthedoorwaybelowarealsonotableperioddetails.

FIG5.7:Aviewofa15thcenturyabbeychurchwithacut-outexposingtheinteriorandlabelshighlightingthestyleofitsvariousfeatures.

Themonksalso,whoweremostlysonsofthenobility,hadbythistimebeenbroughtupinfairlyluxuriousaccommodationathomeandsoexpectedthesamestandardswhen theyenteredmonastic life.Consequently,dormitoriesbegan tobe divided up and separate fireplaces provided. These new recruits were alsomorelikelytohavegonetouniversityand,asbettereducatedmonks,requiredaseparate library rather than just awall cupboard to hold the books they used.Accommodation was also expected for the growing number of visitors andpensioners, resulting in further conversion of dormant rooms and buildings ornewstructures,usuallyonthepublicwestsideofthecloister.

FIG5.8:MOUNTGRACEPRIORY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:AnexternalviewofareconstructedCarthusianmonk’scellwithhisgardenandcoveredwalkwayontherearwallleadingtohislatrine.Theinteriorphotowithglazedandshutteredwindowsandafireplaceshowshowhighthestandardofaccommodationwasbytheearly16thcenturycomparedwiththetimberhovelswhichmostpeasantsstillresidedin.

There was little expenditure on great architectural works until later in the15th century, when improved conditions encouraged a number of ambitiousabbots to erect bold new church towers. Usually sited at the west end of thenave, theycouldbehuge structuresup to150 ft tallwithprojectingbuttressesrunning up the corners and pinnacles and battlements around the top. TheseexemplifiedthePerpendicularstyle,whichdominatedanynewbuildingsinthis

latemedievalperiod(thewordisderivedfromtheLatinforplumblineandthestructureanddecorationof this styleemphasised thevertical).With theuseofdeep or flying buttresses and lighter lead-covered roofs, the side walls ofchurches could be made thinner and have a greater area of glass. Huge newwindowswith flatter arched tops and filledwith numerous vertical stone barslightenedtheinteriors(seefig5.6)whilethestonevaultingabovedevelopedintoelaboratepatternsclimaxing in the fanvaultedceiling (see fig5.16).Theogeearch,comprisingaconcavethenconvexline,waspopularandusedinwindows,belfry openings and on the small canopied recesses that were a commondecorativetool.

FIG5.9:EXEMPLARABBEYc1500:Thefinancialconstraintsoftheprecedingtwohundredyearshaveseenlittledramaticchangewithintheprecinct,althoughthechurchhasanewflatroofbuiltbehindabattlementedparapet(A).Oneoftheabbotshastakentheopportunitywhilenumbersofmonkshavedeclinedtoconverttheeastrangeintohisprivateapartments(B),withhisownkitchenandgardentothesouth(C),whileunrestfromlocalsencouragedhimtobuildanewgatehouse(D)andprecinctwall(E).Thetownthatthemonksinpartfoundedbackinthe12thcenturyhasgrownarounditssuccessfulmarket,andthechurchbesidethegatehousehasbeenrebuilt(F)andanumberofinns(G)haveappearedtoprovidelodgingsforabbeyvisitors.Despitetheeconomicgloomofthepreviouscenturiesthemonkslookingoutoftheirabbeymightfeelthatprosperitywasjustaroundthecorner,yetonlyafewdecadeslaterthebetterinformedabbotmayhavebeenpreparinghimselfforanimpendingstorm.

TheMonksandtheOrdersLike the hermits of early monasticism, Carthusianmonks spent most of their

timein theircell. In the15thandearly16thcentury theycouldexpect tohaveliving rooms, a study, anoratory and aworkshop so that they could carryouttheir essential prayer and trade in solitude,while hatches in thewalls enabledservantstodelivermealswithoutdisturbingthem.Outside,atallwallenclosedaprivate garden, with a secluded cloister, a toilet and a drinking water tapcompleting their seemingly self-sufficient enclave. They were, however, stillrequiredatcertaincommunalservicesandchaptermeetingsthroughouttheday.

Despitetheiraustereeremiticlifestyle,Carthusianmonkscouldexpectstonehouseswithfireplaces,glazedwindowsandafireplace,wellabovethestandardofaccommodationfor themajorityof thepopulationat thetime.Monksin theexistingordersexpectedevenmore,withrelaxationintheirdietpermittingmeatandfish,paidservants tocarryout tasksso theywouldhavemorestudy time,the granting of pocket money and even time for holidays! These were notchancesforthemtohoistuptheircassocksattheseaside,butwereperiodswhenthe rules of silence and diet were relaxed, usually after their periodicbloodletting.Thisessentialpartofmedievalmedicinewascarriedout typicallyfromfourtotentimesayear,dependingontheorderandindividual.Afterwardsthe drained monk could convalesce in the infirmary or in some cases at aseparatehouseorgrangeownedbytheabbey.

It was in this period especially that many of the rumours concerning thebehaviourofabbotsandmonksarose.Therearerecordsofexcessivedrinking,internal feuds resulting in acts of violence,monks leading raiding parties andenjoying hunting too much. Some had affairs with local women and evenfathered children,while nunswere found to be sleepingwith young girls andwearing silks.Many abused their office,makingpersonal financial gains fromtheircommunity.Theselaxstandardsandarrogantbehaviourloweredtheimageofthereligiousordersstillfurtherintheeyesofthelaypopulation,whichwouldaddjustificationtotheactionsofthenewlydivorcedKingofEnglandin1536–theDissolutionoftheMonasteries.

StillOutTherePERIODDETAILS:PERPENDICULAR

FIG5.10:RIEVAULXABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Apiscina(inwhichholyvesselswerewashed)withanogeearchabove.Thisstyleofarchwith‘S’shapedsideswasverypopularinthe14thand15thcenturies.

FIG5.11:CROYLANDABBEY,CROWLAND,LINCOLNSHIRE:Atanumberofmonasteriesthelocalparishionershaduseofpartoftheabbeychurch,inthiscasethenorthaisle,ontowhichtheybuilttheirowntower(totheleftinthisview)inthelate15thcentury.Therighthandsideisthewestendofthemonks’nave,withsculpturedfiguresstillstandingwithintheircanopiedniches,againprobablydatingfromthe15thcentury.Atmostruinedabbeysthesefigureswouldhavebeendestroyedintheyearsofreligiousturmoilfromthe1530stothe1650s.

FIG5.12:SHAPABBEY,CUMBRIA:Theremainsoftheearly16thcenturywesttower(notethesteppedbuttressesclaspingthecorners)dominatestheremainsofthisabbeyofPremonstratensiancanons,wholiketheCistercianOrderonwhichtheyhadmodelledthemselveshadbreachedtheiroriginalrulesinerectingsuchaprominentstructure.

FIG5.13:MALMESBURYABBEY,WILTSHIRE:ThisNormanchurch(infactitisonlythenavethatisinthispicture)withitsspectacularentrance(seefig3.13)hadanewflatrooffittedinthemid14thcenturysothatthewalloftheclerestorybelowcouldberaisedandthetoprowofpointedarchedwindowsinsertedtogivemorelightinside.Theflyingbuttressesontherightsidesupportedtheextrathrusttheflatterroofcreatedandthepinnaclesontopwerenotjustdecorativebutaddedextraweighttoholditallinplace.Originallyonthefarrighttherewasatowerwithaspire(whichwerepopularadditionsinthisperiod)ofacombinedheightof431ft,mostofwhichfelldowninastormin1500,andbeyondittheeastendandtransepts.Onlythenavesurvivedthedissolution,whenitwasgrantedtotheparishastheirnearbychurchwasinaparlousstate.

FIG5.14:MOUNTGRACEPRIORY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Adoorwaytoacell,withaflatarchandribbedmouldingaboveit,whichwerebecomingpopularinthe15thcentury.Thesquareholeontherightwasthehatchwherethelayservantsleftthemonk’smealssotheywouldnotcomeincontactwitheachother,whiletheshieldsonthetopcornersofthedoorhadeithercarvedorpaintedcoatsofarmsofthenoblewhooriginallyendowedthecell.

FIG5.15:MALMESBURYABBEY,WILTSHIRE:Aninteriorviewofthestoneribbedceilingfittedatthetimeoftheworkinfig5.13.ThepatternisknownasLiernevaultinganddiffersfromtheearlierribvaultinfig4.16inhavingextrashortribsbetweenthemainoneswhicharepurelydecorative.Thesedevelopedintomoreelaboratepatternsinthe15thcentury.

FIG5.16:TEWKESBURYABBEY,GLOS:ArichlydecoratedporchonthesouthsideofthechurchwithPerpendicularfeaturessuchascanopiedrecessesabovethedoor,andasmallsegmentoffanvaultingontheceilingabove.

FIG5.17:CHESTERCATHEDRAL,CHESHIRE:Therefectoryofthisformermonasterystillsurvives

withahammerbeamroof,aningeniousdevelopmentincarpentrywhichpermittedlargespacestobespannedwithouttheneedforinconvenientaisles.

CHAPTER 6

TheDissolutionoftheMonasteriesandtheFateoftheAbbeys1536

onwards

FIG6.1:CHESTERCATHEDRAL,CHESHIRE:ThisBenedictineabbey,foundedin1093,becameacathedralin1541afteritsdissolution,withtheabbotbecomingthenewdean.Todaythereisstillmuchtoseefromthemedievalabbeyincludingcloisters,chapterhouse,gatehouse,andtherefectory–whichis

appropriatelythecathedralrestaurant!

FIG6.2:EASBYABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Aviewshowingtherefectorytotheright,withitspointedwindowsofcl300,andthedormitorytotheleft,unusuallytothewestofthecloister.Shortlyafterithadbeendissolvedin1536thisPremonstratensianabbeywasrepossessedbymonksduringthePilgrimageofGracebeforetherebelsweredispersedandinthefollowingyearsavagelydealtwithbyHenryVIII.

TheDissolutionoftheMonasteriesIf only Henry VIII had approached the Pope for divorce from his first wifeCatherine ofAragon a few years earlier, then the devastation of themedievalmonasteries may never have taken place. Unfortunately, in 1527 the HolyRomanEmperor,CharlesV,had sackedRomeandmadePopeClementVII avirtualprisoner,sowhenCardinalWolseybegannegotiationsthatyeartosecureadivorcehemetwithfailure,forasluckwouldhaveitCharleswasCatherine’snephewandhewouldnotletherbecastaside.

Henry’sdesperationforamaleheir,intensifiedbypassionforhisnewlove,AnneBoleyn,forcedhimtobreakwithRomeandmakehimselfSupremeHeadoftheChurchofEngland,enablinghisnewarchbishop,Cranmer,todeclarehismarriagetoCatherinenullandvoid.OneimmediateproblemwasthepresenceinthecountryofreligiousfoundationsthatowedallegiancetothePope,namelythemonasteries,andtheirremovalwasseenascrucialtomaintainhisfledglingAnglicanchurch.Thefactthatitwouldenablehimtotransfertheirpropertyandwealth into the treasury’sbeleagueredcoffers andusegrantsof land to securetheallegianceofnobleswasprobablyjustasimportant.

In1535surveysofmonasticresourcesandmoralstandardswerecarriedoutand, armed with this information, Thomas Cromwell, the king’s secretary,convinced Parliament to pass the SuppressionAct in the following year. Thislegislationcalledfortheclosingofthesmallestreligioushouseswithanannualincomeoflessthan£200,inwhichitwasclaimedlaxobservanceofruleswas

most likely to occur. Despite commissioning preachers to prepare the laypopulationbyconvincingthemthatmonkswereidleandhypocritical,therewassurprisingresistancetotheAct,especiallyintheNorth,culminatinginthemostserious threat to Henry’s reign, the Pilgrimage of Grace. In late 1536 aYorkshireman,RobertAske,unifiedtherebels,includingmembersofmonasticcommunities,whoopposedmanyaspectsofHenry’spoliciesandwere ignitedinto actionby theSuppressionAct.The40,000 strong forcedisbandedonce apromise to address their grievances had been received from the king, only forhimtoimprisonandexecuteAskethefollowingyear.

TheruthlessdefeatoftherebelsencouragedHenryandCromwelltodissolvethe remaining monasteries, especially in the light of the involvement of thelargerhousesinthePilgrimage.Byusingbribes,threats,fraud,andexecution,orbyplacingtheirownpuppetabbotsinplacetoinitiateclosure,theymanagedby1540–whenWalthamAbbeybecamethelasthousetobedissolved–toremovemorethanninehundredyearsofmonasticismfromthefaceofEngland.

Henry gainedmuch wealth from the venture, his Court of Augmentationsreceivingwelloveramillionpoundsbytheendofhisreign,yetbythenhehadwastedmost of it in wars with France and Scotland. His son, as EdwardVI,continued on amore zealousProtestant route but his premature death in 1553allowedhisCatholicstepsisterMarytotryandreverseherpredecessors’work,restoring Westminster as an abbey and commencing the building of a newcharterhouse at Sheen. Littlewas achieved in her short reign and Elizabeth I,whosucceededherin1559,re-establishedtheChurchofEngland.

THEFATEOFTHEMONKS

Some abbots had seen the dissolution coming and had prepared themselvesfinancially.Thosewhogaveupeasilywerewellcompensatedwithapensionof£100perannumand thechanceofhighoffice in thenewChurchofEngland.Those who resisted (probably about half of the total number of nearly 850housesthatexistedpriortodissolution)facedterribleretribution,likeatReadingAbbey, where the abbot held out staunchly before being hanged, drawn andquartereddespitebeingongoodtermswiththeking.

