RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND PROFILE PREPARATION OF HIGH VALUED NON TIMBER

FOREST PRODUCTS (NTFPs) OF HUMLA DISTRICT

A REPORT SUBMITTED TO

WESTERN UPLAND POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROJECT (WUPAP) NEPALGUNJ, BANKE

Submitted by

Khilendra Gurung June, 2009 

Acknowledgment

I am deeply indebted to Western Poverty Alleviation Project (WUPAP) for the financial and technical support to conduct this study. I would like to express special thanks to a number of individuals for their support and kind cooperation during the study period.

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Sanjeev Kumar Shrestha, NTFP Specialist- WUPAP for his encouragement, support, cooperation and suggestions during the entire study period.

I am grateful to Mr. Dhan Bahadur Shrestha; Coordinator-WUPAP for his kind cooperation and support during the study period.

My special thanks go to Mr. Subash Chandra Das; DFO Humla; Mr. Junga Bahadur Rokaya; Coordinator LDFB Humla; Rajan Raut; LDFB Humla for their guidance during the field work and sharing their valuable ideas and experiences.

My heartfelt thanks go to Mr. Dal Bhandari, Suman Bhandari, Hari Bista, Ratan Baduwal for their assistance and support during the entire field trip from Jumla to Humla and Mr. Padam Dhami for his backup in the trip from Simikot to Maila of Humla.

At last but not least, I would like to thank local communities of Neurighat (Jumla); Rara and Bahu (Mugu); Piplang (Shreemasta VDC), Phoo cha (Rodikot VDC), Thehe (Thehe VDC), Ripa (Sarkidew VDC) and Shree nagar (Shree nagar VDC) for their warm hospitality and assistance in accommodation and for providing information of the locality.

Khilendra Gurung

June, 2009

Table of contents

CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction 1

1.1 Objectives 2

1.2 Study area 3

1.2.1 Major habitats and vegetation types 5

CHAPTER TWO

2. Methodology 7

2.1 Data collection 7

2.1.1 Primary data collection 7

2.1.1.1 Key informant survey and resource mapping 7

2.1.1.2 Focus group discussion 8

2.1.1.3 Identification of NTFPs 8

2.1.1.4 Inventory of NTFPs 8

2.1.1.4.1 Habitat identification 8

2.1.1.4.2 Sampling 8

2.1.2 Secondary data collection 9

2.2 Data processing and analysis 9

2.2.1 Density of selected species 10

2.2.2 Frequency of selected species 10

2.3 Prioritization of NTFPs 10 2.4 Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) 11

2.5 Growth and yield studies 11

CHAPTER THREE

3. Assessment of threats to biodiversity 13

3.1 Internal and external factors affecting biodiversity 13

3.2 Major threats to biodiversity 13

3.2.1 Uncontrolled burning of pasture and forest 14

3.2.2 Uncontrolled harvesting of NTFPs 14

3.2.3 Slash and burn farming 14

3.2.3 Unmanaged harvesting of timber, fodder and firewood 14

3.2.4 Overgrazing 15

CHAPTER FOUR

4. Assessment of five commercially harvested NTFPs 16

4.1 Distribution and habitats 16

4.2 Current stocks of selected NTFPs 19

4.3 Regeneration 23

4.3.1 Jatamansi 23

4.3.2 Kutki 24

4.3.3 Sugandhwal 24

4.3.4 Sunpati 24

4.3.5 Juniper 25

CHAPTER FIVE

5. Prioritization of NTFPs 26

5.1 Prioritization of NTFPs in Humla 26

5.2 Threat analysis 28

5.2.1 RVA analysis in Humla 28

CHAPTER SIX

6. Overview of enterprise modalities to be set up in Humla 30

6.1 Identification of enterprise modalities to be set up in Humla 30

6.2 Requirements for enterprise success 32

CHAPTER SEVEN

7. Growth and yield studies 34

7.1 Harvest impacts 35

7.2 Documentation of sustainable harvesting practices 38

7.3 Adoption of conservation practices 38

CHAPTER EIGHT

8.1 Conclusion 39

8.2 Recommendations 40

References 42

Annexes 44

Lists of tables

Table 1: Matrix preference ranking 10

Table 2: Criteria for RVA 11

Table 3: Distribution and habitats of selected commercial plant species in Humla studied sites 17

Table 4: Major associated species of selected plant species in Humla18

Table 5: Overall frequency of occurrence and mean stock of fresh products of selected NTFPs of the study area 19

Table 6: Area covered and total stock of clean dry products by species for study area 19

Table 7: Distribution and production of the selected NTFPs by different combinations of association with other species 20

Table 8: Mean production of fresh Jatamansi rhizomes by elevation, habitats, aspect, slope, and Soil moisture content 21

Table 9: Mean production of fresh Kutki roots by elevation, habitats, aspect, slope, and Soil moisture content 22

Table 10: Mean production of fresh Sunpati leaves by elevation, habitats, aspect, slope, and Soil moisture content 22

Table 11: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Humla district 26

Table 12: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Humla 28

Table 13: Potentiality for enterprise development in Humla 30

Table 14: Mean production of fresh Jatamansi roots and rhizomes by habitat types and harvest intervals (in kg/ha) 34

Table 15: Mean ground cover percentage of Jatamansi by habitat types and harvest intervals 35

Table 16: Comparison of Total clean dry products production estimates to actual harvest levels in 2006/2007 (in Tons) 35

Table 17: The parts harvested and harvesting practices for the selected commercial species 37

