HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

HOMO - Journal of ComparativeHuman Biology

journa l homepage: www.elsev ier .de / jchb

Body composition and fat distribution among older Jatfemales: A rural–urban comparison

Maninder Kaura,∗, Indu Talwarb

a Department of Home Science, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, Indiab Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 17 September 2009Accepted 20 May 2010

a b s t r a c t

The aim of the present cross-sectional study is to describe andcompare age related changes in body composition and fat pattern-ing among rural and urban Jat females of Haryana State, India.A total of 600 females (rural = 300, urban = 300), ranging in agefrom 40 to 70 years were selected by the purposive samplingmethod. Body weight, height, two circumferences (waist and hip)and skinfold thickness at five different sites (biceps, triceps, calf,subscapular, and supra-iliac) were taken on each participant. Tostudy total adiposity, indices such as body mass index (BMI), grandmean thickness (GMT), total body fat and percentage fat were ana-lyzed statistically. The fat distribution pattern was studied usingwaist/hip ratio, subscapular/triceps ratio and responsiveness of fiveskinfold sites towards accumulation of fat at different sites withadvancing age. Results indicate a decline in almost every dimen-sion including level of fatness between the mid-fourth and mid-fifthdecades of life in both rural and urban females. Urban Jat femaleswere heavier (57.36 kg vs. 56.07 kg, p > 0.05) and significantly taller(1553.3 mm vs. 1534.5 mm, p < 0.001) than their rural counterparts.Urban females also exhibited higher mean values for both the cir-cumferences, five skinfold thicknesses as well as for lean body mass,total fat and percentage fat than the rural females. This is alsoevident from their higher mean values for body mass index andgrand mean thickness. Waist/hip ratio values in rural and urbanfemales showed upper body fat predominance, with urban females

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 09466555333.E-mail address: maninderkaur 2@yahoo.co.uk (M. Kaur).

0018-442X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2010.05.004

M. Kaur, I. Talwar / HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385 375

having relatively more abdominal fat. Results of subscapular/tricepsratio showed that rural and urban females gained proportionallysimilar amounts of subcutaneous fat at trunk and extremity sitesuntil 45 years of age. Subsequently trunk skinfolds increased rel-atively more in thickness. The magnitude of this increase wascomparatively greater in rural females up to 55 years and amongurban females from 55 to 70 years. The profiles of subcutaneousfat accumulation and sensitivity of each skinfold site also revealedmore fat deposition in the trunk region compared to extremities inboth rural and urban females. The present study demonstrated dif-ferential rates of fat redistribution among rural and urban females.

© 2011 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Body composition changes attributable to aging are characterized by a progressive reduction infat free mass and an increase in fat mass (Baumgartner et al., 1995; Zamboni et al., 2003). Both theseage-related body composition changes seem to be independently associated with an increased riskof functional limitation (Janssen et al., 2002; Sternfeld et al., 2002). Fat redistributes centrally, withincreases in waist circumference thought to reflect increases in visceral fat with age (Borkan et al.,1985). Even if weight is stable, people tend to become fatter with age as muscle mass diminishes andis replaced by fat (Gallagher et al., 2000). The remaining muscle may be infiltrated by fat (Goodpasteret al., 2000). There is a loss of bone mass from a peak in the early 20s. From these changes have comeimportant hypotheses regarding the contribution of each of these components of body compositionto health. Data on body composition allow a more direct assessment of the contribution to health offat and lean body mass.

Body composition and fat patterning are under the influence of genetic factors and can be modu-lated by age, sex, nutrition and several cultural and socio-economic factors present in the environment.There are various ways to study the distribution of body fat, for example (i) by centripetal fat ratioor trunk–extremity ratio, (ii) by combining waist/hip ratio and skinfold ratios (Fiori et al., 2000), (iii)by principal component analysis on a set of skinfolds (Mueller and Reid, 1979; Ramirez and Mueller,1980), (iv) from the residual of the regression of each log transformed skinfold on the mean log trans-formed fatness, which in human females is linked to fertility (Brown and Konner, 1987; Norgan, 1997),female ovarian function being particularly sensitive to energy balance and energy flux (Ellison, 2003).Unfortunately, there is paucity of knowledge on body composition and fat patterning among aged andelderly people especially on females in India (Bagga and Sakaurkar, 2003; Ghosh, 2004; Tyagi et al.,2005). In almost every country both the number as well as proportion of older persons is growingfaster than any other age group. By 2025, the number of older women is expected to rise from 107 to373 million in Asia (World Health Organization, 1998).

The aim of the present study is to describe and compare age related changes in body compositionand body fat distribution pattern in Jat females from rural and urban area of Haryana State of India.For these women, data of a similar nature are completely non-existent.