Canons and friars who were also priests often found new positions inparishes,whileyoungermonks frequently learnednew trades,gotmarriedandvanishedintosecularsociety.Theoldestmonks,withonlysmallpensionstorelyon,weremorelikelytohavebeenheardreminiscingofthegoodolddays,thatisiftheycouldmastertheartofconversationafteralifetimeofvirtualsilence.

TheAbbeyaftertheDissolutionTheclosureofanabbeyorprioryusuallyresultedinanimmediateandthoroughraidingofitsriches.Anyvaluableslikesilverplateandaltarfurnitureweresentto the King’sWardrobe, useful metals like the bells and brasses went to thearmories,while the leadoff theroofswasmelteddowninto ingotsbearing theking’smark.Demolition,especiallyofthechurch,wasusuallyswift,notonlytogain a quick profit but also to render it unusable should the tide turn againstHenry.Religioushouses located in townsandcitieswere themost likely tobebuilt over and today just an odd gatehouse, monastic building or place-namemaysurvive tomarkwhereanabbeyonce stood.Somesiteswere saved fromdestruction, though what part was retained depended upon its role prior todissolutionandtherequirementsofthenewowners.

FIG6.3:WESTMINSTERABBEY,LONDON:Thewestfrontofthisnotablelandmark,datingmainlyfromthe13th-15thcentury,withthetwotowersinthepictureaddedinthe18thcentury.Althoughdissolvedin1540,itwasrestoredin1556bytheCatholicQueenMary,onlytobesuppressedagainin1560byhersister,Elizabeth.ThemonkswhofledthissecondtimefoundedamonasteryontheContinent.TheirsuccessorsreturnedtotheseshoresinthewakeoftheFrenchRevolutionandin1802establishedAmpleforthinYorkshire,thelargestmonasteryinEnglandtoday.

THECATHEDRALPRIORIESTheassociationofamonasticcommunityonthesamesiteasthebishop’sseatgoesback to theSaxonperiod and anumberof these cathedral priories lastedthroughoutthemedievalperiod.Atthedissolutionthemonasticbuildingssimplybecameaccommodationforthenewdeanandchapter.Cathedralsstandingtodaythat once had priories include Canterbury, Rochester, Winchester, Worcester,Ely,Norwich,CarlisleandDurham.

NEWCATHEDRALS

Withtheestablishmentof theChurchofEnglandtherewasareorganisationofdioceses, and new cathedrals were required, with a number of old monasticchurchesbeingselectedtofulfiltheroleofbishop’sseat.Thecathedralsyoucanvisit today which were originally abbeys and became cathedrals at this timeincludeGloucester,Chester,PeterboroughandWestminster,althoughthe latterrevertedtoanabbeyinMary’sreign.

PARISHCHURCHES

Some parishes had the right to use part of a monastic church prior to thedissolution. Where this occurred the practice could continue, although thesectionusedbythemonkswasoftendemolished,asatCroyland(seefig5.11).In other situations the parishioners could purchase the site and use the abbeychurch as their own, which saved Tewkesbury Abbey among others (see fig3.15).Asthechoirandpresbyterywerenolongerrequired, theeastendof thebuilding was often destroyed or left to ruin, leaving a rather odd shaped,truncatednaveasatMalmesbury(seefig5.13).

FIG6.4:BINHAMPRIORY,NORFOLK:AfterthisBenedictinepriorywasdissolvedin1539theeastend,towerandaislesweredemolished,leavingthistruncatednaveasaparishchurch.Thewestendisnotableashavingoneoftheearliestexamplesofabartracerywindow,datingfrom1244,althoughmostofthewindowisnowbrickedin.

Other communities found that the separate churches that the abbeys hadoften built for the local lay population were still sufficient and so the mainmonasticchurchandbuildingsweredemolished.Thisoccurred,forinstance,atBuryStEdmunds,Reading,MuchWenlockandWhitby.

COUNTRYHOUSES

It is likely that the majority of sites were granted to, or purchased by, newwealthy families looking for a country seat,Henry’s favouredcourtiers,or theofficialswhowereresponsibleforoverseeingthedissolutionitself.Theywouldhaveintendedtousethesiteforanewhouse,butwereprobablycautiousinthefirst fewdecades after thedissolutionnot to sink toomuch into theproject incasetherewasareturntotheCatholicfaith,aswasthreatenedinMary’sreign.Somebuildingswouldhavebeenconvertedandthecloisterorabbot’slodgingsreused,withgardensestablishedaroundthisnewsecularresidence.Manyoftheearthworks which today surround the ruins of abbeys may be the remains ofthesegardenschemes,abandonedsometimelaterwhenanewhousewasbuiltona different site. Lacock Abbey, an Augustinian nunnery, was purchased byWilliamSharingtonandthehousehebuiltoverthecloistersstillsurvivestoday.

By the second half of the 16th century a more confident and securearistocracy was rejecting medieval defensive planning and erecting grand,outward looking houses with prominent symmetrical façades filled with glassandthelatestinRenaissancedecoration.TheGothicabbeystheyhadpurchased

must have soon looked out of date, and from this period through to the 19thcentury theybeganbuildingonnewsites,usually raidingwhatwas leftof themonasticbuildingsformaterials.Atmanycountryhousesitisonlythename–WoburnAbbey,forexample,orNostellPriory–thatrecordstheexistenceofamonastery.Eventhisisnotfoolproof,though,assomehousesknownas‘Abbey’or‘Priory’wereonlymonasticestatesandnotreligioushouses,whiletitleslike‘Grange’ (originally amonastic farm)werepopular in theVictorianperiodonpropertieswithnoreligiousconnections.

FIG6.5:NEWSTEADABBEY,NOTTINGHAMSHIRE:Originallyapriory,whichafterthedissolutionwasconvertedintoadwelling.Thewestendofthechurchstillstandsintheleftofthisview,withthehousebuiltarounditscloistersontheright.

FIG6.6:FOUNTAINSHALL,NORTHYORKSHIRE:ThisElizabethanmansionwaserectedfrom1598–1604usingstonefromtheadjacentFountainsAbbey.Thesymmetry,thelargemassofwindows,Renaissancedetails,anditsoutwardlookingfrontareinstarkcontrasttotheinwardfacingmedievalbuildings,whichmayhavesufficedastheresidenceofanobleatthedissolutionbutnowseemedoutdated.

ROMANTICRUINS

Fortunately, a number of abbeys, most notably those of the Cistercian Order,werehiddenawayinremotevalleysoutofsiteofProtestantextremistsandoftenprotectedbyoldCatholic familieswho still revered the sacred remains. In thesecondhalfofthe18thcenturythearistocracysoughttorecreatetheirnewfoundloveforthepicturesqueintheirowngardensbysprinklingaselectionofruinedstructuresaroundtheirnewlylandscapedparks.Betterstill,though,wastohavea real ruined abbey within their grounds, so those exceptional sites that hadsurvivedthelasttwocenturies,likeFountainsAbbey,becameacentralpartofagarden scheme, or in the case ofRievaulx andTintern abbeys, notable touristattractions.

FIG6.7:EXEMPLARABBEYc1700:Thisfinalsnapshotoverourimaginaryabbeyisviewed160yearsafteritwasdissolved.Thehugechurch(A)wasretainedfortheuseoftheparishbuttheunusedpartsweredemolishedalongwiththeiroldchurchatthegatehouse(B).Thenewownerofthemonasticprecincthaserectedamansion(C)andusedpartsoftheoldabbot’shouseandrefectorytoformhisstablecourtyard(D).Someoftheoldabbeyfishponds(E)arenowlakeswithinhisformalgarden,whiletherestofthesitewassoldoffforindividualhouseplots(F).Ifweviewedthesitetodayitislikelythatmuchofthiswouldinturnhavegone,withonlythechurch,probablyrestoredinthe19thcentury,remainingalongwiththegatehouse.Theonlyotherreminderoftheabbeycouldbelocalstreetandplacenamesandtheoutlineoftheprecinct,whichcouldstillshowupasapropertyboundaryorfeatureonamap.

NEWMONASTERIES

At the same timeas these ruinedmedievalabbeysbegan tobeappreciated for

their picturesque qualities, there was growing tolerance of the old religion,culminating in the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829. Refugees from theFrenchRevolutionhadalreadyquietlyestablishedanumberofnewmonasteriesandbythemid19thcenturythesewereevenjoinedbysomeChurchofEnglandfoundations. Today, there are various abbeys and nunneries the length andbreadth of the country, some noted for schools likeAmpleforth inYorkshire,others forenterprises like thepotteryatPrinknash inGloucestershire,althoughallbuttwooftheseareonnewsites.

SECTIONII

THEABBEYIN

DETAIL

CHAPTER 7

TheChurch

FIG7.1:Acutawayviewofanabbeychurchlabellingitsvariouspartsandfeatures.

Theabbeychurchisinvariablythemoststrikingfeaturewithinmonasticruins.WhetheritisthehugelimestonewallsperforatedbyrowsofarchedwindowsasatRievaulxor the tall, jagged structure that commands the clifftops above thetownofWhitby,itisthechurchthattendstodrawourattention.Theirmassivesize and dominance at most sites are a reflection of their importance to themonks,whoseprincipalaiminlifewastheserviceofGod.

Theabbeychurchhadanumberof roles to fulfil.Thecentralandeastendcontaining the quire (choir) and presbytery were the sanctuary of the monks,

usuallyreferredtoasquiremonkstodifferentiatethemfromthemorenumerouslaybrothersandservants,who,iftheydidnothaveaseparateplaceofworship,would use the west end of the church (nave). It was also the backdrop forprocessions,animportantpartofmonasticlife.Thesetookplaceweeklyandonspecial days, with the whole community forming a column which wound itsway, though the complex, blessing altars along theway before the singing ofHigh Mass. The medieval abbey church could be a highly decorated andcolourfulplace,farfromtheplainbleachedwallsweseetoday.

FIG7.2:STALBANSCATHEDRAL,HERTFORDSHIRE:Abbeychurcheswerecolourfulplaces,asthismedievalwallpaintingshows.Muchofthisartwork,whitewashedoverduringtheferventProtestantismofthelate16thand17thcenturies,wasonlyuncoveredwhenenthusiasticVictorianrestorersstrippedawaythetopsurface.

The building was usually sited to the north of the cloister, to shield thecompound in winter, although it is on the south at a few abbeys, due tolimitationsofthesiteorasinthecaseofChester(fig6.1)tokeepoutthenoiseofthetown.BytheNormanperiodthecruciformplanthatthemajorityusedhadits longbodycarefullyalignedonaneast-west axis.Most churcheswerebuilt

over a long period of time, so the east end was always started first to allowservicestobeheldinfrontofthehighaltarbeforetheremainderwascompleted,apresumablydraughtyexperience!

THEWESTFRONTThis important frontwas the public face of the church and as the ceremonialentranceitwashighlydecorated,althoughthewayinforeverydayvisitorswasamorediscreetdoorway,usuallyonthenorthside.Thewestfronttypicallyhadacentral, deeply recessed doorway, often with smaller openings on either side.Therewere either decorative bands of arcading or just awindow above; earlytypesofthelatterhadtalllancetsandroundopenings(seefig4.9),whichwereoftenreplacedbyasinglemassivewindowfromthemid13thcentury(see fig6.4).Theemptyrecessesthatcanoftenbefounddecoratingthisfaceoriginallyheld statues of saints and holymen, althoughmostwere destroyed during theReformationandCommonwealthperiod.

FIG7.3:RIEVAULXABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Thenearest,lowstonewallsinthisviewareofthegalileebuiltagainstthewestfront,thehigherwalljustbehindit.Thetallstructureintherighthandbackgroundistheeastendofthesamechurch,emphasisingitshugescale.

Cistercian abbeys had a special porch built in front of the west doorway,known as a galilee (or occasionally a narthex). It is assumed that this was acoveredassemblypoint forceremonialprocessionsandwasnamed thusas the

abbot at the head of the columnofmonkswas compared to Jesus leading thedisciplesintoGalilee.Inmostcasesitwasalongstructureleaningupagainstthewestwallwithasingleslopingroofandanopencolonnadeto thefront.Someformedlargervestibuleswithvaultedceilingsandoccasionallyachapel.

THENAVE

FromtheLatinwordnavis,meaningship,thenavewasthelargewesthalfofthechurch,which carried the congregation and in theMiddleAgeswas separatedfromtheeastendbyscreens.Largerstructureshadaislesthatcouldbeusedaspassagewaysbehindthearcadeofcolumnsorpierssupportingthetallwallsofthe nave. Above were one or two rows of arches; the middle one, where itexisted, was called the triforium, its openings illuminating a passage runningbehind,andthetoprowofwindows,whichcastadditionallightuponthenave,wascalledtheclerestory.

Thehugeheightandlengthofsomenavesinmonasticchurcheswasfortheformation and easymovement of ceremonial processions rather than to hold alarge number of worshippers. At a number of abbeys and priories, especiallythoseof theBenedictinesandCanonsRegular, the localpopulationhadparishrights to the church and parts of the nave were provided for services. In aCistercianmonasteryitwaswherethelaybrotherssatduringservices,onstallsbuilt between the columns of the arcade,with a rood screen (named after thecrucifixwhichstoodontop)cuttingofftheeastend.Whenthenumbersoflaybrothersplummetedinthe14thcenturythenavewasusuallyopenedupandthestallswereremoved,withadditionalaltarssometimessitedintheirplace.Nichesin columns above where altars once stood and sockets and grooves in themasonrywherethestallsandscreenswerefixedcanstillbefoundtoday.

