Serkan SAYINER, DVM PhD, Assist. Prof.Near East University

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

Department of Biochemistry

serkan.sayiner@neu.edu.tr

Bioelements

Most of the minerals available in the organism structure

are found in nature.

In particular, the closeness between the sea water and

the cytoplasm in terms of mineral composition is

considered as proof of the life beginning in the sea.

In living organisms, C, H, O, N participates the organic

structure together with Ca, P, Mg, K, Na, Cl, S, Fe, Cu,

Co, Zn, Mn, Cr, Mo, F, Sn, I, B, As, Br, Si, Ni and Al.

Bioelements

Ca, P, Mg, K, Na, Cl and S are found in larger amounts in the organism than other elements and their blood levels are expressed in % mg or mg/dl. These elements are called macro elements (major elements or major minerals).

Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Mn, Cr, Mo, F, Se and I are present in smaller quantities (% μg or µg/dl). These elements are called Trace Elements (Micro/Catalytic/Trace elements or minerals).◦ Trace elements function with enzymes, hormones and vitamins.

Bioelements

Disorders caused by the inadequacy or toxicity of

minerals -especially trace elements- in the animals, have

gained great importance; Especially in the livestock

economy in recent years.

It is absolutely necessary to take them together with

foodstuff or feeds.

Bioelements

The forms of minerals in diet/ration should not damage

the digestive system, be in a form suitable for

absorption, and be available for metabolism.

Mineral requirements should be carefully defined while

preparing diet and ration.

Mineral substances are involved in the structure of many

tissues in organisms.

Bioelements

In particular, the functions of trace elements in cell

metabolism vary widely. Some are;◦ Acid-base balance,

◦ Osmotic pressure and membrane permeability of body fluids and

tissues,

◦ Formation of tissue sensitivity,

◦ Nerve impulse transmission,

◦ Essential for some hormone and enzyme functions,

◦ It is very important in terms of growth and livestock production-

efficiency and fulfillment of life functions of living thing.

Bioelements

The requirement of the organism for mineral substances and trace elements depends on the influence of various factors. Energy and mineral balance is a very important concept especially in animals with high performance.

Some factors determine the daily requirements of animals, such as trace element content of soil, water and feedstuffs, absorption patterns in the digestive tract, interaction between trace elements during absorption, storage conditions in the body and the animal’s characteristics.

Bioelements

Mineral deficiencies or

excesses in some regions

of the world are seen and

it is directly related to

soil structure.

Bioelements

Source: Judson and Reuter, 1999.

Source: Wiki

Macroelements Trace Elements Ultra Trace Elements

Calcium (Ca) Iron (Fe) Chromium (Cr)

Phosphorus (P) Zinc (Zn) Fluorine (F)

Magnesium (Mg) Cupper (Cu) Molybdenum (Mo)

Sodium (Na) Manganese (Mn) Nickel (Ni)

Chlorine (Cl) Selenium (Se) Boron (B)

Potassium (K) Iodine (I) Arsenic (As)

Sulfur (S) Cobalt (Co) Vanadium (V)

Bromine (Br)

Silicon (si)

Lead (Pb)

Lithium (Li)

Tin (Sn)

Aluminum (Al)

Common elements found in the body

Colorimetric-Photometric

Ion-selective electrode-ISE

Flame photometry

Fluorometry

Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)

Emission Spectroscopy(ES)

Inductively Coupled Plasma-Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-ES)

Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)

Ion Chromatography (IC)

Analysis Techniques

Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Cl, S

MACRO ELEMENTS

It is present in the nature together with carbonate (CO3) and phosphate (PO4) anions within the soilcontent.

Calcium (Ca)

◦ It easily dissolves in water with CO2 effect and passes through plants.

◦ So, the living beings fed with grass take the adequate amounts.

◦ Drinking water is also a good source of calcium for humans and animals if not too soft.

1,4 - 2,6% of the animal body consists of calcium.

99% of this calcium is in the form of hydroxyapatite in

the skeletal system.

Developing animals, pregnant animals, laying hens and

lactating animals have to take Ca in abundance.

Calcium (Ca)

For a balanced diet, Ca and P must be taken in

appropriate proportions in foods. This ratio (Ca:P)

varies between animals.

The ratio is usually 2:1, while in chickens it is 5:1 or 7:1. ◦ The stated ratios are for the content of the ration.

Ca ingested with food are dissolved from other molecules

in the stomach by the reaction of gastric HCl.

Calcium (Ca)

Ca++ ions passes from the stomach into the intestine and

there combined with the free fatty acids. As a result, the

calcium soaps formed and are absorbed from the small

intestine by forming emulsions of bile acids into small

pieces of emulsions.

The effect of low pH, citrate presence and vitamin D

increases Ca absorption . Vitamin D provides absorption

of calcium from the intestines by increasing calcium-

binding protein (CaBP) synthesis.