Materials and methods

Study site and participants

Haryana is a state in northwest India. The natural boundaries are the Shivalik hills in the north, theriver Yamuna in the east and the river Ghaggar in the west. The southwestern boundary is provided bythe range of Aravalli hills, which run through southern Delhi and the Gurgaon district up to Alwar. Thepeople of Haryana belong to the Indo-Aryan type and in parts to the Indo-Dravidian type. Haryana’spopulation comprises a number of castes (jatis) i.e. Brahmins, Rajputs, Jats and Ahirs. The Jats occupy aprominent place in Haryana, being the single largest group in the region. The main sub-castes (gotras)

376 M. Kaur, I. Talwar / HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385

Table 1General information and dietary habits of rural and urban Jat females.

Rural females Urban females

N % N %

EducationEducated 159 53 210 70Un-educated 141 47 90 30

OccupationWorking 45 15 102 34Housewife 255 85 198 66

Type of dietVegetarian 285 95 276 92Non-vegetarian 15 5 24 8

Frequency of consumption2 times/day 207 69 105 353 times/day 90 30 186 624 times/day 3 1 9 3

within Jats are Ahlawat, Dahiya, Dalal, Deswal, Dhanda, Hooda, Jaglian, Jakhar, Lamba, Kadian, Malik,and Sahrawat.

All the females in the present study belong to one endogamous group, that is to the Jats of Haryana.The rural and urban sub-groups of the Jat population have the same broad genetic constitution, butthey have been exposed to different environment settings. Jats in the urban area were mainly engagedin trade, commerce, government, and private jobs. Most of the families residing in the rural areawere engaged in agriculture. The Jat people in Haryana are conservative and they continue to followold practices as a matter of routine and custom. Village girls cover their heads, while daughters-in-law cover their faces in the presence of elderly persons in the house or outside. With the spread ofeducation, social barriers against the urban females are rapidly collapsing, so their position is becomingbetter than that of rural females.

Both rural and urban Jat females of the present study were mainly vegetarian (Table 1). Dailyintake of fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products were below the recommended level in both therural and urban Jat females. Literacy rate was very low among Jat females in Haryana State and mostof the elderly women were illiterate. The present study demonstrated that mean and median age atnatural menopause of rural Jat females was 48.19 ± 1.53 years and 49.11 ± 2.31 years respectively,while among urban Jat females it was 49.38 ± 1.94 years and 49.92 ± 2.66 years, respectively. Thus,urban females experienced menopause at a later age as compared to their rural counterparts. All theparticipants were of middle socio-ecomomic status as assessed by their annual income ranging from90,000 to 140,000 rupees.

Data collection

The fieldwork for the present investigation was carried out in the year 2006 and 2007 in rural andurban areas of Haryana (North India) (Fig. 1). A cross-sectional sample of 300 rural and equal num-bers of urban women in the age range of 40–70 years was studied. For administrative purposes, 21districts of Haryana State are grouped into four divisions Ambala, Gurgaon, Hissar, Rohtak. Seventy-five rural and equal numbers of urban participants were selected from each division by the purposivesampling method. Females with an unusual gynecological history, kidney or liver disease, organ trans-plant/estrogen replacement therapy, physical deformity, or chronic illness as well as lactating andpregnant females were excluded from the study.

All the rural and urban participants were stratified into six age groups: 40–45 years, 46–50 years,51–55 years, 56–60 years, 61–65 years, and 66–70 years. Age in years had been obtained from the dateof birth, which most of the urban females could recall, whereas in majority of rural females and someaged urban women age had to be ascertained by association with some important socio-cultural andhistorical events. With this cross-questioning, it was possible to ascertain fairly accurately the correctage of the person.

M. Kaur, I. Talwar / HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385 377

Fig. 1. Map indicating the location of study area (Haryana).

A total of 600 Jat females were measured for nine anthropometric variables such as height, weight,waist circumference, hip circumference, biceps skinfold, triceps skinfold, calf skinfold, subscapularskinfold, supra-iliac skinfold. Height and weight were measured by anthropometer and weighingmachine respectively. Waist circumference and hip circumferences of each subject were measuredwith a Freeman’s steel tape. All the skinfold thicknesses were measured using a Harpenden skinfoldcaliper. Standard techniques as recommended by Weiner and Lourie (1981) were employed for takingvarious measurements. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as the ratio of weight in kilograms tothe height in metres squared. Waist–hip ratio (WHR) was calculated by dividing waist circumferenceby hip circumference. Grand mean thickness (GMT) was computed by dividing the sum of all skinfoldmeasurements by the number of sites measured to visualize the overall fatness. The subcutaneousfat distribution was assessed by subscapular/triceps ratio. Responsiveness of the five skinfold sitestowards deposition of fat was studied by expressing each skinfold thickness as a percent age of GMT.For the estimation of percentage body fat (BF%), density was calculated by the method of Durnin andWomersley (1974) for different age groups. The calculated body density was converted into percentagebody fat following the equation given by Siri (1956). All statistical analyses were undertaken usingthe Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 14.0. Student’s t-test was used to determinesignificance of rural–urban differences at the level of p < 0.05(*), p < 0.01(**), p < 0.001(***).