FIG7.4:MALMESBURYABBEY,WILTSHIRE:Theinteriorofthenaveshowingthethreelevelsofthewall:thearcadeofcolumnsandarchesalongthebottom(withtheaislebehind),thenextupbeingthetriforium,andfinallytheclerestoryonthetop,whichletinadditionallight.Insomelargeandmostsmallerchurchesthetriforiumwasomitted.

FIG7.5:Adrawingshowinganichecutintoanavecolumnwhereastatuewasonceplaced.Theseareofteninassociationwithanaltarinsertedafterthelaybrothers’stallswereremovedinthelate14thcentury.

TOWERANDTRANSEPTS

Thecentreofthecruciformplanwasusuallymarkedbyatower,whichnotonlyhousedthegreatbellsbutalsostructurallyheldthebuildingtogether.Theweightofitsmasonrycounteractedthepressurefromthefourarms,andifitwasnotofsufficientbulk it couldcausecollapse, ashappenedwithanumberofNormanlantern towers which were too light. The architecturally austere Cisterciansoriginallyonlypermittedsquattowerswithjustonebell,yetbythe15thcenturytheywereraisinghugenewstructures,usuallyonthewestendofthechurchandcontaining numerous bells. Larger churches of the other orders sometimesendowed this public end with pairs of towers. As well as holding the belfry,manySaxonstructuresandlaterthosebelongingtohousesclosetothedisruptiveborders of Scotland and Wales were used as look-outs and even last ditchdefensivepoints,likethekeeponacastle.

Thearea in thechurchdirectlybelowacentral tower iscalled thecrossingand is confined between the fourmassive piers or columns that supported thestructure above (today the footings that remain of thesewill usually bewiderthanthosethatheldupthechurchwalls).Thetwoshortarmseithersideofthe

crossing, thenorthandsouthtransepts,completedthecruciformplanandwereusedtocreateextraspaceforaltars.Fromthesouthtranseptranasetofstairsupto the dormitory, somonks could come directly into the church for the nightservice.Thesedoorwayscanstillbefoundtoday–leftstrandedhighuponthesouthwall.

Bells were essential to the efficient running of the monastery, whereindividual monks had no watches or clocks to tell the time and the rules ofsilencepreventedcallingoutloudtosummonthem.Monksinfactwereamongthe first to develop mechanical clocks, some to wake them for night offices,otherstostrikeabellforthehoursduringtheday.Onecomplexexamplefromthe1320swaserectedatStAlbansandwasoneofthefirstpublicclocksinthecountry.Thegreatbellshousedin the towerwereprincipallyrungtomark thehours (the services which were sung at specified times through the day andnight) andwould have echoed out down the valley or across the fields,whilesmallerbellsonotherbuildingsaroundthecloistersignalledlesserdailyevents.So loud were the bells at Rievaulx that the monks of nearby Byland Abbeymovedfurtherawaysoasnottobeconfusedbytheirringing.

QUIRE/CHOIR

Thequireorchoirwastheplaceintheheartofthechurchwherethemonkssattochantthehours,theeightservicesthatmadeupthedivineorderoropusDei(God’sWork)foreachday.Thefirstwasmatins,attheseeminglyunholyhourof 2 am, and thiswas followed by lauds and prime beforemany of uswouldhave even thought of rising today. Thework of the daywas broken by threefurthervisitstothequireforterce,sextandnones,whiletheeveningservicesofvespersandcomplinewerecompletedaround7.30pminwinterand8.30pminsummer. We all know how onerous listening to a service can be – the poormonks not only had to do it eight times a day but had strict rules of decencywhich prohibited conversation, smiling, and even crossing or stretching theirlegs.

FIG7.6:VALLECRUCISABBEY,CLWYD:Thesouthtranseptofthechurch,showingthedoorway,strandeduponthewall,whichledintothedormitory;thenightstairsthatrandownbelowithavelongsincegone(seealsofig8.7).

FIG7.7:Adrawingshowingthecentralpartofthechurchwiththeeastendofthenaveandthechoirinthe

areaofthecrossing.

Thechoiritselfusuallystretchedfromthecrossingupintotheeastendofthechurch,althoughthepulpitum(theLatinwordforplatformorscaffold),whichshutoffitswestend,couldstretchbackintothenave.Fromthelate12thcenturythe east ends of churcheswere often extended, one reason being tomove thequirefurtherawayfromthenavetoincreaseprivacy.Thequirewasopentothealtaron theeast sideandenclosedon thenorthand southbywooden screens,which in theNormanchurches couldhavebeendecoratedwithblind arcading(seefig3.11)butfromtheturnofthe14thcenturymoretypicallyhadcanopiedrecesses, a number ofwhich survive today. Parallel to thesewere themonks’stalls,whichascendedoneithersideofacentralwalkwaywithalecterninthemiddle, on which the music books were supported. Monks were expected tostand through much of the services, so to make the hours of chanting morebearablewooden ledgeswere fitted to theundersideof their chairs, soas theyrose and flipped up the seats they could lean back onto the projection forsupport.Thesearecalledmisericords–whichmeans‘mercy’!

FIG7.8:Adrawingofpartofthechoirstallsshowingamisericordontheupturnedbackofthechair.

FIG7.9:Twoplansshowingthepossiblearrangementyoucouldfindintheeastendofanearlyorsmallabbeychurch(above)andalaterorlargeone.

PRESBYTERYTheword,meaning ‘priest’s place’,was applied to the east end of the churchbeyond the choir. The presbytery could vary from a short, narrow, walledenclosuretoaspaciousareaboundedbyaislesandmagnificentwindows.Earlytypesoftenhadasemicirculareasternend(apse),somewithsmallerbutsimilarshapedchapelssetaroundit,whileexamplesfromthemid12thcenturyonwardstend tobe longerand rectangular inplan.Thedivisionbetween thepresbyteryandthechoirwasmarkedbyasinglestep,whichoftensurvivesinruinstodayandleadsontothecentreofthepresbytery(alsoknownasthesanctuary).Herestoodthehighaltar,eitherontheeastwall(oncetheprieststookmassinfrontof

itratherthanbehindfromthe12thcentury)orforwardfromit,onastonescreencalled a reredos. The area around was usually tiled, a luxury flooring in themedievalperiod,oftenproducedbyabbeysthemselves,likeChertseyinSurrey,examplesfromwhichcanbefoundintheBritishMuseum.

On the south wall a number of recesses were provided for use duringservices.Asedilia(fromtheLatinsedile,aseat)isasetofstoneseatscutoutofthewallforofficialstouseduringmass.Thereareusuallythreeinnumber,butsometimesmore,whichstepup,withthemostseniormembersittinghighestattheendnearestthealtar.Nearbywouldbeapiscina(ageneralnameforapool,from theLatinpiscis,meaning fish),which in this situationwas a stonebasinwith a drain, sometimes supported on a column, used for rinsing out thecommunion vessels. There would also be a credence, which was a shelf onwhichthebottlesofwineandwaterwereplaced.Anaumbrywasasmallsquarecupboard, a few feet across, which was recessed into the wall, with lockingdoors to protect holy relics and other valuables. Although the wooden doorshave long since gone, the square holes still remain, sometimes with hingesocketstotheside.

FIG7.10:Medievaltiles,whichusuallypavedtheareaaroundthealtars,althoughyoumayfindthemresetelsewheretoday.FromlefttorighttheyarefromThorntonAbbey,Humberside,BylandAbbey,NorthYorkshire,andBuildwasAbbey,Shropshire.

FIG7.11:FURNESSABBEY,CUMBRIA:Ahighlyornamentalsedilia.Earlytypesmayhavehadsimplearchedrecessesbutexampleslikethiswithdecoratedcanopiesabovedatefromthe14thand15th

centuries.

Shrineswerehousedinthismostsacredpartofthechurch.Inearlychurchestheywereusuallyinthebasementorcryptunderneaththepresbyteryandviewedbypilgrimsfromanambulatory,whichranaroundtheoutsideofitwithseparateentrances and exits to copewith a flood of visitors. In the 13th centurymanyabbeyswereencouragedtodustdowntheirsacredrelicsandsaintlyremainsandprovidethemwithanewsettingupstairs,eithertothesideofthesanctuaryorinthe place of highest honour directly behind the high altar. The income frompilgrimsusuallymadeanynewbuildingaworthwhileendeavour,especially tothe relic-obsessed Benedictines, and their value was such that watching loftsweresometimesbuiltforthemonkswhohadtoguardthemdayandnight.MostrelicsandremainswerecollectedbyHenryVIIIatthedissolution,forexamplethe famous Holy Blood from Hailes Abbey in Gloucestershire, which hadfinanced the rebuilding of the church in the 13th century butwhichwas nowclaimedbytheCrowntobenomorethananimals’bloodchangedeachweekbythemonks.

CHAPELS

A growing number of these small rooms off the main church were erectedaround the presbytery and east side of the transepts to house altars for theincreasing numbers of monks becoming priests and in response to the risingpopularity of the privatemass.Other altarswere provided at certain locationswithin thechurch,andsomecouldalsobe foundelsewhere– in the infirmary,chapterhouse,guestaccommodationorgatehouse.ThemostimportantwastheLadychapel,whichwasdedicatedtotheVirginMaryandfoundpopularityfromthe 12th century. It was often sited as an extension behind the east wall, itsstructure helping to support this face, while otherswere built on the north orsouthsideofthepresbytery.Cistercianhousesdidnothavethemastheirwholechurchwasdedicated toheralready.The remainsofchapels todaymayhousesimilar features to the presbytery, notably the base where the altar stood andperhapsapiscinaoraumbry.

FIG7.12:GLOUCESTERCATHEDRAL,GLOUCESTER:WhenEdwardIIwasunceremoniouslyputtodeathbyconspiratorsinsertingaredhotpokeruphisnetherregions,theabbotoftheBenedictineabbeyatGloucestermovedquicklytoacquirehisremains.TheshrinethatwaserectedonthenorthsideofthehighaltarundertheinstructionsofEdwardIIIbecameapopularandlucrativepossession,thepillarsoneithersidebeingcutbacksothatpilgrimscouldmovearoundit.

CHAPTER 8

TheCloisterBuildings

FIG8.1:Acutawayviewofanabbeycloisterlabellingitsvariouspartsandfeatures.

If the monks’ spiritual needs were fulfilled within the church, then theirphysical requirements were satisfied within the buildings that surrounded thecloister.Thiswasaroughlysquareareacomprisingacentralopenareacalledthegarth,whichwasboundedonall four sidesbyacoveredalley (cloister comesfrom the Latin claustrum which means enclosed space). The buildings thatenclosed thecloisterwere in similarpositions throughout themedievalperiod,withonlyslightvariationsduetotheparticulardemandsofareligiousorderor

anawkwardsite.Althoughthealleyswereusedasshelteredpassagesconnectingeachofthe

rooms,theywerealsoimportantasaplaceforpeaceandmeditation.Thenorthalley,whichranalongsidethechurchnave,wasdivideduponitsgardensidebywooden screens creating small cubicles, usuallywith a desk, called carrels, inwhich themonks could pray, study and read. Cistercians had a collation seatalongthewallofthispassage,onwhichtheabbotwouldsitduringhiseveningreading(thecollation).Thealleysthemselvesmayhavebeensimpletimberlean-to structures in the firstmonasteries to use a cloister (probably from the 10thcenturyinEngland),buttheremainsthatsurvivetodayhadlaterarchesofstoneseton a lowwall,which from the14th centurymayhavebeenpartlyor fullyglazed.

FIG8.2:IONAABBEY,OFFTHEISLEOFMULL:Aviewoftherestoredcloisterwithanopenarcade,showinghowitmayhavelookedinthe12thor13thcentury(thedormerwindowsintheroofaremuchlaterandthegarthinthemiddlewouldhavebeenagarden).

Thegarthwaspurelyornamentalandwasprobablydividedupbypathswithbedsbetween filledwith flowers,herbs, treesor lawn.Occasionally theremayhavebeenawaterfeature,suchasalaverinsomeCluniacpriories(seefig8.10)or towers from which water was distributed to individual cells in Carthusianhouses.Thisorderwasalsouniqueinburyingtheirdeceasedmonkswithinthegarth, a rathermorbid thought tous todaybut to theCarthusians itmust havebeenareminderof theglory thatawaitedthemontheotherside, tohelp them

throughtherigouroftheirstrictlyasceticlife.

LIBRARY,SACRISTRYANDVESTRY

Thischapterfollowsaclockwisejourneyaroundatypicalcloisterasillustratedinfig8.1,startingasyoustepoutof theabbeychurchbythesouthdoor.Thisentrancewasusuallydecoratedandfeaturedbandsofrecedingarchesasitwasanimportantaccessthroughwhichtheprocessionspassed.Thefirstfeatureyoumaycomeacrossonyourleftisanopenwallrecess.Thiswasabookcupboard,which originally would have had wooden doors and shelves, and wasconvenientlyplacedatoneendofthenorthcloisteralleywherethemonkssatintheir carrels to study. In the laterMiddleAges, as the better educatedmonksrequiredmorebooks,asmalllibrarywasprovided,oftenbetweenthechurchandthechapterhouse.