Calcium (Ca)

Ca requirement causes parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion. PTH activates the enzyme 1-hydroxylase. This enzyme enables the 1,25 dihydroxy cholecalciferol (1,25-(OH)2D3) synthesized in the kidney to become active.

1,25-dihydroxy D3 stimulates the absorption of calcium from the intestines and at the same time the Ca mobilization from the bones to blood.

Ca is found mostly in teeth and bones in organism.◦ The bones are a very good Ca deposit. Even if the Ca is not taken for

a while, the body needs can be provided from the bones.

Calcium (Ca)

Source: Youtube

In blood serum, Ca exists in three forms.

1. Ionize Calcium (Free calcium, iCa++) (% 45-60)

2. A diffusible form attached to citric, carbonic and phosphoric

acids (%5)

3. Calcium proteinate, non-diffusible form bound to plasma

proteins (% 35-50)

Calcium (Ca)

Ionized calcium is physiologically active form.

The multiplication of %mg amounts of calcium and

inorganic phosphorus present in serum in domestic

animals and humans is 36 under normal conditions.

If the rate drops below 30; rickets in young people and

osteomalacia in older people can be seen.

Calcium (Ca)

Functions of calcium;

◦ Joins the structure of bones and teeth.

◦ Reduces the permeability of blood vessel walls and cell

membranes

◦ It is necessary for muscle contractions and the stimulation of

nerves.

◦ It plays critical role in the coagulation of the blood and milk.

◦ It acts in the activation of some enzymes (lipase, ATPase,

succinic dehydrogenase).

Calcium (Ca)

Molecules responsible for the regulation of

blood calcium concentration;

1. Parathyroid hormone/Parathormone (PTH)

2. Calcitonin (CT)

3. Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol)

Calcium (Ca)

Parathyroid hormone (PTH): The main hormone involved

in the regulation of blood calcium level. It,◦ Directly affects the target cells on the bone and kidney,

indirectly on the intestine.

◦ Increases the blood Ca concentration.

◦ Decreases the blood P level.

◦ Improves tubular reabsorption of calcium and increases urinary

excretion of phosphate .

◦ Increases osteolysis and the number of osteoclasts at the bone

surface.

Calcium (Ca)

◦ Increases urinary excretion of type-1 collagen metabolites such

as hydroxyproline and collagen telopeptides.

◦ Activates adenylate cyclase or stimulates increased intracellular

calcium concentration in target cells.

◦ Accelerates the formation of active vitamin D metabolites and

the most important task is to mobilize calcium from bone to

extracellular fluid.

Calcium (Ca)

Calcitonin (CT): It is released from thyroid-C cells in

response to hypercalcemia. ◦ This results in the development of hypocalcemia or

hypophosphatemia at various degrees.

◦ Especially by affecting the target cells found in bone and kidney

its biological function reveals.

◦ PTH and CT are antagonist hormones on bone resorption.

However, in renal tubules, they have synergistic effects; reduce

phosphorus reabsorption.

◦ CT reduces calcium's mobilization from bone to plasma. Its

activity is not dependent on vitamin D.

Calcium (Ca)

Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol): It is also considered as a

hormone.◦ The active form is 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3.

◦ Increases the Ca and P absorption from the intestine, allowing

the proper mineralization of bone matrix and ensures a certain

balance in extracellular fluid.

◦ In small quantities vitamin D3 is necessary for PTH to exert its

effect on bone.

◦ The target cells of active vitamin D3 are the intestinal mucosa

cells. Increase active transcellular calcium transport .

Calcium (Ca)

Serum concentration can be measured by techniques such as colorimetric, AAS, ICP-MS. ◦ Arsenazo III, glyoxal-bis

◦ It is expressed in mg/dL in plasma.

Hypocalcemia: It is low calcium levels in the blood serum.

Calcium (Ca)Serum Calcium concentration

SpeciesNormal values

(mg/dL)

Human 8,00 – 12,00

Cattle 9,70 – 12,40

Dog 9,00 – 11,30

Cat 6,20 – 10,20

Horse 12,40 ± 0,58

◦ Reasons; PTH insufficiency, chronic renal failure,

hypoproteinemia, rickets, osteomalacia, milk fever in cows,

ketosis, acute pancreatitis, Vitamin D deficiency.

Hypercalcemia : Increase in blood

calcium concentration.

◦ Reasons: Mostly neoplastic conditions.

Parathyroid adenoma, multiple

myeloma, excessive Ca absorption

(Hipervitaminosis D), Addison's

disease.

Calcium (Ca)Serum Calcium concentration

SpeciesNormal values

(mg/dL)

Human 8,00 – 12,00

Cattle 9,70 – 12,40

Dog 9,00 – 11,30

Cat 6,20 – 10,20

Horse 12,40 ± 0,58

Calcium(Ca)

Milk FeverOsteomalacia

Dog rickets

Source: Youtube

The formation of eggshell in chickens is also related to

Ca metabolism. ◦ Carbon dioxide, which is formed as a result of calcium-induced

metabolism events (especially carbohydrate metabolism), reacts

with water and bicarbonate anions revealing the calcium

carbonate structured eggshell.