Results

Table 2 presents mean and standard deviation values for height, weight, waist circumference, andhip circumference of rural and urban Jat females. The highest mean value for height at 40–45yearswas 1580.3 mm in rural and 1586.0 mm in urban females, whereafter, a regular decline was noticedat all successive age groups under study until it reached 1494.6 mm in rural and 1524.2 mm in urbanfemales. Rural females were found to be shorter than urban females at all age levels, but statisticallysignificant (p < 0.001) differences were found only in age groups from 56 to 60 years to 66 to 70 years.Maximum mean value for weight was observed at 46–50 years (59.20 kg) in rural and 51–55 years(60.64 kg) in urban females followed by a decline in their mean values. Urban females were heavierthan rural females at all ages but t-values revealed statistically non-significant differences at all agelevels. Beginning with an initial mean value of 803.7 mm in rural and 827.6 mm in urban females,waist circumference increased until 46–50 years, thereafter a regular decrease set into finally reachits minimum mean value in the age group 66–70 years in both the rural and urban females (Table 2).A slow and regular growth of hip circumference was registered until 46–50 years (910.7 mm) in rural

378M

. K

aur, I.

Talwar

/ H

OM

O -

Journal of

Comparative

Hum

an Biology

62 (2011) 374– 385

Table 2Mean and standard deviation values of anthropometric variables of rural and urban Jat females.

Age group (years) N Height (mm) Weight (kg) Waist circumference (mm) Hip circumference (mm)

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

40–45Rural 50 1580.3 50.2 58.56 11.46 803.7 87.9 902.2 71.1Urban 50 1586.0 40.2 59.34 8.49 827.6 77.3 904.9 120.1t-Value −0.62 −0.38 −1.44 −0.13

46–50Rural 50 1571.3 59.3 59.20 6.67 815.5 86.7 910.7 119.0Urban 50 1582.3 60.9 59.68 13.37 831.0 74.8 920.2 98.3t-Value −0.74 −0.22

51–55Rural 50 1537.0 53.5 58.26 6.68 800.1 53.2 907.0 65.6Urban 50 1556.3 50.9 60.64 11.10 820.5 107.5 923.9 111.3t-Value −1.84 −1.29 −1.20 −0.92

56–60Rural 50 1523.6 46.2 55.5 6.29 799.0 53.9 901.0 94.2Urban 50 1550.8 46.8 56.92 6.95 803.3 71.2 910.4 98.7t-Value −2.92*** −1.07 −0.33 −0.48

61–65Rural 50 1500.5 38.4 54.00 9.77 785.4 77.6 892.5 95.3Urban 50 1540.0 55.2 55.00 10.01 799.5 104.1 901.9 137.2t-Value −4.15*** −0.50 −0.76 −0.39

66–70Rural 50 1494.6 53.8 50.88 9.02 784.1 71.6 883.9 82.0Urban 50 1524.2 42.7 52.60 9.41 797.4 95.1 894.5 107.1t-Value −3.04*** −0.93 −0.78 −0.55

TotalRural 300 1534.5 59.8 56.07 8.96 798.0 73.4 899.5 89.3Urban 300 1553.3 53.1 57.36 10.41 813.2 89.8 909.3 112.4

*** Significance at p < 0.001.

M. Kaur, I. Talwar / HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385 379

Table 3Mean and standard deviation values of biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular and supra-iliac skinfold (mm) of rural and urban Jatfemales.

Age group (years) N Skinfold

Biceps Triceps Calf Subscapular Supra-iliac

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

40–45Rural 50 18.96 3.11 23.44 3.90 24.50 4.70 31.56 5.54 25.30 4.40Urban 50 19.98 3.73 24.02 3.51 25.04 4.62 32.26 3.70 26.52 3.20t-Value −1.48 −0.78 −0.57 −0.74 −1.58

46–50Rural 50 18.48 2.97 21.34 2.89 22.84 3.84 31.38 4.59 24.86 4.73Urban 50 18.76 2.47 22.52 5.28 24.60 5.61 31.70 5.42 25.44 4.69t-Value

51–55Rural 50 16.88 2.17 20.50 3.01 21.88 3.36 29.38 4.49 23.76 3.84Urban 50 17.54 3.17 21.84 3.42 22.96 3.44 30.84 3.02 24.52 3.37t-Value −1.21 −2.07 −1.58 −1.90 −1.05

56–60Rural 50 15.50 2.33 19.50 3.14 20.46 3.76 27.76 3.95 22.64 3.40Urban 50 15.75 3.13 19.12 2.60 21.80 3.03 28.86 3.28 23.46 3.09t-Value −0.18 0.65 −1.95 −1.51 −1.25

61–65Rural 50 14.82 2.39 18.96 2.53 18.86 2.91 25.10 3.72 20.60 2.92Urban 50 13.46 2.60 18.76 3.11 19.66 2.50 28.40 3.59 23.07 3.24t-Value 2.71 0.35 −1.47 −4.50*** −3.97***