Thissamespotmightalsobeusedforasacristyorvestry,theformerusedtohousethesacredvesselsandstoresusedinthechurch,thelatterforholdingthechurch vestments (in some situations the rooms may have been combined inone). These rooms,whichwere under the supervision of a sacristan, could bepositionedoffoneofthetranseptsorthenorthaisleofthechurch,butsometimesthey were trapped between the south transept and chapter house, although asdirect access was always required into the church an additional door wasknockedthroughintoit.

CHAPTERHOUSE

Themostimportantroomofftheeastalley,andsecondonlyinimportancetothechurch, was the chapter house, where the abbot and the monks held a dailymeeting, typically around 8 am. Here they could discuss the running of theabbey and its estates, hear confessions anddecideuponpunishments, read thenoticesofthedeadandthelistsofthemonks’duties.EachgatheringbeganwithareadingofachapterfromtheRuleofStBenedict,hencethenameoftheroom.

Theentrance is usuallymarkedby three archedopenings, often stunninglydecoratedwithradiatingbandsofvoussoirsandcarvings,thecentraloneleadingintothechapterhouse(inCistercianhousesthetwoflankingarchesoftenservedaslibraries).Asthiswasatwo-storeyrangeandanimportantroom,theceilingwasusuallyvaulted instone,and in largerexamples itwouldhaveoneor tworowsof columns in themiddle to support it. Themonks sat on stone benchesaround thewalls,with theabbothavinghis seat in themiddleof theeastwall(theremaybeagaptodaywherethiswouldhavebeen).Thissacredroomwas

alsotherestingplacefortheheadsofthemonasteryandthegraveslabsofpastabbotscanstillbeseenintheiroriginalorre-sitedpositionswithintheremainsofchapterhousestoday.

FIG8.3:LILLESHALLABBEY,SHROPSHIRE:Abookcupboardbuiltintothewalltotherightofthesouthdoorwayintothechurch.Thehorizontalgroovesinsidewereforshelves,whilethetwoopeningsarerecessedtotakedoors,withthetriangularblockinbetweenthemfittedtotakealockingbolt.

FIG8.4:HAUGHMONDABBEY,SHROPSHIRE:Thelate12thcenturytriplearchedopeninginfrontofthechapterhouse,richlydecoratedtoproclaimitsimportantstatus.Theinteriorwasrebuiltaround1500andthesquareheadedwindowandfontwereprobablyfittedherearoundthistime.

Earlychapterhousestendtobeinarectangularroombeneaththedormitory,although inmanyabbeys theyprojectoutwards to theeast tomake themlargeenough to hold the community. Later, ambitious houses who wanted a moregloriousstructurewererestrictedbythefloorabove,sotheyusuallyrepositionedit behind this rangewith the former room becoming a vestibule leading to it.Nowtheycouldconstructataller,freestandingbuildingeitherinthetraditionalrectangularshapeortoapolygonalplan.

SLYPEANDINNERPARLOURAccess would be required from the cloister and its rooms through to theinfirmary and themonks’ cemetery behind them to the east. The slypewas acoveredpassagewaywhichranthroughthisrange,sometimestothenorthofthechapterhousebut,especiallyinCistercianhousesoftenonitssouthside,astheyusuallyputthesacristyorlibraryontheotherside(asinfig8.1).Itwouldhaveoriginally had lockable doors at both ends and sometimes stone seating ordecorative arcading along its walls. The inner parlour (from the French verbparler,meaning ‘to speak’)was aplacewhere the ruleof silencewas relaxedandnecessaryconversation,usuallypriortoachaptermeeting,couldtakeplace.

Itwaseitheraseparateroom,apassagerunningalongsidetheslypeorcombinedwiththelatterasasinglepassage.Itwasthroughthisthatthebodyofadeceasedmonkwastransportedtothecemeteryafterthefuneralservicehadbeenheldinthechapterhouse.

DORMITORYANDREREDORTER

Runningthelengthofthefirstfloorabovetheformerlistedroomsintheeasternrangewould usually be the dormitory or dorter (except in Carthusian houses,wherethemonkssleptintheirowncells).Thiswasthesleepingquartersforthequiremonksandwouldhaveoriginallybeena long,openplanhallwithcrudebeds probablymade from straw pallets or filledmattresses laid out along themainwalls.Theywouldhavesleptwiththeirhabitsstillonandwouldonlyhaveremoved any outer garments and their knives in case of an accident during aparticularly restless night’s sleep.As conditions improved, especially from the14thcentury, fireplacesappearedalong thewalland thedorterwasdividedupby wood panelling, creating private cubicles, which might feature a desk,cupboardandpreferablyawindow.Asthiswasafirstfloorroomitislesslikelytohavesurvived than the roomsbelow,although the impressionof its rooflinecanoftenbeseenwhereitbutteduptotheoutsideofthesouthtransept(seefig4.1).Wheredortersdosurvive,expecttoseearowoflow,thinwindowsontheirexposedwalls(seefig8.7).

FIG8.5:FOUNTAINSABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Theinteriorofthechapterhouselookingtowardsthethreearchesatthewestend.Themonks’seatsstillsurviveinpartalongthesidewalls,asdohigherupthecorbels(stonebrackets),whichalongwiththecolumns,thebasesofwhichsurviveonthefloor,supportedthestonevaultedceiling.Ontheflooraregraveslabsthatcoveredtheburialsofformerabbots.

FIG8.6:THORNTONABBEY,HUMBERSIDE:Afreestanding,octagonalchapterhouse,builtbehindtheeastrangeanddatingfromextensiverebuildingoftheabbeyinthelate13thandearly14thcenturies.Therewouldhaveoriginallybeenapierinthecentre,supportingtheroof.

The abbotmay have originally slept alongside his fellowmonks but evenfromanearlydatehemovedtothemostcomfortableareaofthedorter(nearesttothewarminghouse),ortoaseparateroomlinkedtothesleepingquartersbyapassage. In most houses by the 14th century the abbot could expect his ownlodgingselsewhereinthecomplex.

Attheendwallbuttinguptothechurchadoorledtothenightstairs.Alightwouldhavealwaysbeenlitwithinthedorterforthemonkswhentheyroseinthenightanddescendedthestairsforservices.Attheoppositeendoralongthesidewall would have been a door or passage leading to the reredorter (simplymeaningroomattherear)whichwasthemonks’toilet.Cleanlinesswasofprimeimportance in a monastery and elaborate systems of drainage and waterchannellingweredevised,withtheirpositionoftendeterminingthelayoutofthebuildings, inparticular the reredorter.Thishada rowofpartitioned seatswithholes insetagainst the rearwallandwaspositioneddirectlyabove the flowingwatersotheeffluentwascarriedstraightoffthesite.

FIG8.7:VALLECRUCISABBEY,CLWYD:Anexteriorview(above)oftheeastrangefromthecloistergarth,withtherowofnarrowwindowsontheupperfloormarkingthedormitory.Theinterior(below)wasoncepartitioned,withfireplaces(onestillopenandothersblocked)alongtherighthandwall.Theopeningatthefarendledtothenightstairsandintothechurch(seefig7.6).

FIG8.8:FURNESSABBEY,CUMBRIA:Thetwinchannelsintheforegroundranunderthereredorter,whichwasbuiltoverthem(thelowwallsoneachside)sothateffluentwoulddropdirectlyintothewater.Itwasconnectedbyabridgetothedormitoryontheleft(notethenarrowwindows),thewhitecrumbledwallinbetweenbeingoneofthebuttressesbuiltlatertostopitseastwallfromleaningover.

WARMINGHOUSEORCALEFACTORIUM

Life for the monks during winter must have been intolerably bitter, with noheatingandlittletokeepoutthedraughts.Asmallconcessionwasthewarminghouse,asingleroomwithafireplace,inwhichtheycouldthawoutforashortperiod(theonlyotherplaceswhereafirewaspermittedwerethekitchenandtheinfirmary). Itwasusually positionedunder the dormitory, nearwhere itmeetsthesouthrange,or,especiallyinCistercianhouses,itwasfurtherround,nexttotherefectory.ThefirewaslitonAllSaints’Dayandremainedburningforaboutfivemonthsup toGoodFriday.When in the later14thcentury themonkshadfireplacesintheirdormitory,thewarminghouseoftenbecameaheatedcommonroom,usedforsmallgatheringsorcelebrations.

REFECTORYORFRATERTurningtothesouthrange,opposite thechurch,youcomeacrosstherefectoryor frater,which tends tooccupy thegreaterpartof its length.Beforeentering,the monks would have washed their hands using a laver, a lead-lined stonetrough filledwithwater,whichwasusually built into thewall ononeor bothsides of this entranceor occasionally positioned as a freestandingbasin in thecornerofthecloistergarth.Wherethesesurvivetodayyoucanoftenmakeouttheholesforthepipeswherethewaterwouldhaveentered(commonlythrougha

decorativelion’sheadorsomeformoftap)andthedrainleadingoffatananglefromthebase.Theremayalsobeastonerecesstooneside,whichwasusedasacupboardtoholdthetowelsfordryingthemonks’hands.

Therefectoryinwhichthemonkstooktheirmealswasa longhallopentotherafters,eitheronthegroundfloororraisedaboveanundercroft(abasement),whichwasusedasacellar.Theentrancewasusuallytowardsthewestend,withlongtablesandbencheslinedalongthesidesandinlargerexamplesanotherrowortwoparalleltotheminthemiddle.Attheeastendandatrightanglestotheotherswasthehightable,perhapsonaraisedplatformcalledadais,atwhichtheabbot or prior and his selected guestswould have sat,with a cross or paintedsceneonthewallabovethem.Upalongthesidewallfurthestfromthechurchwouldhavebeenapulpitaccessedbyastonestaircasebuiltintothewall,fromwhich a different member of the community each week would have read outaloudaportionofscripturefromabookwhichwasoftenkeptinanaumbryneartheentrancetothestairs.Atthewestendtheremightbeahatchthroughwhichthefoodwasservedandbrought to thetablesbyservitors,whoalongwiththereaderandcookswouldhavetakentheirmealslater.

FIG8.9:FOUNTAINSABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Thewarmingroomwithahugefireplacearoundwhichtheshiveringmonkswouldhavegatheredforwarmth.Thehorizontallintelaboveitisrare,onlyheldinplacebyclevercuttingofthestonework,althoughawoodenframehasbeeninsertedtodaytoavoidcollapse.

FIG8.10:MUCHWENLOCKPRIORY,SHROPSHIRE:Thecircularlaverorlavabointheforegroundissitedinthecornerofthecloistergarth,withtheruinsofthechurchinthebackground.Itwasoriginallyenclosedbyanoctagonalbuilding(seethelowwallsaroundit)andhadthreetiersofwatertanksontopofit.

Cistercianabbeysoften turned therefectory90°so that itsshorterentranceendfacedontothecloister.Thiswouldmeanthatitslengthwasnotlimitedbythewidthofthecloister,butmoreimportantlyitpermittedthekitchentobesitedin thegapcreatedbetween itand thewest range,where their laybrethrenalsotook theirmeals–aconvenient arrangementwhichmeant thatmealscouldbeservedthroughhatchesdirectlyintoeachrefectory.

Theremainsofrefectoriescanstillgiveanimpressionoftheirformerglory,someretainingthelargewindowsalongtheside(seefig6.2),whichbythe14thcentury could have held colourful heraldic glass with the coats of arms ofbenefactors.The stonebasesof the tablesandbenchesareoften foundwithin,and the base of the stairs leading to the pulpit can survive when the wallsthemselvesareallbutgone.

KITCHEN

Thekitchenwaslogicallysitednear to therefectory,yet itsnoisyenvironmentandthepotentialriskofburningdowntheabbeyfromitsopenfireplacemeantthat itwasoften a freestanding structure sited to the rear of the southorwestrange and connected by a covered passageway. Cistercians tended to put thekitchenbetweenthemonks’fraterandthewestrange,wheretheir laybrothersate, so that food could be served directly to both areas through hatches. It islikely that you will find other kitchens around an abbey site; one is usuallypositionednexttotheinfirmaryandothersmayhavebeenbuiltatalaterdatefortheabbot’sown lodgingsoraguesthouse.Vegetables formed thebasisof themonks’ diet and cauldrons would have simmered over fireplaces or raisedstoves,whileanumberofsinksandtankswouldhavebeenusedforwashingorstoringthem.Atalaterdateastheruleswererelaxed,somemeatwasconsumedandseparatekitchensfeaturinglargeopenrangeswerebuilt tosupplyadiningroomknownasamisericord(seeChapter9).

Mostkitchenswererectangularstructures,usuallywithapantry,butteryorscullery,andanoutercourtyardwherefuelandotherstoresmayhavebeenkept.Someweregrandstructureswithasquareorpolygonalplan,coveredbyalargeconical roof with ornate openings at the crest. These louvres were originallyfittedattheapexofroofstoletthesmokeoutbutlateronestendedtohavelargeopencookingrangesbuiltintowallswithchimneysabove.Thefootingsofthese,often linedwithbrickor tilesandbuiltwithin thewallsoras structures in themiddle,canfrequentlybefound,alongwithroundbakingovens,stonesinksandservinghatchesinthewalls.

