biologi
-
Upload
faiza-hilmiyah -
Category
Education
-
view
115 -
download
4
description
Transcript of biologi
![Page 1: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
DEPARTEMEN PENDIDIKAN NASIONALUNIVERSITAS NEGERI SURABAYA
JURUSAN BIOLOGI - FMIPA 2012
14th MEETING
![Page 2: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
• You should be able to:1. Define the terms habitat, niche, population,
community and ecosystem, and describe examples of each;
2. Explain the term producer, consumer and trophic level, and state examples of these in specific food chain and food webs;
3. describe how energy is transferred through food chain and food webs;
4. explain how energy losses occur along food chains, and understand what is meant by efficiency of transfer;
5. describe how nitrogen is cycled within an ecosystem.
![Page 3: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 3
Food Chainsand
Food Webs
![Page 4: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 4
What is a Food Chain?
• A food chain is the path by which energy passes from one living thing to another.
![Page 5: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 5
What’s in a Food Chain?
•Producers•Consumers•Decomposers
![Page 6: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 6
Producers
• Producers make their own food
• Green plants use energy from the sun to make food
• Producers are on the bottom of the food chain
![Page 7: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 7
Consumers
• Consumers hunt, gather, and store food because they cannot make their own.
![Page 8: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 8
Three Types of Consumers
•Herbivores•Carnivores•Omnivores
![Page 9: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 9
Herbivores
• Animals who eat plants such as:–grasshoppers–rabbits–squirrels–deer–pandas
![Page 10: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 10
Carnivores
• Animals who only eat other animals such as:–tigers–lions–hawks–wolves–cougars
![Page 11: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 11
Omnivores
• Animals who eat both plants and animals such as:–humans–bears
![Page 12: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 12
Decomposers
• Microorganisms that are able to break down large molecules into smaller parts
• Decomposers return the nutrients that are in a living thing to the soil
![Page 13: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 13
Let’s Lookat a
Food Chain• A food chain is a
simplified way to look at the energy
that passes from producers to consumers.
![Page 14: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 14
Types of Food Chains
• Aquatic- Water-related food chains with sea plants and animals
• Terrestrial- Land-related food chains with land plants and animals
![Page 15: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 15
Predator & Prey
• Predator- An animal that captures and eats other animals
• Prey- The animal that is captured and eaten
![Page 16: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 16
What is a Food Web?
• A more realistic way of looking at the relationship of plants and animals in an environment
• Several food chains linked together
• A predator from one food chain may be linked to the prey of another food chain
![Page 17: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
November 28, 2013 place footer here 17
Food Webs• How many food chains can
you make from this food web?
![Page 18: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
NUTRIENT CYCLES
![Page 19: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
NUTRIENT CYCLES: ECOSYSTEM TO
ECOSPHERE• Nutrient cycling occurs at
the local level through the action of the biota.
• Nutrient cycling occurs at the global level through geological processes, such as, atmospheric circulation, erosion and weathering.
![Page 20: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
NUTRIENT CYCLES
• The atoms of earth and life are the same; they just find themselves in different places at different times.
• Most of the calcium in your bones came from cows, who got it from corn, which took it from rocks that were once formed in the sea.
• The path atoms take from the living (biotic) to the non-living (abiotic) world and back again is called a biogeochemical cycle.
![Page 21: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Nutrients: The Elements of Life
• Of the 50 to 70 atoms (elements) that are found in living things, only 15 or so account for the major portion of living biomass.
• Only around half of these 15 have been studied extensively as they travel through ecosystems or circulate on a global scale.
![Page 22: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
A GENERALIZED MODEL OF NUTRIENT CYCLING IN AN
ECOSYSTEM• The cycling of nutrients in
an ecosystem are interlinked by an a number of processes that move atoms from and through organisms and to and from the atmosphere, soil and/or rocks, and water.
• Nutrients can flow between these compartments along a variety of pathways.
![Page 23: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Nutrient Compartments in a Terrestrial Ecosystem
• The organic compartment consists of the living organisms and their detritus.
• The available-nutrient compartment consists of nutrients held to surface of soil particles or in solution.
• The third compartment consists of nutrients held in soils or rocks that are unavailable to living organisms.
• The fourth compartment is the air which can be found in the atmosphere or in the ground.
![Page 24: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Uptake of Inorganic Nutrients from the Soil
• With the exception of CO2 and O2 which enter though leaves, the main path of all other nutrients is from the soil through the roots of producers.
• Even consumers which find Ca, P, S and other elements in the water they drink, obtain the majority of these nutrients either directly or indirectly from producers.