66–70Rural 50 12.78 2.03 17.60 2.17 17.96 2.82 23.96 4.33 20.32 3.31Urban 50 12.90 2.29 18.28 2.77 18.40 2.89 26.84 3.91 21.16 2.98t-Value −0.27 −1.36 −0.76 −3.48*** −1.33

TotalRural 300 16.24 3.30 20.22 2.35 21.08 4.24 28.19 5.30 22.91 4.25Urban 300 16.34 3.93 20.75 2.60 22.10 4.52 29.82 4.32 24.03 3.86t-Value −0.34 −2.61** −2.77*** −4.11*** −3.35***

** Significance at p < 0.01.*** Significance at p < 0.001.

and 51–55 years (923.9 mm) in urban females, thereafter a declining trend was observed until thelast age group in both the rural and urban females. Waist and hip circumferences of urban femaleswere more developed than their rural counterparts, although statistically non-significant results wereobtained at all age groups under consideration.

Descriptive statistics for biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac skinfolds are presentedin Table 3. Rural and urban Jat females showed a maximum mean value of all the skinfolds (biceps,triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac) at 40–45 years, thereafter a gradual and continuous agerelated decline in the mean values was noticed. The sites of minimum and maximum fat depositionwere biceps and subscapular respectively in both the rural and the urban Jat females. The overallpattern of subcutaneous fat deposition was biceps < triceps < calf < supra-illiac < subscapular in bothgroups of the Jat females. The urban females displayed fatter skinfolds at all ages as compared to theirrural counterparts except at the age of 61–65 years, where the rural females showed a significantly(p < 0.001) higher mean value of biceps skinfold than the urban females. The urban females had sig-nificantly (p < 0.001) higher overall mean values of calf, subscapular and supra-iliac skinfolds than therural Jat females.

Table 4 summarizes the mean and standard deviation values of total body fat, percentage body fatand lean body mass of rural and urban Jat females. A slow and regular decrease in the mean values oftotal body fat from 40 to 45 years until the last age group in both rural and urban females was observed.Urban subjects were found to have more total body fat than their rural counterparts but statisticallysignificant (p < 0.01) difference was reported only in the age group 51–55 years. Percentage body fat

380 M. Kaur, I. Talwar / HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385

Table 4Age-wise mean and standard deviation values of total body fat, lean body mass, and percentage body fat of rural and urban Jatfemales.

Age group (years) N Total body fat % Body fat Lean body mass

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

40–5Rural 50 22.19 4.56 37.87 2.02 36.36 7.09Urban 50 22.85 3.61 38.46 1.48 36.48 5.05t-Value −0.78 −1.65 −0.18

46–0Rural 50 22.14 2.73 37.41 1.81 37.05 4.28Urban 50 22.64 5.84 37.73 2.14 37.03 7.75t-Value −0.54 0.81 0.01

51–5Rural 50 21.31 2.85 36.53 1.66 36.94 4.10Urban 50 22.63 4.54 37.25 1.34 38.00 6.68t-Value −1.74* −2.35** −0.95

56–60Rural 50 19.80 2.46 35.66 1.72 35.69 4.10Urban 50 20.47 2.68 35.95 1.20 36.44 4.41t-Value −1.31 −0.97 −0.86

61–65Rural 50 18.67 3.43 34.60 1.58 35.32 6.52Urban 50 19.52 3.94 35.39 1.29 35.47 6.15t-Value −1.14 −2.72** −0.12

66–70Rural 50 17.09 2.92 33.66 1.71 33.78 6.28Urban 50 18.18 3.37 34.55 1.50 33.41 6.21t-Value −1.72 −2.76** −0.50

* Significance at p < 0.05.** Significance at p < 0.01.

revealed a declining trend with advancing age, i.e. maximum mean values occurred among the rural(37.87%) and the urban (38.46%) Jat females in the age group 40–45 years. The urban females hadhigher mean values of percentage body fat as compared to the rural females, and t-values showedstatistically significant differences (p < 0.01) in the age groups of 51–55 years, 61–65 years and 66–70years. In the rural females, beginning with an initial mean value of 36.36 kg in the age group 40–45years, lean body mass increased to 37.05 kg in the age group 46–50 years followed by a decline in themean values until 66–70 years. In the urban females, this characteristic demonstrated an incrementuntil 51–55 years; thereafter, a decline in the mean values sets in. Urban females had slightly highermean values of lean body mass than rural females, although t-values showed no significant differences.