FIG8.11:Acut-awayviewofatypicalCistercianrefectoryandtheadjoiningbuildings.

FIG8.12:LEISTONABBEY,SUFFOLK:Theruinsoftherefectorywithitslargewestwindow.Itisbuiltparalleltothesouthofthecloister,tobeseenintherightofthispicture.

FIG8.13:GLASTONBURYABBEY,SOMERSET:Thissquarestructurewithatallpointedroofisarareexampleofamedievalkitchen.

WESTORCELLARER’SRANGE

Theonlyuniversalpurposeforthewestrangeofthecloisterwastocompletetheenclosure,thespecificuseforitbeingdecidedafteritwasbuiltandvaryingevenbetweenhousesofthesameorder.Itwasatwo-storeystructurewiththebottomlevelhavingastonevaultedceiling,aconvenientplaceinmanymonasteriesfora cellar housing much of the food produced within the abbey precinct ordeliveredfromoutside.As this rangealsofacedoutwardsonto thegreatcourt,which was the public entrance to the abbey, a parlour where the monks(especially the cellarer) could meet and talk with traders was usually sitednearestthechurch.Theremayhavealsobeenaporchonthiswesternfrontwithanofficeorcheckeraboveforthecellarer,inwhichhekepttheabbeyaccounts(calculationwasmadeuponacheckedboardorcloth,hence‘checker’).

FIG8.14:JERVAULXABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Manyruinedabbeyshaverelicsofthemoremundanepartsofthecommunitysprinkledaroundthesite.Thisisanexampleofasink,whichatthetimewereshallowbasinscarvedoutofblocksofstone.

FIG8.15:FOUNTAINSABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Thespectacularstonevaultedcellariumrunningthelengthofthewestrange’sgroundfloor.Originally,though,thiswasdividedupwithscreensorwalls,withthelaybrothers’refectorywheretheshotistakenfrom,thecellarandaparlourforitsofficialinthemiddleandtheouterparlouratthefarend.

Cistercianabbeysused thewest range tohouse the laybrethren,with theirrefectory usually in the southern end next to the kitchen and their dormitoryabove.Assomeoftheseabbeyshadmanyhundredstolookafter,thewestrangecouldextendsouthwards,becomingahugestructuredividedupbyscreensandwallsbetweencellar,parlourandfrater.Aslaybrotherswerelessoftenpresentduring the 14th century, other useswere found for this range, with it usuallybeing divided up into separate rooms perhaps for guests or – as sometimeshappenedatBenedictinehouses–asahallandprivatechambersfortheabbot.

CHAPTER 9

TheAbbeyPrecinct

FIG9.1:Aviewoveranimaginaryabbeyprecinctshowingsomeofthebuildingsthatmayhavestoodthere,althoughanumberareusuallyassociatedwithoneparticularordersomaynothaveappearedtogetherasthisviewmayimply.

Thedramaticruinsofabbeychurchesandcloisterssetamonglawnsandfieldstodaygive amisleading impression that thiswas themonastery in its entirety.Thisstoneenclosurewasusuallybutasmallcoreofamuchlargercomplexsetwithin the abbey precinct, which was bounded by a wall with at least onegatehousecommandingtheentrypoints.Theinteriormayhavebeensubdividedintoseparatecourts,anouteroneoftencontainingbuildingsassociatedwiththeproductionoffoodandmaterialsfortheabbey,andagreatcourtusuallytothewestofthecloisterwheretheguesthousewasfound.Inatownlocation,where

further expansionwas limited, even powerful and rich abbeys had to fit theirbuildingswithinanareaperhapsonlyafewhundredmetressquare.Groupslikethe Cistercians in remote locations had fewer restrictions and the surroundingwallcouldwanderforuptotwotothreemilesaroundhugeenclosures.

FIG9.2:FOUNTAINSABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Themedievalwatermillstandingtothewestofthefamousabbey.

Themedievalabbeyhadtoberelativelyself-supporting,andthereforewithintheprecincttherewereallthedepartmentsrequiredtomaintaintheabbeyitselfand support the monks and their guests. There were workshops, forges andmasons’yardsinwhichstone,timberandmetalworkwasproducedforrepairsornew structures. Barns and granaries were used to store corn and produce,livestock was held in animal pens, and horses in the stables. Freestandingdovecotesorspacesinloftswerecommontoprovidepigeonsanddovesforthebarrenwintertable.Fishwasanotheressentialpartofthemonks’diet;soabbeyscould hold fishing rights to parts of the nearby rivers, store salted sea fish, orbuild fishpondswhere coarse fish likepike and tench couldbebred.Manyofthesefarmtypebuildingsandstructurescanalsobefoundontheestatesownedbytheabbeys,whicharecoveredinthenextchapter.

Inatimewhenwaterwasoftenunsafetodrink,beerwasconsumedatmostmealsandevenbynuns,soeachabbeywouldhaveabrewhousewheretypicallya new batch, made from wheat or oats, was produced each week, with thepoorest quality brewbeing sent to the almonry to be distributed to the needy.Bakehouseswerealsoessential,toproducebreadnotonlyforthemonks’table

but also that of their guests and to be given away as alms. This buildingwasoften near amill, whichwas usually powered by awaterwheel, asmost siteswereinvalleyswithgoodsuppliesofrunningwater.Theremayhavebeenmorethanonemillonsomesites,usedeitherforgrindinggrainorinsomecasesforfulling,theprocessofcleaningandthickeningcloth.

FIG9.3:THORNTONABBEY,HUMBERSIDE:Theeastern(inner)faceofthis14thcenturygatehouse(seefig5.2).Thetwolevelsofroomsabovetheentrancearchwereluxuriouslyfittedoutforaseniormemberofthecommunityorimportantguests.

In addition to the food stored in farm buildings,much of themonks’ dietwould have been produced in the gardens and orchards within the precinct.Fruitsalongwithvegetablessuchas leeks,beansandpeasweregrownfor thetable,whileherbsincludingpennyroyalfortoothachesandlavenderforpainsintheheadweresuppliedfortheabbeypharmacy.Thealmonryneartheentranceto thesiteor thegatehouse itselfwereusedfor thedistributionofalms,whicheach religious community was obliged to provide – from the simple handing

overoffoodtoeducationandaccommodation.Asmanyof theabovestructureswere timber-framedmosthave longsince

gone but occasional fragments and impressions do survive in a few abbeyprecincts. There are, however, a number of important buildings that are oftenfoundtodayamidstthemonasticruinsorasthelastsurvivingpartonanurbansite,thefirstofthesebeingtheentrancetotheabbeyitself.

FIG9.4:EASBYABBEY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:Theaboveviewshowstheexteriorofthislate13thcenturygatehousewiththesinglelargepointedarch.Thelefthandviewshowstheinterioroftheentrypassage,withadividingwallcontainingalargeopeningforcartsandasmalleroneforpedestrianstosaveopeningthemaingatesforthemorefrequentfoottraffic.

THEGATEHOUSEANDPRECINCTWALL

Early medieval monasteries were probably bounded by ditches and bankssurmountedbytimberpalisades(fences),withonlymodestgatehousescoveringtheentrance,asfewwishedtoburndowntheabbeyinthesetimesofthemorereveredmonk.Bythemid13thcentury,asconflictbecamemorecommonsodidstoneprecinctwalls and formidablegatehouses, althoughmedieval restrictionsonthemixingofmilitaryandreligiousmattersmeantthattheytendedtolacktheextreme defensive features such as drawbridges and murder holes that wereacceptableoncastles.

FIG9.5:ABINGDONABBEY,OXFORDSHIRE:Thisgatewaydatingfromthemid15thcentury(notetheflatpointedarchandsquareheadedsurround)hasthepedestrianentrancetotheleftinthispicture;theporter’slodgeoriginallyontheright,wasknockedthroughbytheVictorianstomakeasymmetricalfaçade.ThebuildingtotheleftofthegatewayisStNicholas’church,whichwasbuiltforabbeystaffandtravellers,whilethelowerpartofthestructureontherightistheremainsofStJohn’sHospital,builttoservethelaycommunity.SuchhosipitalswereacommonfeatureofBenedictineabbeys.

Most surviving gatehouses date from the troubled 14th and 15th centuries

andwerebuiltatleasttwostoreyshigh,withamainpassagewaybelow,usuallyflankedon the rightby a smaller door forpedestrians (so that theheavymaingatewouldnothavetobeopenedjust to letfoot traffic through).Therewouldhavebeenaroomtothesidefortheporter,whiletheotherchambers,usuallyonthe floors above, could be used for accommodation, chapels for those notpermitted to enter (often for the laity at nunneries), prisons, courtrooms,almonries and schools.Theremayhave also been additional smaller gatewayscoveringotherentrancesorbetweendifferentsectionswithintheprecinctitself.

Manymonastic gatehouses still stand today, some long after the buildingsthey guarded have gone. At the dissolution the king’s commissioners oftenencouragedthefarmerswhotookovermonasticsitestoreusethegatehouseasafarmhouse, and their practical size, substantial build and continuing use mustalsohavehelpedthemtosurvive.

FIG9.6:DORCHESTERABBEY,OXFORDSHIRE:Thismuchalteredbuildingstandingdirectlytothewestoftheabbeychurchisbelievedtohavebeentheguesthouse,althoughitwaslateraschoolandnowhousesasmalllocalmuseum.

GUESTHOUSESORHOSPICES

Monasticrules insistedupontheaccommodationofvisitorsandallabbeyshadsome space set aside for this. Itmayhavebeen a fewchambers in oneof themonasticbuildingsoraseparatestructure,andinlargermonasteriesitmayhavebeeneitherofthese,dependingontheimportanceoftheguest.Thefreestanding

housesareoften found in thegreatcourt to thewestof thecloister so that thenoiseof thecomingandgoingofvisitorswouldnotdisturb themonkswithin.Theycouldbeimpressivestructureswithhallsandchambersfortheguestsandstablesoutsidefortheirhorses.

THEMONKS’INFIRMARYANDCEMETERY

Theinfirmaryorfarmerywasanessentialpartofanymonasteryandwasusuallysitedtotheeastofthecloister,awayfromthenoisierwestsideoftheprecinct.Itprovidedmorecomfortableaccommodationformonkswhohadeitherfallensickorwere toooldor infirmfor theirstrict lifestyleanddiet.Therewasusuallyalargehallwithbedslaidout,similartoamodernhospitalward,andahearthinthemiddle,whilelaterexampleshadmorenumerousfireplacesalongthewallsand wooden partitions creating individual cubicles for the patients. Theinfirmarywouldusuallyhaveachapel,oftenattheeastendofthehall,separatechambersforthemasterofthefarmeryandakitchen,where,aspartofthemorelenientrules,meatcouldbecookedforinmates.

Fig9.7:Acut-awaydrawingshowingsomeofthefeaturesofaninfirmary,althoughthepositionsofitspartsarenotbasedonanyactualplan.

Monks would have also regularly visited the infirmary when recuperatingafterbloodletting.Medievalmedicinerevolvedaroundthefourhumoursofthebody: blood, yellowbile, phlegm and black bile, and itwas believed that anyexcess of these would result in illness. It was therefore a popular practice todrain an amount of blood at periodic intervals (typically four to eight times a

year) and let the ‘minuti’, as monks going through this process were known,recoverinthemorerelaxedsurroundingsoftheinfirmary.Infactitbecameabitofaproblem,asmonksseemedtohavelookedforwardtothiseventasakindofholidaywheretheycouldbewarm,talkandfeastonmeat,sosomeorderstookmeasurestostopthemundergoingexcessivebleedings!

Forthosewhodidnotrecoveritwasjustashorttriptothecemetery,whichwasusuallylaidoutaroundtheeastoftheabbeychurchorchapterhouseandtothe north of the infirmary. Unlike a modern day cemetery there were nogravestones; themonkswereburiedwithoutcoffins inunmarkedgravesonaneast-westalignment.Therewouldhavebeenaccesseitherviatheslypeorfromthenorthof thechurch,sometimeswithasmallgatewayin thestonewall thatboundedtheplot.Thesuperiorsofthereligioushousesweretypicallyburiedinstone coffins in the chapter house or occasionally the abbey church, wherehonoured lay benefactorsmay also have been privileged enough to be laid torest.Theirstonecoffinsandlidsareoftenfoundinorneartotheseplacestoday.

MISERICORDORFARMERYFRATERItwascommon fora separateeatingarea tobeprovided in thevicinityof theinfirmaryasmeatcouldnotbeconsumedinthemainrefectory.Asrulesontheconsumptionofmeatrelaxedinthe13thand14thcenturies,thisbuilding,oftencalledamisericord(aswiththeledgeonchoirseats–seeChapter7–becauseitwasseenas ‘merciful’),became frequentedoncertaindaysof theweekbyallthemonks.

THEABBOT’SLODGINGS

By the 13th and 14th centuries the superior of the house began to expect thesame levelof accommodation as thoseof similar standing inmedieval societyandtheyalsoofhim.Asaresultabbotsandpriorsincreasinglyconvertedroomswithinthecloisterbuildingsorerectedaseparatestructureelsewherewithintheprecincttoprovidethemwithahallandprivatechambers.Inmanycasesthesewere either extensions of thewestern range of the cloister orwithin the greatcourt,exceptinCistercianhouses,wherelaybrothersusedthissideoftheabbey,andtheabbot’slodgingswereusuallypositionedtothesouthoreastdependinguponthesite.