◦ If the chickens do not take as much Ca as they do, they

continue to build egg shells by supplementing from bones for a

while.

Calcium (Ca)

◦ Even if the eggshell is thin or laying once a week, they will

definitely continue to laying with an eggshell.

◦ However, after a while they become unstable due to Ca

emptying.

◦ Decrease in egg production at very high temperatures; this is

because of the increased number of respiration in animals, so

they exert more CO2 and are not able to produce CaCO3.

Calcium (Ca)

Phosphates, pyrophosphates and triphosphates from these are of greatest interest to the organism.

It is also found in milk and dairy products in significant quantities.◦ In addition, phosphoric acid is formed by the combination of

alkaline and earth alkaline, esters formed with inorganic salts, alcohols, phosphates mixed with some amino acids, mixed with various kinds of nutrients are good sources.

Phosphorus (P)

It exists as phosphorus compounds commonly

found in the soil.

0,75-1,10% of animal body consists of inorganic

phosphorus.

More than 80% of this phosphorus in the body is found in

hydroxyapatite form in the skeletal system.

The remainder is intracellular in soft tissues.◦ Phosphate has intracellular main anion and has organic

(phospholipids, nucleic acids, ATP, phosphoproteins) and

inorganic forms.

◦ It has important roles in many metabolic processes (for

example: energy metabolism, delivery of oxygen to tissues,

muscle contraction, and skeletal integrity).

Phosphorus (P)

Phosphorus requirement causes parathormone

(PTH) secretion.

PTH activates the enzyme 24-hydroxylase by

inhibiting the enzyme 1-hydroxylase, which helps

calcium to be absorbed from the gut. This activates

the absorption of phosphorus from the intestines.

Phosphorus (P)

The ester phosphates that pass into the bloodstream pass

into the skeletal system and are stored.

In the bone cells, circulating ester phosphates are

degraded by the phosphatase enzyme and converted into

inorganic phosphate ions.

Inorganic phosphates combine with the calcium ion and

become insoluble tertiary calcium phosphate.◦ Minor magnesium phosphate can also be present. Bones are

considered to be a very good phosphate deposit. Ionize in case

of need and give phosphate to blood.

Phosphorus (P)

A large proportion (90%) of the phosphate in the body is found in bones as tertiary calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite {3Ca3(PO4) 2Ca(OH) 2}

Inorganic phosphorus is present in the form of phosphate in serum. There is no inorganic phosphorus in the blood cells.

If inorganic phosphorus is not detected in the serum in a short time and if it is delayed, the organically bound phosphorus in the serum becomes enzymatically converted to free inorganic phosphorus over time and the serum inorganic phosphorus values are determined to be higher than normal.

Phosphorus (P)

Functions;◦ Join the structure of bones and teeth.

◦ It is responsible for keeping the pH value of blood at a

certain level.

◦ Provides the maintenance of normal blood Ca

concentration.

◦ Important in accumulating and transferring energy in

the required areas and also in carbohydrate

metabolism.

Phosphorus (P)

The inorganic phosphate excreted from the body into the

urine and with trace amounts in the stool.

As a result of urinary sedimentation while excretation,

phosphate sand and stones can be formed.

Serum levels are measured using colorimetric-

photometric methods.◦ The main principle of these methods is the formation of the

phosphate complex with molybdate.

◦ It is expressed in mg/dL, blood.

Phosphorus (P)

Hypophosphatemia◦ In the case of phosphorus

insufficiency, the amount of inorganic phosphorus in the blood falls, lack of appetite arises and milk yielddecreases in cows.

◦ In advanced cases, chewing bone andeating carcasses are seen.

◦ In chronic cases, rickets in young people and osteomalacia like bone formation disorders in adults are encountered.

◦ Bones break up in long-running events.

Phosphorus (P)Serum Phosphorus concentration

SpeciesNormal values

(mg/dL)

Human 2,00 – 8,00

Cattle 5.60 – 6,50

Dog 9,00 – 11,30

Cat 4,50 – 8,10

Horse 2.10 – 4.20

Hyperphosphatemia◦ Increase in serum phosphorus concentration occurs especially in

acute and chronic renal failure and in catabolic stress

conditions.

◦ Reasons;◦ GFR drop,

◦ Phosphorus deficient diets,

◦ D-hypervitaminosis,

◦ Osteolytic bone disease,

◦ Intensive cell destruction (chemotherapy),

◦ Hypoparathyroidism with normal glomerular filtration,

◦ Drug therapy (anabolic steroids, furosemide),

◦ Ethylene glycol poisoning, Hypersomatotropism

Phosphorus (P)

It is found plentiful in nature; seeds and green

plants. There is also a considerable amount of

magnesium in meat, milk and seafood.◦ Organism is found mostly in the bones (~70%) then

in the muscles and nerves. The concentration in the

tissues is higher than in the liquids.