Table 5 displays age-wise mean and standard deviation values of body mass index, waist–hipratio, grand mean thickness and ratio of subscapular/triceps skinfolds among rural and urban Jatfemales. Body mass index of both rural and urban Jat females showed an increase until 51–55 yearsand thereafter a gradual decrease in the mean values of this index was noticed. Body mass indexof urban females was higher than their rural counterparts, but the differences were not statisticallysignificant in most of the age groups. A maximum mean value of the waist-to-hip ratio was reportedat the age of 40–45 years in rural and urban females. There were no statistically significant differencesbetween these two groups at most of the age levels. Grand mean thickness (GMT) displayed an age-associated decrease in mean values with maximum mean values recorded at 40–45 years in boththe rural and urban groups of females. As has been evident from the trunk–extremity ratios, rural andurban females gained proportionally similar amounts of subcutaneous fat on the trunk and extremitiesuntil the age of 45 years, whereafter rural females exhibited higher values for this ratio than their urbancounterparts until 55 years of age, thereby, showing a higher amount of fat in their trunk region thanthe urban females. After 55 years of age, urban females showed considerably higher ratios than therural females until 70 years of age. This indicated that urban females had comparatively thicker trunkskinfolds than their rural counterparts.

M.

Kaur,

I. Talw

ar /

HO

MO

- Journal

of Com

parative H

uman

Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385

381

Table 5Age-wise mean and standard deviation values of indices of adiposity and fat patterning among rural and urban Jat females.

Age group (years) N Body mass index (BMI) Waist to hip ratio(WHR)

Grand mean thickness(GMT)

Ratio of subscapular totriceps skinfold

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SDa

40–45Rural 50 23.39 4.25 0.89 0.07 24.68 3.48 1.34 –Urban 50 23.63 3.60 0.92 0.06 25.56 2.57 1.34 –t-Value −0.31 −2.00*** −1.43

46–50Rural 50 24.02 2.87 0.89 0.28 23.78 2.83 1.47 –Urban 50 24.48 5.37 0.91 0.06 24.60 3.95 1.40 –t-Value −0.52 −0.48 −1.19

51–55Rural 50 24.78 3.59 0.88 0.07 22.48 2.35 1.43 –Urban 50 24.97 3.96 0.89 0.08 23.54 2.21 1.41 –t-Value −0.24 −0.33 −2.32**

56–60Rural 50 23.92 2.80 0.88 0.06 21.17 2.31 1.42 –Urban 50 23.96 2.88 0.88 0.07 21.79 1.75 1.50 –t-Value 0.44 0.36 −1.35

61–65Rural 50 24.07 4.86 0.87 0.12 19.66 1.94 1.32 –Urban 50 23.13 3.58 0.88 0.08 20.67 1.71 1.51 –t-Value 1.09 −0.46 −2.72***

66–70Rural 50 22.41 4.23 0.88 0.07 18.52 1.92 1.36 –Urban 50 22.83 4.32 0.89 0.06 19.51 2.01 1.46 –t-Value −1.21 −0.75 −2.52**

a SD – standard deviation not provided.** Significance at p < 0.01.

*** Significance at p < 0.001.

382 M. Kaur, I. Talwar / HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385

Table 6Age group wise response of different skinfold thickness sites towards accumulation of body fat (in percentage) among ruraland urban Jat females.

Age group (years) Skinfold

Biceps Triceps Calf Supra-illiac Subscapular

Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban

40–45 76.82 78.16 94.97 93.97 99.27 97.96 102.51 103.75 127.87 126.2146–50 77.71 76.26 89.73 91.54 96.04 100.00 104.54 103.41 131.95 128.8651–55 75.08 74.51 91.19 92.77 97.33 97.53 105.69 104.16 130.69 131.0156–60 73.21 72.28 92.11 87.74 96.64 100.04 106.94 107.66 131.12 132.4461–65 75.38 65.11 96.43 90.75 95.93 95.11 104.78 111.61 127.67 137.3966–70 69.00 66.11 95.03 93.69 96.97 94.31 109.71 108.45 129.37 137.57

Responsiveness of different skinfold thickness sites towards accumulation of body fat among therural and urban Jat females is presented in Table 6. Subscapular and supra-illiac skinfold thicknesssites displayed maximum age-associated sensitivity towards fat accumulation, whereas a minimumwas observed for the biceps skinfold in both groups of Jat females.

Discussion

Human aging is often defined as a process of change that occurs in an individual during the courseof time following maturity. This process finds its reflection in age related changes that take place invarious body systems including the skeleton (Kobyliansky et al., 1995). A perceptible decrease in heightafter maturity was reported by a number of previous studies (Hussain, 1997; Rahman et al., 1998;Perissinotto et al., 2002; Sánchez-García et al., 2007; Kaur, 2008). In the Baltimore longitudinal studyof aging, Sorkin et al. (1999) observed that height loss began at about age 30 years and accelerated withincreasing age. Consistent with those findings, in the present study, maximum mean value of heightwas reported at the age of 40–45 years in both the rural and urban Jat females, thereafter a decliningtrend with advancing age was noticed. Sánchez-García et al. (2007) observed that as age advances,the skeletal system undergoes structural modifications such as demineralization, which reduces thewidth of vertebrae and deforms the long bones of the lower extremities. Rossman (1986) stated thatthe amount of apparent decrease in height with age is not only a result of the aging process, butalso a birth cohort effect. Urban females of the present study were significantly taller than their ruralcounterparts. A similar trend was observed in Kunbi females (Hussain, 1997) and Punjabi Brahminfemales (Kaur, 2008). On the contrary, rural Jat Sikh females of Punjab were taller than their urban JatSikh counterparts (Singal et al., 1999).