FIG9.8:CROXDENABBEY,STAFFORDSHIRE:Theruinsoftheabbot’slodgingsbuiltinthe14thcenturytothesouth-eastofthecloister.

FIG9.9:MOUNTGRACEPRIORY,NORTHYORKSHIRE:AspringhousecoveringoneofthewellsthatprovideddrinkingwatertothisCarthusianmonastery.Mostabbeyshadsomesystemofcoveredsprings,settlingtanks,pipesandchannelsinsideandoutsideitsprecincttoprotectandpurifythesupply.

Therewouldhavebeenamainhall,oftenraisedaboveastonevaultedcellaror undercroft, with separate chambers leading off it, a private chapel andsometimes a separate kitchen. These buildings could be elaborate and werecommonlyusedbythenewownersimmediatelyafterthedissolution.

WATERSUPPLYANDDRAINS

Therearemanystoriesassociatedwithmonasteriesabout tunnels leadingfromthe precinct to secret locations around the neighbouring countryside or towns.Many of these local legends, though, probably come from colourfulinterpretations of the stone-lined passages that were found on monastic sitesonce they were opened up after the dissolution. Unfortunately, what werethought to be tunnels turn out to be just drains! The primary reason for the

choice of site and the subsequent layout of the abbey revolved around theprovisionofwaterfordrinkingandflushingoutthedrains.Themonkswenttogreatlengthstobuildelaboratesystemsofchannels,settlingtanksandpipestoensureareliablesupplyoffreshwater,whichwasdistributedacrossthesitetoplacessuchasthelaversandkitchens.Riversandstreamswerealsoredirecteddown stone-lined channels to flush out the waste from the reredorters andkitchens.

FIG9.10:HAUGHMONDABBEY,SHROPSHIRE:Astone-lineddrainrunningalongthesideofthereredorter,theremainsofwhichareontheleft.Thewaterappearedoutofthetunnelatthefarendandflushedthewasteoutofthesiteandintotheriverbelow.

CHAPTER 10

AbbeyEstatesandOtherRemainsintheLandscape

FIG10.1:GRANGE,BORROWDALE,LAKEDISTRICT:ThisidyllichamletsetintheheartoftheLakeDistricthas,asitsnamewouldsuggest,itsoriginsasamonasticgrangeofFurnessAbbey,somethirtymilestothesouth.ThislargeCistercianhouseacquiredtheestateinthe13thcenturytoaddtoitsalreadyimpressiveportfolioofland,includingsometwentyothergrangeswithintenmilesofthesite.Likeotherestatesacrossnorth-westEngland,italsopossessedmills,minesandnumerousotherpropertiesin

thelocalarea.

FIG10.2:ROYSTONGRANGE,DERBYSHIRE:Highuponthesouth-eastcornerofthePeakDistrictaremanyinstancesof‘Grange’markedonthemap,includingthiswellresearchedexample.Althoughthebuildingsaremorerecent,someoftheboundariesdatebacktothe12thcentury,whenitwasestablishedasamonasticgrangeofGarendonAbbey.Wallslikethesewhichfollowacurvedlinetendtobeancientandcouldeitherbewherelandhasbeenscoopedoutofwoodland(assarting),typicallyinthemedievalperiod,ortheydateatleastinplanfromRomanorprehistorictimes,whenthissitewasknowntohavebeenused.

Myhouse on the edge of thePeakDistrict overlooks a semi-wooded valleywithopenpasturealongitslevelfloor,wherefivehundredyearsagoDieulacresAbbeystood.Althoughonlyscantremainsofthemonasticbuildingsexisttoday,within a private farm, there are a number of features in the surroundinglandscapethatwereshapedbytheCistercians.

The river runs along the side of the valley, held back by a bank almostcertainly created by the monks as part of their water control system and toincrease the landavailable for farming.Stone fromtheabbeycanbe foundonbuildingsinthevicinity,whiletheword‘Grange’appearsonmapsofthepeakstotheeastofthesite,recordingtheagriculturalestatesrunbythisorder.

Alloverthecountrytherearebuildings,earthworks,riverchannels,bridgesand place-names that owe their presence to the medieval monk. This chapterlooks at some of those that can still be found even in areas bereft of ruinedabbeys.

GRANGES

Monasteries relied financially upon the land they were granted at their

foundationorhadacquiredover theyears.Revenuecameeither in theformofrentfortheuseoftheland,orfromprofitmadeontheagriculturalproduce,withsome farmland, usually close to themonastery, retained to supply themonks’own table. When the Cistercians arrived and spread rapidly in the mid 12thcentury theybroughtwith themanewwayof running their estates.Landwasgrouped into convenient blocks and then a number of their lay brethren orconversiweresenttoadministeritfromafarmcomplexthathasbecomeknownasagrange(themostnotableofthesebeingthehugesheepfarmstheyranoverthenortherncounties).Althoughassociatedwiththisreligiousorder,thesuccessoftheseestatesledothergroupstocopythepractice.

Thegrangecomplexwould inaddition to farmbuildingshaveachapel forthelaybrethren,althoughtheymightonlynumberafew,withmostoftheworkdoneby paid servants andhired hands.Theremight also have been fishpondsandmills,with thewholesitesurroundedbyamoat,perhapsevenwithawalland gateway, making some of the larger examples like a small monasterythemselves.

FIG10.3:GREATCOXWELLBARN,OXFORDSHIRE:ThishugemonasticbarnwithitstworowsofverticalpostssupportingtheroofandcreatingaislesdowneithersidewaspartofagrangebelongingtoBeaulieuAbbeyinHampshire.Entrancewasthroughtwoporches,oneoneachside,withadovecoteaboveoneandabovetheotheraroomforthegrangemanager.Fromherehecouldkeepasharpeyeuponthecornenteringandthethreshedgrainleaving.Thedoorintheendwallwasopenedupinthe18thcentury.

FIG10.4:Apictureofacirculartypeofdovecotewithacut-awayofthewalltorevealtheinnerrecessesforthenestingbirdsandaladderarrangementwhichrotatedroundthecentralpostbywhichtheycouldbereached.

From an early date, though, therewere problemswithmaintaining a goodstandardofstaff,andeveninthe13thcenturyabbeyswererevertingtoleasingoutthesefarms,aprocessthatacceleratedinthe14thcenturyaftertheeffectsoftheBlackDeathupon thenumbers of laybrothers.Someorders retained theirgranges for leisure, usually as retreats formonks after blood letting or for theheadof thehousetoholidayin,abenefitwhichledtosuchabsenteeismthataroyaldecreehadtobepassedtolimitanabbottospendingamaximumofthreemonthsontheabbey’sestates.

Todaytherearefragmentsofbuildingsandnumerousoutlinesofmoatsandfishponds remaining across the country from these monastic granges. Afrequently found record is the name ‘Grange’ itself – be wary, though,manyvillageshave a largehouse called agrangebut theseoftendate from the19thcentury,whenthiswasafashionabletitleandmayhavenoconnectionwithanearlierabbey.

TITHEBARNSANDDOVECOTES

Therearetwodistinctivetypesoffarmbuildingfromthesegrangesthatcanstillbefoundintacttoday,thetithebarnandthedovecote.Theformerareincorrectly

titledastheywerenotusedfortheparishtithes(onetenthoftheannualproduceused to support the local churchandpriest)butwerebarnswhere theproducefromthemonasticgrangescouldbeprocessedandstored.Thehugesizeofsomeofthesestructuresgivesyouanideaofthewealththatcouldbeproducedonthefarms.

Inthelargerexamples,theroofrequiredtwolinesofverticalpostsinsidetosupport it, creating aisles down each side (hence they are called aisled barns).Therewouldusuallybeoneortwosetsofdoorwaysoppositeoneanother,whichcouldbeopenedtoallowabreezethroughwhenthreshingthecornsothat theuseless chaff would be blown away leaving the grain and straw on the floor.Oftenoverthedoorwayporchestherewouldbeasmallroomforthelaybrotherinchargeofthegrange,fromwhichhecouldkeepasharpeyeontheirpreciousproduce.

FIG10.5:DIEULACRESABBEY,LEEK,STAFFORDSHIRE:ThelineoftreesrunningacrosstheforegroundofthisviewmarkstheRiverChurnet,whichwasprobablyre-sitedupagainstthissideofthevalleytocreatetheopenfieldsbeyondwhereitusedtoflow.Thefarmbuildingjusttotherightofcentreinthebackgroundmarksthesiteoftheabbey.

Oneoftheprivilegesofthelordofthemanor–whichabbotsoftenwere–wastherighttokeeppigeons,andmanyofthedovecotesusedtohousethemcanstillbefoundtoday,eitheronthesiteofagrangeorwithintheabbeyprecinct.They could range from impressive freestanding structures with a square,rectangular or round plan, down to just part of a roof sectioned off, with atriangulararrangementofholesonthegableend.Theinsidewallswereusuallyconstructedwithgapsbetweenthestoneorbrick,creatingrecessesinwhichthebirdslay,withladdersbeingusedbythestafftoreachthem.

RIVERCHANNELSANDDRAINAGE

Abbeys appear to have been one of the main driving forces in agriculturalimprovementintheearlymedievalperiod,fromincreasingcropyieldsonpoorlandtocreatinghugesheepruns.Oneofthemonks’greatestskills,though,wasthemanagementofwater,whichextended farbeyond the supplyanddrainagesystemswithintheprecinct.Theirworkcouldrangefromthere-channellingoftheriversthatrandownthevalleyinwhichtheabbeystood,tothecreationofbanks,dykesanddrainageditchestoconverthugeareasoffenorcoastalmarshinto usable dry land. Some of thewaterways they dugwere large enough forboats, improving the transport of goods to these areasmore than fivehundredyearsbeforethecanalmaniaofthelate18thcentury.

QUARRIESANDMINES

Themedievalmonkswerealsoexploitingotherresourcesfromtheirestates,likecoal, lead and iron.Theirmethodsof extracting itwereprobably simple,withopen pits along easily dug seams of the mineral near the surface. Stone wascrucial to every abbey or priory for its own principal buildings, and the closeproximity of a suitable and easily transportable supply was paramount whenselectingthesiteofthemonastery.Somewereluckyandhaditcloseathand,asatFountains,wherethevalleysidesinwhichtheabbeysitswerecutout,whileothers made sure they were beside a navigable river, for instance, as themovementofstonebywater fromagreatdistancewaspreferable tohauling italongroadsfromasitecloserathand.

VILLAGECLEARANCESANDPLANNEDSETTLEMENTS

I,alongwithmanyothers,havebeenbroughtuponthepleasantlysimplenotionthattheSaxonsfoundedourvillagesandtheyhavedevelopednaturallyoverthecenturies until the rapid expansion and changes of the last hundred years. Aswith all things in life, though, notions are rarely that simple! It is nowunderstoodthatmostvillages tookshapeata laterdate,someevenin the12thand13thcenturies,andthatmanywereplannedwitharegularlayout.Itisalsolikely that abbeyswere behindmany of these schemes. Somemay have beenbrought aboutby a coalescingof smallerhamlets intoone largevillage,whileotherswerebuiltonnewsites,perhapsonlandreclaimedfrommarshandfenorinuplandareasassociatedwithmonasticgranges.Itisalsoknownthatnumerousvillagesweredestroyedorre-sitedbymonks,especiallythoseoftheCistercianOrderastheyclearednoisypeasantsoutofearshotoftheirnewabbeyprecinct.

FIG10.6:THEGEORGEHOTEL,DORCHESTER,OXFORDSHIRE:Thisancientbuildinghaditsoriginsasaninnestablisheddirectlyoppositetheentrancetotheabbey(itstandsjustbeyondthegatewayinthebackgroundofFig9.6).

Fig10.7:CROWLAND,LINCOLNSHIRE:Therearemanyotherstructuresthatareassociatedwithmedievalmonasteries,suchasthisuniquethreespanbridgebuiltinthe13thcenturyandfeaturingastatueprobablytakenfromthefrontofCroylandAbbey.Whenitwasbuilttworiversrandownthemiddleofthestreetsandmetatthispoint,hencethethreearches.

Inthe12thand13thcenturiesparticularlyitwasfashionableforlandownerssuch as abbeys to gain a charter to hold aweeklymarket. They could expectincomefromtherentsandtollsforstallsandbuildingsthattheylaidoutaroundtheirnewmarketplace,andifsuccessful(asnotallwere)thenasmallsettlement

on thedoorstepof amonasterymightgrow into amajor town.Todaywe stillshopintowncentresthatwerelaidoutasspeculativeventuresbymonks!

HOSPITALSANDINNSAlthoughguesthouseswerebuiltinthegreatcourts,manyabbeysalsoprovidedaccommodationoutsidetheprecinct.Therewerenumeroushospitalsestablishedto look after the sick and infirm, including almshouses, bedehouses and lazarhouses(fortreatinglepers),andtherewerehospicesforpilgrimsandtravellers.It isprobablyfromthelatterthat innsweredeveloped,anumberofwhichstillstand on the doorstep ofmedieval abbey sites.With the increasing number ofvisitorsandthefinancialdifficultiesthatmanycommunitiesfoundthemselvesinduring the 14th and 15th centuries, establishing an inn helped take the strainwithout stretching the resources of the community and causing too muchdisruptiontotheirwayoflife.