Magnesium (Mg)

◦ In general, 70% of the body's magnesium is in the bone, while

the remaining 30% is in the soft tissues and fluid.◦ Ex. While blood plasma is 2-4% mg, this amount is 6% mg in erythrocytes.

The bone is present as 1.5% magnesium phosphate {Mg3(PO4)2}. Soft

tissues contain 3-5 times magnesium by weight of calcium.

On average 30-50% of Mg is absorbed from small intestine. It

can be absorbed in large quantities in ruminant rumen. ◦ Excessive amounts of Ca, P, oxalic acid, phytate and long chain

saturated fatty acids adversely affect Mg absorption. Absorption is

increased by protein, lactose, vitamin D, growth hormone and

antibiotics. With age, absorption is reduced. Can be reabsorbed from

the kidneys.

Absorption happens with 3 mechanisms; 1. Paracellular diffusion,

2. The paracellular solvent withdrawal,

3. Transcellular active transport.

Magnesium (Mg)

Excreted from the body in three ways.◦ Gastrointestinal tract: Most of the discarded Mg is found in

feces. Malabsorption syndrome, enteropathies and cholestatic

liver diseases increase intestinal loss of Mg.

◦ Breast gland throughout lactation: The mammary gland

actively secretes Mg into milk. The average ratio of milk Mg and

serum Mg is 5:1. The output of Mg within milk is 3-6 mg/kg/day,

and in lactating animals the need is 20-50 mg/kg/day.

Magnesium (Mg)

◦ Kidney: The kidney plays a major role in regulation of

Mg balance and its serum concentration. It does this

by reabsorbing it on the part of Ascending limb of loop

of Henle. The rate of this reabsorption is regulated by

the suitability of dietary Mg, some hormones, serum Ca

and Mg concentrations and excretion of urine Ca.

Its concentration in blood is expressed in mg/dL.◦ Measured colorimetrically using the Xylidyl blue Method.

Magnesium (Mg)

Functions;◦ It plays a role in the formation of the bone together with

calcium and phosphorus.

◦ It is required for many enzyme systems (e.g. ATPase decarboxylase, acyl transferase, kinase, arginase). ◦ Inhibits myosinin ATPase activity in muscle contraction. In contrast,

actomyosin stimulates adenosine triphosphate activity. As a result, Mg acts as an enzyme activator, i.e. as a cofactor (ATP, ADP) in carbohydratemetabolism and protein digestion (peptidases).

◦ It plays a vital role in the normal functioning of the muscular and nervous system.

◦ Extracellularly involved in the construction and degradation of acetylcholine.

Magnesium (Mg)

Blood magnesium values are easily

maintained at a constant level

under normal conditions. Because

the Mg requirements are relatively

low.

Hypomagnesemia: It is a decrease

in blood Mg concentration. ◦ Clinical disorders related to Mg failure

are common in cattle and sheep.

Magnesium (Mg)Serum Mg concentration

SpeciesNormal values

(mg/dL)

Human 2,00 – 4,00

Cattle 4,60 – 7,30

Dog 1,80 – 2,40

Cat 1,90 – 2,70

Horse 2.10 – 4.20

Causes of Hypomagnesemia;◦ Gastro-intestinal diseases with impaired absorption

◦ Excessive Mg excretion in the urine due to continuous use of

diuretic drugs in undernutrition of protein

◦ Various ration errors related to nitrogen levels in ruminants

◦ Kidney diseases

◦ Liver cirrhosis

◦ Some osteomalacia, arthrosis and inflammatory rheumatism

◦ Endocrine disorders (hyperparathyroidism, lack of intestinal

absorption, hypothyroid, parenteral thyroxine injection, etc.)

Magnesium (Mg)

Hypomagnesemia;◦ At an advanced Mg insufficiency or a

low Mg/Ca ratio, excess

acetylcholine is released and the

tetanic indication appears related to

Mg deficiency. This event is known as

«Grass Tetany or Grass staggers».

◦ The coexistence of moderate

hypocalcemia causes grass tetany to

be similar to the milk fever. High

protein detection in bovine tetany is

an important criterion in diagnosis.

Magnesium (Mg)

Source: Irish Farmer Journals

Source: Youtube

Hypermagnesemia: is an increase in blood Mg

concentration. ◦ Over levels can be dangerous consequences.

◦ Hypermagnesemia together with uremia is associated with

kidney diseases.

◦ In hypothyroidism, mixed edema and addison disease;

hypermagnesemia are happened.

◦ Elevation of the blood Mg level causes a depressive effect on

the central nervous system (CNS), leading to heart disorders and

hypotension.

Magnesium (Mg)

Na is found most in the sea water. People do not go to

the lack of this element because of their salt intake.

It is found in plants such as carrots, cauliflowers, celery,

spinach, as well as in animal-derived foods such as eggs,

milk and dairy products.◦ Because it is easily soluble in water, it is transported from the

earth to the sea by rain. For this reason, the plants growing on

the ground are poor sources.