The analysis of the present study depicted that rural and urban Jat females gained weight up toage group 46–50 and 51–55 years respectively, followed by a decline in their mean values until thelast age group. A decreasing trend in weight after middle age has been reported in numerous cross-sectional studies (Hussain, 1997; Rahman et al., 1998; Perissinotto et al., 2002; Sánchez-García et al.,2007; Kaur, 2008). Age related decrease in weight may be attributed to decline in total body water, fatfree mass, and bone mineral contents and density after menopause among healthy women (Chumleaet al., 1997; Guo et al., 1997; Zeller et al., 1997). Urban females of the present study were heavierthan rural females. A similar trend has been shown by various cross-sectional studies (Hussain, 1997;Singal et al., 1999; Kaur, 2008). In the present research based on body mass index (BMI) characteristics(World Health Organization, 1998), 66% rural and 65% urban Jat females fall in the normal range (BMI18.5–24.9 kg/m2); the remainder of rural (33.34%) and urban (35%) females represent nutritionallyvulnerable groups i.e. underweight and overweight.

A trend of increasing waist circumference and hip circumference among rural and urban femaleswas observed until the fifth decade of life followed by a gradual decline until 70 years. These findingsare in consensus with the observations of most of the existing studies (Hussain, 1997; Bartali et al.,2002; Perissinotto et al., 2002; Kaur, 2003). Urban Jat females showed larger circumferences than theirage matched rural counterparts.

M. Kaur, I. Talwar / HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385 383

It has been found that waist–hip ratio (WHR) is associated with disease risk and with mortalityin both men and women (Lapidus et al., 1989; Folsom et al., 2000). One salient feature of the WHRas a health related measure is that it is partially independent of total adiposity; thus for a given levelof WHR, there may be considerable variability in total adiposity (Pouliot et al., 1994). In the presentstudy, according to waist–hip ratio values both rural and urban females showed upper body fat pre-dominance. However, urban females had relatively more abdominal fat than their rural counterparts.Predominance for upper body fat with increasing age has also been demonstrated by other workers(Poehlman et al., 1995; Tyagi et al., 2005).

The highest mean value of all the skinfolds was reported at age of 40–45 years among rural andurban females, whereafter, a decrease in their mean values to the last age group was observed. Theage associated decrease in skinfold thickness at different sites has been well described in the lit-erature (Kaur, 2003; Tyagi et al., 2005). Urban Jat females had higher skinfold thickness values atall the five body sites (biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac) than their rural counter-parts, which clearly indicated that urban females had more subcutaneous fat than rural females.This in turn, is supported by the findings of McGarvey (1989), Lerman-Garber et al. (1999) and Kaur(2003). Durnin and Womersley (1974) observed that skinfold thickness correlates with body fat. Inthe present study, skinfold thicknesses, total body fat, as well as percentage body fat, displayed max-imum mean value at the age of 40–45 years followed by a decrease in the mean values at successiveage levels. Forbes (1976) illustrated that a decrease in lean body mass was characteristic of agingregardless of energy intake. A number of cross-sectional studies (Brozek, 1963; Forbes, 1987) indi-cated that a decrease in amounts of water, muscle and bone occur in both men and women andthese trends began as early as the 5th or 6th decade of life. Evans (1998) also stated that advancingage is associated with a number of changes in body composition; notable among these changes is areduction in fat free mass that occurs primarily as a result of losses in skeletal mass. In the presentstudy, higher mean values for weight, circumferences, skinfolds and body fat among urban femalesmay be attributed to less manual work and increased intake of calories, especially in the form offats and simple carbohydrates, leading to an accumulation of fat in body tissues. A large body ofevidence indicates that changes in body composition reflect changes in energy metabolism in thebody.

Females in general, gain proportionally similar amounts of subcutaneous fat at trunk and extremitysites, so that the trunk/extremity ratio is reasonably stable through the fourth decade. Subsequentlytrunk skinfolds increase proportionally more in thickness than extremity skinfolds (Malina, 2005).Similar findings have been reported by the present study. Sensitivity of the five skinfold thicknessesvaried from site to site in various age groups. Subscapular and supra-iliac sites were found to be themost sensitive sites towards accumulation of fat with increasing age followed by calf, triceps andbiceps sites in both the groups of females.