![Page 25: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
The Atmosphere Is a Source of Inorganic Nutrients
• The atmosphere acts as a reservoir for carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) and water (H2O).
• These inorganic compounds can be exchanged directly with the biota through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
• The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is nitrogen (N2);about 80% by volume. Its entry into and exit from the biota is through bacteria.
![Page 26: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Some Processes By Which Nutrients Are Recycled
• Cycling within an ecosystem involves a number of processes.
• These are best considered by focusing attention on specific nutrients.
![Page 27: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
CARBON, HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN CYCLES IN
ECOSYSTEMS• C, H & O basic elements of life; making up
from about 98% of plant biomass.• CO2 and O2 enter biota from the atmosphere.
• Producers convert CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates (CH2O compounds) and release O2 from water.
• Producers, consumers and decomposers convert CH2O compounds, using O2, back into CO2 and H2O.
![Page 28: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
CARBON, HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN CYCLES IN ECOSYSTEMS
• Carbon and oxygen cycle come out of the air as carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and are returned during respiration.
• Oxygen is produced from water during photosynthesis and combines with the hydrogen to form water during respiration.
![Page 29: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE IN ECOSYSTEMS
• Phosphorus, as phosphate (PO4-3),
is an essential element of life.• It does not cycle through
atmosphere, thus enters producers through the soil and is cycled locally through producers, consumers and decomposers.
• Generally, small local losses by leaching are balanced by gains from the weathering of rocks.
• Over very long time periods (geological time) phosphorus follows a sedimentary cycle.
![Page 30: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
NITROGEN CYCLE IN ECOSYSTEMS
• Nitrogen (N2) makes up 78% of the atmosphere.
• Most living things, however, can not use atmospheric nitrogen to make amino-acids and other nitrogen containing compounds.
• They are dependent on nitrogen fixing bacteria to convert N2 into NH3(NH4
+).
![Page 31: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Biological Sources of Soil Nitrogen
• Only a few species of bacteria and cyanobacteria are capable of nitrogen fixation.
• Some are fee-living and others form mutualistic associations with plants.
• A few are lichens.
![Page 32: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Atmospheric Sources of Soil Nitrogen
• Lightning was the major source of soil nitrogen until recent times when the burning of fossil fuels became a major source of atmospheric deposition.
• Nitrogen oxides come from a variety of combustion sources that use fossil fuels. In urban areas, at least half of these pollutants come cars and other vehicles.
![Page 33: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Agricultural Supplements to Soil Nitrogen
• Various forms of commercial fertilizer are added to agricultural fields to supplement the nitrogen lost through plant harvest.
• Crop rotation with legumes such as soybeans or alfalfa is also practiced to supplement soil nitrogen.
![Page 34: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Biological Nitrogen Fixation
• Nitrogen fixation is the largest source of soil nitrogen in natural ecosystems.
• Free-living soil bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green “algae”) are capable of converting N2 into ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4
+).
• Symbiotic bacteria (Rhizobium) in the nodules of legumes and certain other plants can also fix nitrogen.
QuickTimeª and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
![Page 35: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Nitrification
• Several species of bacteria can convert ammonium (NH4
+) into nitrites (NO2
-).
• Other bacterial species convert nitrites (NO2
-) to nitrates (NO3
-).
![Page 36: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Uptake of Nitrogen by Plants
• Plants can take in either ammonium (NH4
+) or nitrates (NO3-)
and make amino acids or nucleic acids.
• These molecules are the building blocks of proteins and DNA, RNA, ATP, NADP, respectively.
• These building blocks of life are passed on to other trophic levels through consumption and decomposition.
![Page 37: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Ammonification
• Decomposers convert organic nitrogen (CHON) into ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4
+).
• A large number of species of bacteria and fungi are capable of converting organic molecules into ammonia.
![Page 38: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Denitrification
• A broad range of bacterial species can convert nitrites, nitrates and nitrous oxides into molecular nitrogen (N2).
• They do this under anaerobic conditions as a means of obtaining oxygen (O2).
• Thus, the recycling of N is complete.
![Page 39: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
GLOBAL NUTRIENT CYCLES
• The loss of nutrients from one ecosystem means a gain for another. (Remember the law of conservation of matter.)
• When ecosystems become linked in this manor, attention shifts to a global scale. One is now considering the ECOSPHERE or the whole of planet earth.
![Page 40: biologi](https://reader033.fdocuments.us/reader033/viewer/2022052911/559dfa611a28ab5f468b4703/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
THANK YOU