SECTIONIII

QUICKREFERENCE

GUIDE

T IME CHART

Thisshowsthedatesalongsidetherelevantarchitecturalperiod,andillustrationsof parts of abbeys approximately in line with the time when the style of thefeaturefirstappeared.

ABBEYS &PRIORIES TO V ISIT

Beloware listedtheabbeysandprioriesfeaturedin thisbook,alongwithsomeothernotablesites,allofwhichareopentothepublic.Expecttopayanentrancefeeorofferadonationatmanysites(markedby*),whiletheremainderarefreeatthetimeofwriting.ThemajorityareinthecareofEnglishHeritage,whoseannualmembership subscriptionoffersgoodvalue formoney ifyou intend tovisit anumberof sites, aswellashelpingsupporttheirrestorationwork.

EnglishHeritage(EH),CustomerServicesDept,POBox569,Swindon,SN22YP.Telephone:08703331181.Web:www.english-heritage.org.uk

National Trust (NT): PO Box 39, Bromley, Kent BR1 3XL. Telephone: 0870 458 4000. Web:www.nationaltrust.org.uk

TheNorthofEngland*BYLANDABBEY,NorthYorkshire(EH):Largesitedominatedbythewestfrontofthechurch.Notable

floortilessurvive.*CHESTERCATHEDRAL,Cheshire:ABenedictineabbeychurch,whichbecamethecathedralin1541.

Thecloister,refectoryandgatewaystillsurvive.*DURHAMCATHEDRAL,CountyDurham:Thiscathedral-prioryisthebestexampleofearlyNorman

architectureinthecountry.EASBYABBEY,NorthYorkshire(EH):Acompletegatehouse,alsogoodremainsofthefrateranddorter.EGGLESTONEABBEY,CountyDurham(EH):Goodremainsofthissmallmonastery,beautifullysetin

avalleybesidetheRiverTees.*FOUNTAINSABBEY,NorthYorkshire(EH):The‘mustsee’abbey!Thespectacularchurch,theChapel

of Nine Altars and the cellarer’s range are located in a beautiful wooded valley. Most of themonastic complex survives in some state or other in addition to the restored mill nearby andFountainsHall,madefromstonefromtheabbey.AWorldHeritageSite.

*FURNESS ABBEY, Barrow, Cumbria (EH): Spectacular sandstone ruins set in a wooded vale withalmostthecompletesiteexposed.A‘mustvisit’!

*JERVAULXABBEY,NorthYorkshire: Lowwalls ofmost of the complex survive, including a largechunkofthedorterwall(payforentryinhonestybox).

KIRKSTALLABBEY,WestYorkshire:OutstandingremainsofthechurchandcloisterbuildingsofthisCistercianabbeyjusttothenorthofLeedscitycentre.

*LANERCOSTPRIORY,Cumbria (EH): Impressive remainsof thechurchwithpartsof the fraterandgatewayonthissiteclosetoHadrian’sWall.

*LINDISFARNEPRIORY,Northumberland(EH):EvocativeremainsofthelaterchurchstandonthesitefirstestablishedbyStAidaninAD635.Accesslimitedbytides.

*MOUNTGRACE PRIORY, North Yorkshire (EH/NT): Unique example of a Carthusian monastery,withitshugecloisterandrebuiltmonk’scell.Laterhousebuiltoutoftheprioryguesthouse.

*RIEVAULXABBEY,NorthYorkshire(EH):Thestunningshellofthechurchdominatesthisimpressiveabbeysitewithsubstantialremainsofmostbuildings.

*ROCHEABBEY,SouthYorkshire(EH):ThehugelimestonewallsofthechurchtranseptsdominatethisclearlylaidoutCistercianabbey.

ST PAUL’S MONASTERY, JARROW, Tyne and Wear (EH): Part of the church that Bede knewsurvivesinthechancelofthepresentchurch.NearbyistheBede’sWorldmuseum.

SHAPABBEY,Cumbria(EH):Animposingtowerstandsoverthefoundationsofthissmallabbeyashortdrivefromjunction39oftheM6.

THORNTONABBEY, Humberside (EH): Spectacular gatehouse and remains of the octagonal chapterhouse.

TYNEMOUTHPRIORY,TyneandWear(EH):SpectacularremainsofthechurchsurvivewithintheoldwallsofaNormancastleonapromontoryneartheNorthPier.

*WHITBYABBEY,NorthYorkshire(EH):Evocativeremainsofthechurchdominatetheclifftopsettingofthisabbey,whichwasoriginallyfoundedinAD657andwasthelocationofthefamousSynodafewyearslater.

TheMidlandsABINGDON ABBEY, Oxfordshire: Remains of the checker with a unique medieval chimney and

gatehousesurvivefromthisonceimportantBenedictineabbey.*BUILDWASABBEY, Shropshire (EH): The shell of the church, a good example of early Cistercian

architecture,andthechapterhousearethehighlights.CROXDENABBEY,Staffordshire(EH):Impressiveremainsofthechurch(cutthroughthemiddlebya

publicroad)andpartsoftheeastrangeandtheabbot’slodgings.DORCHESTERABBEY,Oxfordshire:Originally founded inAD634, the latermedievalchurch is still

usedbytheparishandtheguesthousenexttoitisamuseum.*GLOUCESTERCATHEDRAL, Gloucestershire: This important Benedictine abbey church became a

cathedralafterthedissolutionbutretainsnotonlyitsspectaculareastwindowandshrineofEdwardIIbutalsoitsbeautifulfanvaultedcloisteralley.

*HAILESABBEY,Gloucestershire(EH):Agoodmuseumcomplementstheremainsofthecloistersandthefootingsofthechurch.

*HAUGHMONDABBEY,Shropshire(EH):Theabbot’slodgingandchapterhousearethenotablepartsofthissite,whichisarrangedaroundanunusualdoublecloister.

LILLESHALLABBEY,Shropshire (EH):Long, simple churchwithpartsof the cloisters, includinganimpressivesouthdoorandbookcupboard.

*MUCH WENLOCK PRIORY, Shropshire (EH): Immaculate site with beautiful decoration in thechapterhouseandauniquecircularlaver.

*NEWSTEADPRIORY,Nottinghamshire:Splendidwesternfaçadecomposedofthesurvivingfaceofthemonastic church along with the house (known as Newstead Abbey) that was built out of thecloisters.

PRIORYCHURCHOFSTMARY,DEERHURST,Gloucestershire:Oneof thefinestsurvivingSaxonmonasticchurches

*TEWKESBURYABBEY,Gloucestershire:TheimpressiveNormanchurch,withtheoriginaltower,westfrontandnavecolumns,remainsinparishuse.

TheEastofEnglandBINHAMPRIORY,Norfolk(EH):Normanchurchwithanotableearlytracerywindowinthewestfront

(nowbrickedup)andremainsofcloisters.*CASTLEACREPRIORY,Norfolk(EH):Thedecorativewestfrontandgoodremainsofmostcloister

buildingssurvive.Theprior’slodgingsandrecreatedherbgardenarealsoofnote.CROYLANDABBEY,Crowland,Lincolnshire:Theparishretaineditspartoftheabbeychurchafterthe

dissolution,withtheruinsofthereststillstandingtoitsside.Oddthree-archedbridgenearbyinthetowncentre.

*DENNYABBEY,Cambridgeshire (EH): Interesting remainsof the church and refectoryusedby threedifferentordersandthenasafarm.

LEISTONABBEY,Suffolk(EH):Partsofthechurchandcloisterbuildingssurviveatthisabbey,re-sitedhereafteritsearlierlocationinnearbymarsheswasabandonedinthe14thcentury.

*PETERBOROUGHABBEY,Cambridgeshire:FoundedinAD656butthelaterabbeychurchisnowthecathedral.Thegatewayandinfirmaryarealsoofnote.

STBOTOLPH’SPRIORY,COLCHESTER,Essex(EH):Thewestfrontandtheskeletonofthechurch,madefromreusedRomanbrickssurvive.

TheSouthandSouthWest*BATTLEABBEY,EastSussex(EH):Theremainsofthedormitoryandgatehousesurviveofthisabbey

foundedbyWilliamtheConqueror.*BEAULIEU ABBEY, Hampshire: The lay brothers’ dorter survives, as does the frater, which was

convertedintoachurchatthedissolution.Thepalacewasbuiltaroundthemonasticgatehouse.*BUCKLANDABBEY,Devon(NT):Mostofthechurchsurvives,alongwithanimpressive15thcentury

barn.*CLEEVEABBEY,Somerset(EH):Excellentremainsofthecloisterbuildingsandgatehouse.*GLASTONBURYABBEY, Somerset: The richest and largestmonastery in England has only limited

remainsbut these include thenotableabbot’skitchen.Other relatedbuildingssurvive in the townandsurroundingarea.

MALMESBURYABBEY,Wiltshire:ThenaveofthisearlyBenedictineabbeysurvivesasaparishchurchwithaspectacularlydecoratedNormansouthdoorway.

NETLEYABBEY, Hampshire (EH): Good remains of the church and monastic buildings overlookingSouthamptonWater.

READINGABBEY,Berkshire:RuinssetinaparkbesidetheRiverKennet.*STALBANSCATHEDRAL, Hertfordshire: This former abbey church hasmuch earlyNormanwork

remaining, including themassiveplainnavewallsand the towerbuilt fromreusedRomanbricks.Gatehousenearby.

*WESTMINSTER ABBEY, London: An oddity – neither a cathedral nor parish church but a RoyalPeculiar!Aswell as the famous church,much survivesof theprecinct and cloisters to the south,includingthechapterhouse.

WalesandScotland*IONAABBEYANDNUNNERY,offtheIsleofMull,Scotland:Restoredmedievalabbeybuildingson

the sacred site of themonastery founded by StColumba inAD563.Notable for earlyChristiancrosses.Theattractiveremainsofthenunneryarenearby.

*TINTERNABBEY,Gwent,Wales (EH):Dramatic setting inadeepwoodedvalleyof theRiverWye.Theimpressivechurch,standingalmosttoitsoriginalheight,dominatesthesite.

*VALLECRUCISABBEY,Clwyd,Wales(EH):Goodviewsfromtheroadoverlookingtheremainsofthechurchandnotablythemonks’dorter.

GLOSSARY

ABBEY: Amonasterygovernedbyanabbotorabbess,usuallyalargerestablishment.

ABBOT: SuperiorofanAbbey.AISLE: Thesidewingsbehindtherowsofcolumnssupportingthemainbodyof

thechurch.ALMONRY: Theroomorbuildingfromwhichalmsweredistributed.AMBULATORY: Apassagewhichranaroundtheoutsideofanapseforprocessions.APSE: Asemicircularorpolygonalendofabuilding(usuallytheendofa

presbytery).ARCADE: Arowofcolumnsorpiers(calledablindarcadewhenfixedtoawall).AUMBRY: Awallcupboard.BUTTRESS: Aprojectingstackofmasonrysetatrightanglestoawallinorderto

supportit.CAPITAL: Theheadortopofacolumn,oftendecorated.CARREL: Oneofthecubiclesinwhichmonkscouldstudy,setagainstthewindows

ofthecloisternexttothechurch.CELL: Asmallbuildingforaccommodatinganindividualmonk.CHANTRY: Adonatedaltarorchapelwheremasswassaidforthedonor.CHAPTERHOUSE: Themeetingroomofamonastery.CHARNELHOUSE: Abuildingwhereboneswerestoredaftertheperiodicclearingofgraves

tomakeroomfornewones.CHARTERHOUSE: ACarthusianmonastery(fromtheirfoundinghomeatLaGrande

Chartreuse,nearGrenoble).CHECKER: Theaccountsofficeofamonastery(asinexchequer).CHOIR: Thepartofthechurchbetweenthenaveandpresbyterywherethemonks

tooktheirdailyservices.CLERESTORY: Theupperrowofwindowsinachurch.CLOISTER: Theenclosedspacecentraltothedomesticpartsofthemonastery,witha

coveredalleyaroundtheoutsideandthegarthinthemiddle.CONVERSI: Laybrothers,usuallyilliterate,whoperformedthemanualworkofthe

community.CORBEL: Astonebracketsetintoawall,oftenusedtosupportarooftimber.CORRODIAN: Apersonwhopaidamonasteryasetsumforaccommodationintheirold

age.CREDENCE: Ashelfortablenearthealtarwherethesacramentswereplaced.CRYPT: Achamberbelowthefloorofachurchforholdingagraveorholyrelic.

Achamberbelowthefloorofachurchforholdingagraveorholyrelic.CURIA: Theoutercourtofamonastery.CURVILINEAR: Aflowingformofuninterruptedcurves;usuallyappliedtowindow

tracery.DAIS: Araisedplatform,foundinmonasteriesatthefarendofthefrater,where

thesuperiormembersofthecommunitysat.DORTER: Thedormitoryorsleepingquartersofthemonks.FARMERY: Theinfirmary,wheresickorinfirmmonkswherecaredfor.FRATER: Thehallwherethemonkstooktheirmeals,alsoknownastherefectory.GALILEE: Astructurebuiltacrossthewestendofthechurchwhereprocessions

couldform.GARDEROBE: Atoilet.GARTH: Thecentralopengardenareainthemiddleofthecloisters.GRANGE: Amonasticestatecentreduponastoragebarnandotherfarmbuildings

runbylaybrothers.GROIN: Theedgewheretwovaultsmeet.HAMMERBEAM: Atypeofrooftrusswheretheweightissupportedonacleversystemof

hammerposts,beamsandbracketssetinthesidewallssothatnoverticalpostsblocktheroombelow.