Summarizing, urban Jat females of the present study possessed larger overall dimensions thantheir rural counterparts. Both rural and urban females showed a decrease in almost every dimen-sion including the level of fatness between mid-fourth and mid-fifth decade of life. Upper body fatpreponderance was highlighted relatively more in urban females, as was evident from WHR ratios.Differences in body composition among rural and urban Jat females probably reflected changes in theirenergy metabolism. Redistribution of body fat was found in both groups after the mid-fourth decadeof life. Subscapular/triceps ratio of subcutaneous fat accumulation and sensitivity of each skinfold siteshowed an android pattern of fatness, showing more fat deposition in the trunk region compared tothe extremities. Interestingly, rural and urban females had a differential rate of fat accumulation atdifferent age groups. Rural females had a greater amount of fat in the trunk region up to 55 years ofage than their urban counterparts, who, in turn, deposited a considerably higher amount of fat in thetrunk region up to 70 years of age. This differential pattern of fat redistribution caused the apparentdifferences in body physique of rural and urban Jat females.

Acknowledgement

The author (Maninder Kaur) is grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhifor the financial assistance to carry out this work.

384 M. Kaur, I. Talwar / HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385

References

Bagga, A., Sakaurkar, A., 2003. Estimation of changes in body composition of adult Indian women. Anthropol. Közl. 44, 37–47,http://biomed.gerontologyjournals.org/cgi/ijlink?linkType=ABST&journalCode=jgeroa&resid=50/6/M307.

Bartali, B., Benvenuti, E., Corsi, A.M., Bandinelli, S., Russo, C.R., Di Iorio, A., Lauretani, F., Ferrucci, I., 2002. Changes in anthro-pometric measures in men and women across the life span findings from the In CHIANTI study. Soz. Präventivmed. 47,336–348.

Baumgartner, R.N., Stauber, P.M., McHugh, D., Koehler, K.M., Garry, P.J., 1995. Cross-sectional age differences in body compositionin persons 60+ years of age. J. Gerontol. Med. Sci. 50A, M307–M316.

Borkan, G.A., Hults, D.E., Gerzof, S.G., 1985. Comparison of body composition in middle-aged and elderly males using computedtomography. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 66, 289–295.

Brown, P.J., Konner, M., 1987. An anthropological perspective of obesity. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 499, 29–46.Brozek, J., 1963. Body composition part II. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 110, 425–1018.Chumlea, W.C., Zeller, C., Siervogel, R.M., Guo, S., 1997. Reference data for total body water for Caucasian adults, 18–64 years of

age: the Fels longitudinal study. In: Sixteenth International Congress of Nutrition, Monteral, Book of Abstracts, p. 77.Durnin, J.V.G.A., Womersley, J., 1974. Body fat assessed from total body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness

measurements on men and women aged 16–72 years. Br. J. Nutr. 32, 77–97.Ellison, P.T., 2003. Energetics and reproductive effort. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 15, 342–351.Evans, W.J., 1998. Exercise and nutritional needs of elderly people: effect on muscle and bone. Gerontology 15, 15–24.Fiori, G., Facchini, F., Pettener, D., Rimondi, A., Battistini, N., Bedogni, G., 2000. Relationships between blood pressure, anthro-

pometric characteristics and blood lipids in high and low altitude populations from central Asia. Ann. Hum. Biol. 27,19–28.

Folsom, A.R., Kushi, L.H., Anderson, K.E., Mink, P.J., Olson, J.E., Hong, C.P., Sellers, T.A., Lazovich, D., Prineas, R.J., 2000. Associationof general and abdominal obesity with multiple health outcomes in older women: the Iowa women’s health study. Arch.Intern. Med. 160, 2117–2128.

Forbes, G.B., 1976. The adult decline in lean body mass. Hum. Biol. 48, 161–166.Forbes, G.B., 1987. Human Body Composition: Growth, Aging Nutrition and Activity. Springer Verlag, New York.Gallagher, D., Ruts, E., Visser, M., 2000. Weight stability masks sarcopenia in elderly men and women. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol.

Metab. 279, E366–E375.Ghosh, A., 2004. Age and sex variation in the measures of body composition among the elderly bengalee Hindus of Calcutta,

India. Collegium Antropol. 28, 553–561.Goodpaster, B.H., Kelley, D.E., Thaete, F.L., 2000. Skeletal muscle attenuation determined by computed tomography is associated

with skeletal muscle lipid content. J. Appl. Physiol. 89, 104–110.Guo, S., Zeller, C., Chumlea, W.C., Siervogel, R., 1997. Age related changes in total body bone mineral content and bone mineral

density: the Fels longitudinal study 1929–1996. J. Gerontol. 37, 13.Hussain, T., 1997. A Study of Ageing in a Population of Maharashtra. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Pune University, Maharashtra.Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S.B., Ross, R., 2002. Low relative skeletal muscle mass (sarcopenia) in older persons is associated with

functional impairment and physical disability. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 50, 889–896.Kaur, M., 2003. A Study of Morpho-Physiological Variations among Punjabi Rural – Urban Brahmin Females of District RoopNagar

– with Special Reference to Senescence. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis Panjab University, Chandigarh.Kaur, M., 2008. Age related changes in height, weight, and body mass index of Brahmin females: a rural–urban comparison.