It is mostly found in cartilage, skin and lungs. Na is an

extracellular element.

Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)

K is found abundantly in soil and in plants. Abundant in

apricot, peach, banana, orange, potato, cabbage and in

animal origin foods such as veal, poultry and liver.

It is found in muscle, liver, brain and erythrocytes in

living beings.

K is an intracellular element.

Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)

Cl is found especially in the water, but in plants less. It is in

the form of sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride

(KCl).

The organism is mainly absorbed in the form of NaCl.

In organism, chlorine is found in tissues less than in liquids.

Absorb chlorine from the intestine is delivered extracellular

fluids and tissues which contain excess fluid, less protein.

Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)

All three elements are absorbed from the small intestine.

Deficiencies can be seen especially in herbivores.

During the feeding of cattle, the licking stones (licking

salt block) that contain salt are put in front of them. This

ensures that the sodium, potassium balance in the food is

provided.

Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)

Functions; 1. There are effects on normal osmotic pressure and on the

maintenance of acid base balance and the transport of blood gases.

2. They are effective on the ability of plasma proteins to bind water and also allow the precipitation of globulins in blood plasma.

3. Na and Cl ions are important in maintaining muscle and nerve stimulation at normal levels. They serve as antagonists of Ca and Mg ions in this direction.

4. Digestive secretions such as pancreatic secretion and bile, the adjacent Na and K compounds play an important role, and the free HCl secretion in the stomach is produced from NaCl.

5. In addition, K ions are required in certain metabolic reactions. For example; Transphosphorylation.

Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)

Their blood values are expressed in

mmol/L or mEq/L.

Hyponatremia: Decreased blood Na

levels.◦ Reasons: Water intoxication, chronic

kidney failure, burns, diarrhea,

vomiting, severe sweating

Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)

Serum Na concentration

SpeciesNormal values

(mmol/L)

Cattle 138,00 – 147,00

Dog 139,00 – 150,00

Cat 147,00 – 162,00

Horse 136,00 – 145,00

Hypernatremia: Increased blood Na levels.◦ Reasons: Dehydration, excessive work of the adrenal gland

Hypokalemia: Decreased blood K

levels.◦ Reasons: Chronic kidney failure, vverload

of the adrenal gland, use of diuretic

drugs, paralysis in skeletal muscles,

structural defects in heart.

◦ Hypokalemia syndrome in cattle

Hyperkalemia: Increased blood K

levels.◦ Reasons: Common tissue destruction,

adrenal insufficiency, tetany

Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)Serum K concentration

SpeciesNormal values

(mmol/L)

Cattle 3,80 – 5,20

Dog 3,40 – 4,90

Cat 2,90 – 4,20

Horse 2,60 – 4,50

Severe hypokalemia, muscle weakness and lateral lying

(Peek ve ark., 2000)

Hyperchloremia: Increased blood Cl levels.◦ Reasons: Excessive isotonic serum application, diarrhea,

kidney disorders, overwork of the parathyroid gland, some

medications (diuretics).

Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)Serum Cl concentration

SpeciesNormal

values(mmol/L)

Cattle 92,00 – 102,00

Dog 105,00 – 116,00

Cat 113,00 – 123,00

Horse 96,00 – 105,00

Hypochloremia: Decreased blood Cl

levels. It is seen rarely with other

element deficiencies. ◦ Reasons: Respiratory acidosis, metabolic

alkalosis, vomiting, cystic fibrosis.

In Nature; Sulfhydryl, disulfide, methylthio forms are

joined to the amino acids and thus it is used by humans

and animals.

In organism; All proteins include S; such as hair, feathers,

horns and nails, tendon, mucin, bile, saliva secrets,

hormones such as insulin, vitamins such as thiamin and

biotin, coenzyme A and enzymes such as triose phosphate

dehydrogenase and succinic dehydrogenase.

Sulfur (S)

Sulfur enters the digestive tract in two ways.1. Inorganic form (Na, K, Mg sulfate form): This sulfur is directly

absorbed from the intestine.

2. In the organic form (sulfur in the form of sulfur linked to some

amino acids in proteins, for example methionine, cystine,

cysteine): This sulfur is also absorbed in sulfuric amino acids

after the proteins are hydrolyzed in the intestine and

hydrolyzed to amino acids.

Excretion; Mainly leaving the body with hair loss, urine,

nails, digestive secretions and saliva .

Sulfur (S)

Functions;◦ Most organic sulphate is oxidized by inorganic sulphate and

passes into the blood circulation.

◦ It is used by liver to synthesize a variety of sulfur containing

organic substances, for example, amino acids, heparin.

◦ Some of the inorganic sulphates are used in the detoxification of

toxic molecules (cresol, diphenol, indoxyl, etc.) of the spoilage

products from the intestines.

◦ Steroid hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, are also

conjugated to sulphate during metabolism.