HERRINGBONE: Stoneorbrickworklaidinalternatingdiagonallayers(azigzag).HERMITAGE: Acell,usuallyremotefromacommunitybutsometimeswithinasite,

rangingfromacavetoacomplexofbuildings.HIGHMASS: Thecelebrationofmasswithmusicandceremony.HOSPITAL: Ageneraltermforaplacewherethesick,oldorinfirmwerecaredfor.HOURS: Theofficesorservicessungbymonksatsettimesduringtheday.IMPOST: Amouldedpieceofbrickormasonrysetintoawallonwhichanarch

rests.INFIRMARY: SeeFarmery.LADYCHAPEL: AchapeldedicatedtotheVirginMary,usuallyattheeastendorsideof

thepresbytery.LANCET: Atall,narrowwindowwithapointedarch,popularinthe13thcentury,

oftenasatripleset.LAVER/LAVABO: Atroughforwashingin.LOUVRE: Acoveredopeningintherooftoletsmokeout,oftenwithangledslats.MASS: ThemostcommonnamefortheEucharist,thecentralactofChristian

worship.MENDICANTS: Monasticgroupswholivedfrombegging(fromLatinmendicare,tobeg).MINSTER: AnameforamonasteryoritschurchintheAnglo-Saxonperiod,and

afterwardsappliedtosomecathedralsandchurches.MISERICORD: Aprojectionontheundersideofchoirstallstogivesupportwhilestanding

duringservices.Alsoarefectoryassociatedwiththeinfirmarywheremeatwasserved(fromLatinmisericordia,meaningmercy).Whenrulesrelaxedinthe13thand14thcenturiesthemisericordcouldhavebeenusedfromtimetotimebyallthemonks.Acommunityofmonksornunslivingunderaruleandboundbyvowsof

MONASTERY:Acommunityofmonksornunslivingunderaruleandboundbyvowsofpoverty,obedienceandchastity.

MONK: Amalememberofareligiouscommunity.MULLION: Averticalbarinawindow.NAVE: Thewesternpartofthechurchwherethelaybrothersorsecular

communityhadtheirservices.Oftenoflargesizetoallowforprocessions.NUN: Amemberofafemalereligiouscommunity,aconventornunnery.Nuns

couldnotbepriestssotheirhousesreliedonmonksofthesameorderorsometimeshadtheirownchaplain.

OBEDIENTIARIES: Theofficersinchargeofindividualdepartmentswithinamonastery.OGEE: Acurvedlinewithaconcaveandconvexpart(elongated‘S’shape).PARLOUR: Anareawheremonkscouldspeakormeetoutsiders(fromLatinparlare,

meaningtospeak).PENTISE: Alean-tostructureorpassageway.PISCINA: Astonebasinforwashingcommunionvessels.PRECEPTORY: AhouseoftheKnightsTemplarsorsometimesoftheKnights

Hospitallers.PRECINCT: Theareaofamonasteryboundedbyawallorditch.PRESBYTERY: Theeasternendofthechurchwherethealtarstood.PRIOR: Thesuperiorofapriory,orsecondincommandatanabbey.PRIORY: Amonasterygovernedbyaprior.Thesetendedtobesmaller

establishments(althoughtheycouldgrowtobemoreimportantthansomeabbeys).

PULPITUM: Ascreenwithanentrancedoorwayatthewestendofthechoir.QUIRE: SeeChoir.REFECTORY: SeeFrater.REGULAR: Apersonlivingunderareligiousrule(asopposedto‘secular’).REREDORTER: Monastictoiletblock,usuallybackingontoadrainorstream.REREDOS: Ascreenorwallinfrontofwhichstoodthealtar.RETRO-CHOIR: Thespaceeitherbetweentheeastofthenaveandwestofthechoir

(betweenscreens)whereprocessionscouldrearrangethemselves,orbehindthealtarandreredos.

ROOD: Thecrossorcrucifix,usuallymountedontopofthescreenattheeastendofthenave(roodscreen).

RULE: Theconstitutionlaiddownforthewaythatmonksshouldlive,andfortherunningofthemonastery.

SACRISTY: Aroomusedforstoringsacredvessels.SECULAR: NotconcernedwithchurchormonasticmattersSEDILIA: Seatsfortheseniormembersofthemonasteryduringservices,usually

recessedintothewallofthepresbytery.SLYPE: Acoveredpassagewayleadingeastoutofthecloister.SQUINT: Asmallopeninginawallallowingaviewofthealtarforthosewhocould

nototherwiseseeit.Rowsofwoodenorstoneseats.

STALLS:Rowsofwoodenorstoneseats.

STOUP: Abasinwithholywater,neartotheentranceofachurch.TRACERY: Theornamentalmasonrypiecesmakingpatternswithintheupperhalfofa

windoworblankarcade.TRANSEPTS: Theshortsidearmsofachurch,protrudingouttothenorthandsouth.TRANSOM: Ahorizontalbarinawindow.TRIFORIUM: Awallpassagebehindanarcadeinachurch,abovetheaislesandbelow

theclerestory.TYMPANUM: Thearchedareaaboveadoorway.Thiswasusuallydecorated,especially

inthe12thcentury.UNDERCROFT: Thechamberbelowalargeroom,usuallywithastonevaultedceiling.VAULT: Anarchedceilingofstoneorbrick(orimitatedinwoodandplaster).VESTRY: Aroomwherevestmentsarestored.VOUSSOIR: Awedge-shapedstoneorbrickusedtoformanarch.WARMINGHOUSE: Aroomwithafirewherethemonkscouldwarmthemselvesinwinter.

B IBLIOGRAPHY

MickAstonMonasteriesintheLandscapeFrankBottomleyTheAbbeyExplorersGuideJudithLoades(Ed)MonasticStudies:TheContinuityofTraditionAnnaRitchieIonaMichaelThompsonCloister,AbbotandPrecinctJohnL.TomkinsonMonasticStaffordshireGeoffreyN.WrightDiscoveringAbbeysandPrioriesGeneralBooksonHistoryandArchitectureLucyArcherArchitectureinBritainandIreland:600–1500MickAstonInterpretingtheLandscapeFleming,Honour andPevsnerThePenguinDictionary ofArchitecture andLandscapeArchitecture JaneHatcherExploringEngland’sHeritage:YorkshiretoHumbersideRobertJacksonDarkAgeBritain:WhattoseeandWhereRichardMorrisChurchesintheLandscapeColinPlattTheParishChurchesofMedievalEnglandColinPlattLateMedievalandRenaissanceBritainTrevorRowleyNormanEnglandDavidWatkinEnglishArchitectureChristopherWilsonTheGothicCathedral:1130–1530IainZaczekIreland:LandoftheCelts

Guidebooks to the following sites:AbingdonAbbey,BeaulieuAbbey,DorchesterAbbey,EasbyAbbey,Fountains Abbey, Furness Abbey, Gloucester Cathedral, Great Coxwell Barn, Haughmond Abbey, lonaAbbey,JervaulxAbbey,LilleshallAbbey,MountGracePriory,RuffordAbbeyandWenlockPriory.

INDEX

AAbbot:8,14,15,17,24,46,52–54,57,59–61,66,68,88–90,105–106Abbot’sLodging/Halls:53–54,58,70,72,95,97,98,105–106Abingdon:102,119AlienCells/Priories:25–26,53,Almonry:98,100,102,Ampleforth:69,72,Augustinians:22,26,30,31,39,42,44,70

BBakehouse:98–99Bardsey:10Barns:99,110–111BattleAbbey:22,49,120BeaulieuAbbey:110,120Bede:15Bells:68,78,79Benedictines:14,16,17,19,22,24,29,30,31,38,39,66,70,78,83,84,97BinhamPriory:70,120BlackDeath:41,52,54,111BreedonontheHill:18Brewhouse:98–99Brixworth:11,19,20BucklandAbbey:120BuildwasAbbey:29,83,119BuryStEdmunds:70BylandAbbey:47,79,82,118

CCanterbury:13,14,16,69Carlisle:69Carmelites:39,42,44Carthusians:53,56,59,61,86,89,106CastleAcrePriory:120Cathedralpriories:15,69,

Cells:13,14,16,17,56,59,61,64,89Cellarium/Cellar:25,85,93,96–97Cemetery:88,89,98,103–105Chapels:11,12,16,25,27,32,51,55,57,74,80,81,83–84,102,104,110ChapterHouse:28,29,34,42,45,66,84,85,87–88,90,104Charterhouses:56ChertseyAbbey:81Chester:65,66,69,75,118Choir/Quire:25,30,70,74,79–81Church:16,17,25,27–29,34,39,42–43,45,46,49,58,60,62,63,68,70,72,74–84,98,104Cistercians:24,26,29,30,31,32,37,39–41,51,54,62,71,76,78,84,86,87,88,92,94,95,97,99,105,

109,110,113,CleeveAbbey:120Cloister:16,25,26,27,29,32,39,42,46,49,56,58,59,61,66,67,70,75,85–97,98,103,105Cluniacs:22,26,29,30,34,39,86Colchester:22,23,120CroxdenAbbey:37,105,119Croyland/Crowland:62,69,114,120

DDeerhurst:19,119DennyAbbey:120DieulacresAbbey:109,112DissolutionoftheMonasteries:61,63,66–68,70,71,102,107Dominicans:39,42,44DorchesterAbbey:103,113,119Dorter/Dormitory:25,37,49,57,67,79,85,88,89–92,97Dovecotes:98,99,110–112Drains/drainage:26,32,90–92,106–107,112Durham:69,118

EEasbyAbbey:67,101,118EgglestoneAbbey:118Ely:69

FFishponds:32,72,98,99,110–111FountainsAbbey:51,71,72,89,93,97,99,113,118Franciscans:39,42,44,55FraterseeRefectoryFriars/Friaries:8,39–42,44,55,56,68FurnessAbbey:24,28,29,82,92,108,118

GGalilee:76Garth/Gardens:13,16,32,56,59,60,61,70,85,86,91,94,98,100Gatehouses:52,57,60,66,68,72,84,98,100–102Gilbertines:24,31,40GlastonburyAbbey:16,30,96,120Gloucester:35,50,69,84,119GrangeinBorrowdale:108Granges:30,41,61,71,108–111,113GreatCoxwell:110Guesthouses:16,25,54,98,103

HHailesAbbey:49,83,119HaughmondAbbey:53,88,107,119HenryVIII:67–68,70,83Hermits/hermitages:9,16,26Hospitals:30,32,98,102,114

IInns:54,60,113–114Infirmary:25,58,61,84,92,98,103–105IonaAbbey:12,20,86,120IonaNunnery:31,120

JJarrow:15,16,119JervaulxAbbey:47,97,118

KKirkstallAbbey:118Kitchens:25,26,28,32,60,85,92,94–96,104,107KnightsTemplar/Hospitaller:32,53

LLacockAbbey:70

LadyChapel:81,84LanercostPriory:118LeistonAbbey:96,120Leek:18,112Library/bookcupboard:59,85,86–87LilleshallAbbey:87,119Lindisfarne:12,14,118LlantwitMajor:10

MMalmesbury:35,63,64,70,77,120MatterseyPriory:40Mills:32,98–100,108,110Misericord/FarmeryFrater:105Monks:8,10,13,16–17,30–33,39,44–46,52–54,61,62,67–68,79–80,89Monkwearmouth:15,MountGracePriory:59,64,106,118MuchWenlockPriory:34,44–45,70,94,119

NNave:21,25,27,29,41,42,59,62,63,74–78,80NetleyAbbey:120Newstead:71,119Norwich:69NostellPriory:70Nuns/Nunneries:8,15,16–17,31,32–33,55,61,70

PPachomius:9Parlour:28,85,88,97Peterborough:69,120PilgrimageofGrace:67–68Precincts:13,16,32,47,52,60,72,96,98–107,112Premonstratensians:24,31,39,62,67Presbytery:25,27,39,43,70,74,81–84Prinknash:72Prior:8Pulpitum:80,123

Q

Quarries/Mines:112–113

RReadingAbbey:68,70,120Refectory/Frater:25,28,42,45,46,65–67,72,85,92–96,97,105Reredorter:25,85,89–92,107RievaulxAbbey:39,61,72,74,76,79,118Ripon:19RocheAbbey:48,118Rochester:69RoystonGrange:109

SSacristy:80,81,85,86StAlbans:21,22,34,50,75,79,120StAugustine:13StColumba:12,20Savignacs:24,29ShapAbbey:48,62–63,119Shrines:12,20,83Slype:28,85,88–89,104Stairs(Night):25,78,79,85,90–91

TTattershall:57Tewkesbury:36,65,70,119ThorntonAbbey:52,82,90,100,119TinternAbbey:27,72,121Towers:18,21,27,34,36,41–43,51,54,58,59,62,63,69,78Transept:21,25,27,37,39,63,74,78,80,81,87TynemouthPriory:119

VValleCrusisAbbey:45,79,91,121Vikings:14,15,16,17,22,32Villages:113–114

W

WarmingHouse:25,85,92,95Warwick:55Westminster:68–69,120Whitby:13,38,70,74,119WilliamtheConqueror:22,30Winchester:16,69WoburnAbbey:70Worcester:16,69

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