Internet J. Geriatr. Gerontol. 4 (1).Kobyliansky, E., Livshits, G., Pavlovsky, O., 1995. Population biology of human ageing. Methods of assessment and sex variation.

Hum. Biol. 67, 87–109.Lapidus, L., Bengtsson, C., Hallstrom, T., Bjorntorp, P., 1989. Obesity, adipose tissue distribution and health in women – results

from a population study in Gothenburg, Sweden. Appetite 13, 25–35.Lerman-Garber, I., Villa, A.R., Martinez, C.L., Turrubiatez, L.C., Aguilar Sanlinas, C.A., Lucy, V., Wong, B., Lopez, A.J.C., 1999. The

prevalence of obesity and its determinants in urban and rural ageing Mexican population. Obes. Res. 7, 402–406.Malina, R.M., 2005. Variations in body composition associated with sex and ethnicity. In: Heymsfield, S.B., Lohman, T.G., Wang,

Z.M., Going, S. (Eds.), Human Body Composition. , second ed. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, pp. 271–298.McGarvey, S.T., 1989. Five year longitudinal changes in fatness and blood pressure in American Samoa. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.

78, 269–270.Mueller, W.H., Reid, R.M., 1979. A multivariate analysis of fatness and relative fat patterning. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 50, 199–208.Norgan, N.G., 1997. The beneficial effects of body fat and adipose tissue in humans. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 21, 738–746.Poehlman, E.T., Toth, M.J., Gardner, A.W., 1995. Changes in energy balance and body composition at menopause: a controlled

longitudinal study. Ann. Intern. Med. 123, 673–675.Perissinotto, E., Pisent, C., Sergi, G., Grigoletto, F., Enzi, G., 2002. Anthropometric measurements in the elderly: age and gender

differences. Br. J. Nutr. 87, 177–186.Pouliot, M.C., Despres, J.P., Lemieux, S., Moorjani, S., Bouchard, C., Tremblay, A., Nadeau, A., Lupien, P.J., 1994. Waist circumference

and abdominal sagital diameter: best simple anthropometric indexes of abdominal visceral adipose tissue accumulationand related cardiovascular risk in men and women. Am. J. Cardiol. 73, 460–468.

Rahman, S.A., Zalifah, M.K., Zainorni, M.J., Shafawi, S., Mimie, S.S., Zarina, N., Wan Zainuddin, W.A., 1998. Anthropometricmeasurements of the elderly. Mal. J. Nutr. 4, 55–63.

Ramirez, M.E., Mueller, W.H., 1980. The development of obesity fat patterning in Tokelau children. Hum. Biol. 52, 675–687.Rossman, I., 1986. Clinical Geriatrics. Lippincott, Philadelphia.Sánchez-García, S., García-Pena, C., Duque-López, M.X., Juárez-Cedillo, T., Cortés-Núnez, A.R., Reyes-Beaman, S., 2007. Anthro-

pometric measures and nutritional status in a healthy elderly population. BMC Public Health 3, 2.Singal, P., Sethi, H.K., Sharma, M., 1999. Changes in blood pressure and some related variables with aging in rural and urban 326

Jat Sikh females. In: Bhatnagar, D.P., Verma, S.K., Mokha, R. (Eds.), Human Growth-A Multi-Disciplinary Approach. ExerciseScience Publication Society, Patiala, pp. 87–94.

M. Kaur, I. Talwar / HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374– 385 385

Siri, W.E., 1956. The gross composition of the body. Adv. Biol. Med. Phys. 4, 239–280.Sorkin, J.D., Muller, D.C., Andres, R., 1999. Longitudinal changes in height of men and women: implications for interpretation of

body mass index. Am. J. Epidemiol. 150, 969–977.Sternfeld, B., Ngo, L., Satariano, W.A., Tager, I.B., 2002. Associations of body composition with physical performance and self-

reported functional limitation in elderly men and women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 156, 110–121.Tyagi, R., Kapoor, S., Kapoor, A.K., 2005. Body composition and fat distribution pattern of urban elderly females, Delhi, India.

Collegium Antropol. 29, 493–498.Weiner, J.S., Lourie, J.A., 1981. Practical Human Biology. Academic Press, London.World Health Organization, 1998. World Health Organization Global Database on BMI. http://www.Who.int/nutrition/

databases/en.Zamboni, M., Zoico, E., Scartezzini, T., 2003. Body composition changes in stable-weight elderly subjects: the effect of sex. Aging

Clin. Exp. Res. 15, 321–327.Zeller, C., Guo, S., Chumlea, W.C., Siervogel, R., 1997. Age related changes in total body bone mineral content and bone mineral

density: the Fels longitudinal study 1929–1996. J. Gerontol. 37, 13.