Sulfur (S)

Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Mn, Mo, F, Cr, Se, I

TRACE ELEMENTS

It is found abundantly in dark colored soil.

Herbivorous animals can provide as much of

their needs from plants.

It is always found in the water. There is

almost no iron in the milk.

The best sources are; liver, kidney, heart, egg

yolks, fish, beans, spinach, wheat-oat flour,

dates, walnuts and molasses .

Iron (Fe)

Iron (Fe)

Heme-A

The iron is an essential element in

the structure of porphyrin

complex, Heme, (the

hemoproteins= Hb and Mb) and

iron-storing proteins (ferritin and

hemosiderin).

All living cells need iron.

Iron (Fe)

In many biological processes, it has important roles. ◦ For example, it is found in the structure of enzymes

(cytochromes, peroxidases).

◦ Free iron is toxic to the body.

◦ Free iron catalyzes the synthesis of free radicals from molecular

oxygen and hydrogen ions. This leads to poor results.

◦ Therefore, in order to prevent the toxicity of free iron, it must

bind to various proteins.

Because of it can not be removed, the organism does not

benefit from the complex organic iron (in the form of

enzymes) present in large quantities in the meat and

plants and found in the porphine complex.

However, vegetable and internal organs (liver, spleen,

kidney) with inorganic iron, is converted to iron chloride

by the action of gastric acid (HCl) in the stomach and

absorbed from the small intestine.

Iron (Fe)

All of the iron in the organism is about 4-5 grams and 75%

of Fe is porphyrin-bound.

55% of the Porphyrin-bound iron present in the

hemoglobin, and also, ◦ 16% ,n enzymes (especially respiration)

◦ 7% in myoglobin,

◦ 20% in ferritin which is the stored state (easily ionizable

inorganic form) and,

◦ 3% in transferrin in the plasma (which is transport state).

Iron (Fe)

Formation in the body;1. Hemoglobin: Most iron is present as hemoglobin in

erythrocytes. It forms 2/3 of the total amount in the body.

2. Iron in storage: It is stored in two forms. The first is diffuse,

soluble ferritin. Insoluble in the other, whole stored

hemosiderin. The organs that store the most iron are the liver

and the spleen. These are followed by kidney, heart, skeletal

muscles and brain, respectively.

3. Myoglobin: It resembles a subunit of hemoglobin and is found

in the muscles. Each molecule contains one atom of iron.

Iron (Fe)

4. Tissue iron compound : Although the amount of iron in this

section is very low, it is very important. Most of the enzymes

that work in the TCA cycle contain iron or require iron as a

cofactor. Hem-containing compounds: Hemoglobin and myoglobin have similar

structures. Catalases, peroxidases and cytochromes are found in this

group. Cytochromes a, b and c are found in mitochondria and are very

important in oxidative phosphorylation.

Not Hem-iron containing enzymes: Xanthine oxidase, cytochrome c

reductase, succinate dehydrogenase, NAD dehydrogenase.

Enzymes that require ıron or heme as cofactors: Aconitase and

tryptophan pyrolaz.

Enzymes containing iron in an unknown form: Ribonucleotide

reductase and α-glycerophosphate.

Iron (Fe)

5. Circulating iron: Iron is transported through the plasma

transferrin between the various compartments in the body.

Transferrin is a glycoprotein. Each molecule can connect two

iron atoms.

The iron scraped with the foods is solved with HCl effect.

Under the influence of various reducing agents, it is

reduced to Fe++ (ferrous) salts and absorbed. Fe+++ (ferric)

salts are difficult to absorb.

Iron (Fe)

Fe absorption substantially controlled by intestinal

mucosa and absorption is only performed if Fe is

required.

The Fe found in hemoglobin structure is separated from

by the reticuloendothelial system cells, which are

released by the breakdown of erythrocytes. One part is

stored in the liver and spleen. Remain is transported to

the bone narrow to be used in the re-construction of the

remaining hemoglobin.

Iron (Fe)

Functions;◦ Fe in the hemoglobin structure allows the atmospheric oxygen

to loosely connect to the depths of the tissues.

◦ Fe in myoglobin of muscles stores oxygen that comes with

hemoglobin.

◦ It acts as an Fe redox (oxidoreduction) mediator in the

structure of various coenzymes.

Colorimetric techniques commonly used in the analysis

and blood value is expressed in µg/dL or µmol/L.

Iron (Fe)

Inadequacy: The overall cause is lack

of nutrition. In addition, impaired

absorption or excessive loss(stomach-

intestine bleeds) may cause.

Individuals with iron deficiency : ◦ Plasma ferritin falls.

◦ Plasma transferrin and TIBC (total iron

binding capacity) increase.

◦ Plasma iron drops.

◦ Anemia develops.

Iron (Fe)Serum Fe Concentration

SpeciesNormal values

(µmol/L)

Cattle 14,90 - 36,70

Dog 5,37 – 32,20

Cat 12,20 – 38,50

Horse 13,40 – 36,90

A microcytic, hypochromic

anemia is characteristic.

The iron deposits in the

bone marrow aspirate is

not available.

In general, the

measurement of plasma

ferritin is a good diagnostic

test for iron deficiency.

Iron (Fe)

Source: Hematoloji atlası

Microcytic hypochromic anemia

Excess: This condition is less

common than iron deficiency.

Reasons;◦ High intake and absorption.

◦ It concerns the toxic effects of free iron.

◦ Iron parenteral administration, repeated

blood transfusions.

◦ Idiopathic (genetic) hemochromatosis.

Iron (Fe)Serum Fe Concentration

SpeciesNormal values

(µmol/L)

Cattle 14,90 - 36,70

Dog 5,37 – 32,20

Cat 12,20 – 38,50

Horse 13,40 – 36,90

It is found abundantly in the land, especially in

nutritional plants. ◦ Dried chickpeas, pods, walnuts, hazelnuts and leafy

vegetables contain adequate amounts. Other than

that, the liver and the milk are rich in Cu.

Copper (Cu)

Cu taken with food is absorbed from the intestine. Cuabsorbtion are hindered by Mo and inorganic sulphates.

The most important part of plasma Cu is a protein calledceruloplasmin (an enzyme).

One of the most important functions of copper in mammals is the role of erythropoiesis.

It is required for hemoglobin synthesis.

It is the co-factor of some enzymes. For example: cytochrome a, catalase, SOD (superoxide dismutase), ceruloplasmin

A substance called hemocyanin, which replaces hemoglobin in cephalopods and serpents, is involved in the transport of oxygen in these animals.

Copper (Cu)

Insufficiency: It causes various disorders in various

species.◦ Ossification disorders like rickets in chickens and dogs,

◦ Continuous diarrhea and sudden death in cattle depends on

myocardial infarction,

◦ Enzootic ataxia (swayback) is seen in lambs as well as loss of

color and characteristic curves of the leaf in sheep. ◦ Swayback is a progressive neuropathy is seen in young animals.

◦ This disease is common in our country and causes significant

economic loss.

Copper (Cu)

Source: Youtube

Excess: Various infections, glomerulonephritis,

myocardial infarction, administration of estrogen.◦ Wilson’s Disease

◦ It is characterized by hepatolenticular degeneration. It is an autosomal

recessive genetic disease that causes copper accumulation in tissues.

◦ This disease manifests itself in psychiatric and neurological

manifestations and liver disease.

◦ Deposition of ceruloplasmin in the brain and liver, decreased blood

levels, urinary excretion of dicarboxylic peptides and free amino acids

are characterized.

Copper (Cu)

Cobalt (Co)

In nature, found in some soils even though the

amount is enough, some of the less.

Anemia is seen in animals that grow with grass

that grows in little cobalt soils.

For this reason, it is not possible to produce

cyanocobalamin, which is Vitamin B12.

Cobalt is present in the organism only in the most amount

stored in the liver.

In other tissues, it is found in trace amounts.

Cobalt taken with feed is used especially in the synthesis

of vitamin B12 (cobalamin) in ruminant rumen. ◦ This vitamin contains 4.5% cobalt.

Cobalt (Co)

It is required for erythropoiesis.

Symptoms such as anorexia, large-

cell anemia (macrocytic anemia),

fatty liver, hemosiderosis in spleen,

or pathological conditions are

observed in ruminants in cobalt

deficiency.

Cobalt (Co)

Source: UWaterloo

Normal erythrocytes Macrocytic erythrocytes

Cobalt insufficiency is only seen in ruminants. Because

only ruminants synthesize vitamin B12 in their microflora.

Zinc is very common in nature, both in plant and

animal-derived foods.

Showing the growth and reproduction of all

biological material present in sufficient quantity.

Wheatgrass, brewer's yeast, lettuce and salad,

liver, mussels and other seafood are especially

rich in Zn. It is approximately found 2-3 mg in

milk.

Zinc (Zn)

It is found in organs such as prostate, hair, bone, liver,

kidney, muscles, pancreas, spleen.

It is build block of some enzymes such as alcohol

dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase, uricase, kidney

phosphatase, carboxypeptidase, erythrocytic carbonic

anhydrase, SOD (superoxic dismutase).

Zinc is also part of the insulin molecule, an important

hormone in carbohydrate metabolism.

Zinc(Zn)

It is found at low levels in all tissues. It is stored in the liver

and kidneys.

It is the activator of some enzymes: Arginase,

phosphoglucomutase, hexokinase, isocitric dehydrogenase,

pyrophosphatase and various decarboxylases.

It is concentrated in the mitochondria of the cell.

Lack of manganese; Perosis in chickens and sterility in

cattle.

Manganese (Mn)

In nature, it is found in various plants. In organism, it is

found mostly in bones, less in liver and kidney.

It also takes part in the structure of xanthine oxidase,

which catalyzes the conversion of xanthine to uric acid

(oxidation).

Taking too little Mo with food increases Cu absorption and

causes copper poisoning.

Molybdenum (Mo)

In nature, it is found in the earth.

In organism, it is most in the teeth.◦ In the days when teeth are formed, Drinking of waters

containing 0.9-1.5 mg/L (0.9-1.5 ppm) fluorine keep tooth decay

rate at the lowest level.

◦ In the same age, drinking water containing more than 1.5 mg/L

of fluorine causes the formation of faulty teeth.

The excess of F is called Fluorosis.

Fluorine (F)

Normal FluorosisSource: Fidancı

It takes part in glucose and lipid metabolism.

Trivalent form (Cr3+) is the activator of insulin hormone. ◦ Strengthens the effect, enhances the use of glucose from the cell. It

is involved in the structure of the glucose-tolerance factor (GTF).

GTF enhances insulin action by increasing binding or affinity of insulin-specific receptors.

It is thought that insulin resistance may develop depending on the deficiency. ◦ Insulin can not regulate glucose without chromium.

Chromium (Cr)

Selenium (Se)

The basic biochemical function of selenium is

that it is an essential part of the glutathione

peroxidase (GSH-Px/GPx) which is responsible

for the reduction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

GSH-Px, which catalyses the abundance of

organic peroxide (ROOH) reduction, has an

important function in metabolism.

Selenium, a compulsory trace element for animals and

humans, is obtained through plant materials.

Some Important Selenoproteins are;◦ Glutation peroxidases (GPx)

◦ Thioreductin reductase (TR)

◦ Iodothyronine deiodinase (ID)

◦ Selenoprotein P (SePP)

◦ Selenoprotein W (Se-W)

Selenium (Se)

Selenium is the essential component of the antioxidant

defense system and its deficiency causes cardiovascular

and immune system disorders; especially cardiomyopathy.

There are also a number of publications that show a

significant association with cancer development.

Selenium (Se)

Selenium deficiency causes;◦ White muscle disease in young ruminants,

◦ Reproductive disorders,

◦ Increase in Retention sekundinarum cases in dairy cows,

◦ Exudative diathesis in poultry and,

◦ Liver and pancreas necrosis.

"Alkaline disease" is observed in selenium excess.

Selenium (Se)

Source Fidancı Source Infobarrel

White Muscle Disease

It is found in nature, in sea water, on coastal land.

It is localized in the thyroid gland.

Its level decreases in case of Hypothyroidism.

Its level increases in case of Hyperthyroidism, increased

milk yield, increased egg yield.

Iodine (I)

The substances that prevent the iodine from entering the

thyroid gland are called goitrogenic substances.

In our country, especially in the Black Sea region

consumed in excess amount of thiocyanates are found in

abundance in these substances.

In these regions, goitre, which is a thyroid gland disease,

is very common.

Iodine (I)

Ası T (1999). Tablolarla Biyokimya I, Nobel Tıp Kitapları Dağıtım, Ankara. Engelking LR (2014). Textbook of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry. 3rd Edition. Academic

Press. Fidancı UR. Biyoelementler Ders Notlar. İnternet Erişim:

http://80.251.40.59/veterinary.ankara.edu.tr/fidanci/Ders_Notlari/Ders_Notlari/Biyoelementler.pdf Erişim Tarihi: 09.10.2016

Judson GJ, Reuter DJ (1999). Selenium. In: Soil Analysis: An Interpretation Manual. pp 325–329. Melbourne: Australia: CSIRO Publishing.

Kalaycıoğlu L, Serpek B, Nizamlıoğlu M,Başpınar N,Tiftik A. (2000). Biyokimya, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara.

Milne DB. Laboratory assessment of trace element and mineral status, p69-90. In.: Bogen JD, Klevay LM (2000). Clinical Nutrition of the Essential Trace Elements and Minerals: The Guide for Health Professionals. 1st ed. Humana Press.

Peek SF, Divers TJ, Guard C, Rath A, Rebhun WC (2000) Hypokalemia, muscle weakness, and recumbency in dairy cattle. Vet Ther., 1(4): 235-244.

Schwarzenbach RP, Egli T, Hofstetter TB, von Gunten U, Wehrli B (2010). Global waterpollution and human health. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 35: 109–136

Sözbilir Bayşu N, Bayşu N (2008). Biyokimya, Güneş Kitabevi.

References

Which of the following is trace element?

a. Ca

b. P

c. Mg

d. Na

e. Se

Question 1

Answers: e

Which of the following hormones is involved in the

regulation of Ca metabolism?

a. PTH

b. Insulin

c. ACTH

d. T4

e. MSH

Questions

Answers: a

Which disease occurs in the lamb due to selenium

deficiency?

a. Hypothyroidism

b. White muscle disease

c. Exudative Diatez

d. Retention sekundinarium

e. Hypocalcemia

Questions

Answers: b

Your

questions?

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