Table 18: Recommended optimal harvesting practices

for sustainable use 38

Lists of maps Map 1: NTFPs Surveyed VDCs of Humla district 4

Acronyms and abbreviations

ANOVA: Analysis of Variance

ANSAB: Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresources

BDS-MaPS: Business Development Services-Marketing and Production Services

CI: Confidence Interval

Cm: Centimeter

DFO: District Forest Office

FUG: Forest User Group

Ha: Hectare

HDI: Human Development Index

IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Kg: Kilogram

LFUG: Leasehold Forest User Group

LSD: Least Square Deviation

M: Meter

MIS: Marketing Information System  

MPR: Matrix Preference Ranking

NSCFP: Nepal Swiss Community Forestry Project

NTFP: Non Timber Forest Product GDP: Gross Domestic Product

RVA: Rapid Vulnerability Assessment

SNV: The Netherlands Development Organization

Sq km: Square Kilometer

UNDP: United Nations Development Program

VDC: Village Development Committees

WUPAP: Western Upland Poverty Alleviation Project

 

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CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction

Nepal has been acclaimed as a good producer of non timber forest products (NTFPs) from forest and meadows that mainly contain wide range of potent medicinal, aromatic and other economically important plants. It has been estimated that the production of NTFPs in Nepal contributes over 5% of gross domestic product (GDP) of the country. Nepal’s NTFPs resources have not yet been given due attention for their conservation as well as for their sustainable utilization and development. Due to inadequate information and lack of authentic statistics, difficulties have been created to deal with them properly. Incomplete inventory and lack of proper identification of NTFPs confuses not only the District Forest Offices (DFO) but also the entire community of dealers. Villagers are the primary collectors of NTFPs. They collect various plants and plant parts as demanded by the middle men, agents or employers. In return, whatever they receive they spend for their daily needs. However, the collection of NTFPs from the wild sources has been continuing all over the country. In fact it has been playing an important role in subsistence of the villagers’ livelihood. This is particularly true in the remote mountainous district like Humla.

Western Upland Poverty Alleviation Project (WUPAP) working districts harbors rich source of NTFPs. Collection of NTFPs is an important source of livelihood for the local communities residing in those districts. Local communities have been using NTFPs as food supplements, medicines, dyes, fiber, clothing, construction, energy and support to farm nutrients and livestock feed for years. However, they are not benefited from the resources due to the lack of knowledge on the resources, their market value and their potentiality for cultivation and value addition. Subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry and foreign employment (mainly in India) are the main source of local economy in the area with very limited options for livelihood support. Conservation initiatives through sustainable use of NTFPs would uplift livelihood of local communities residing in the area if: a) communities take on increased responsibility for management of forest resources; b) ecological monitoring and biologically sustainable harvesting practices are developed; c) communities have greater access to market linkage; d) communities sustain forest based enterprise with equal benefit sharing mechanism and e) communities adopt both indigenous and scientific knowledge for appropriate management systems.

 

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To address the current needs, one way would be the initiation for the commercial cultivation of valuable NTFPs, their processing at local level and market linkage of raw or processed products via community initiatives. It is essential that women, poor, underprivileged groups and forest user groups (FUGs)/Leasehold forest user groups (LFUGs) are included in such a model. The women, poor and underprivileged groups should be transformed to skillful entrepreneur and FUGs/LFUGs be a commercial entity taking the responsibility of resource conservation and management. The semi-processed and processed NTFPs products produced from such enterprises should be market linked after the value addition at the local level thereby benefiting the local communities.

In this aspect, the proposed study aims to document the availability and distribution pattern of NTFPs linking local livelihood with resource conservation and management, initiating community based forest enterprise and its linkage to market through product promotion. It would certainly assist in conserving the biodiversity of the areas and assist in livelihood of the local communities, especially poor and underprivileged groups, which are the ultimate goal, set up by the project.

1.1 Objectives

The overall objective is to explore NTFPs availability in Humla district and its prospects for enterprise development with the possibility of market linkage, in consultation with community groups.

The specific objectives are as follows:

1. To assess the availability and distribution of selected NTFPs in Humla 2. To prioritize NTFPs on the basis of trade value and threat 3. To determine and map out the potential NTFPs habitats for commercially

harvested species 4. To quantify the current stock of the selected commercially harvested

NTFPs of the study area 5. To determine the factors affecting regeneration status of the

commercially harvested species 6. To observe the current resource management practices in a socio-

historical perspectives 7. To estimate the annual harvest rate for and impact of harvesting

commercial species from the study area 8. To identify the forest based community enterprises to be set up and its

implementation models 9. To visualize the NTFPs products that can be value added locally 10. To develop and establish biological monitoring system for user groups

 

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11. To provide recommendations for sustainable promotion of NTFPs in the district

1.2 Study area

Humla district is situated in the high Himalaya Mountains of the northwest Nepal. It is one of the most remote districts, with the nearest Nepali road-head in the Terai, a two-week journey by foot from Simikot. There is air service between Nepalganj and Simikot, connecting Humla to the rest of the world. Humla is one of the five districts of the Karnali Zone and falls within the mid-western development region of the country. The district’s elevation ranges from 1,524-7,337m. Total area of the district is 5,655 sq. km. The highest proportion (24.2%) of the district’s land is under pastureland (grazing); approximately 12.8% under forest, 1.6% under cultivation, and 61.4% under other categories (remain covered with snow, bare rocky areas, river system etc.) (Sharma and Subedi, 1994).

Altogether 12 Village Development Committees (VDCs) within Humla district viz. Darma, Mimi, Shreemasta, Melchham, Gothi, Rodikot of the eastern block; Kharpunath, Thehe and Bargaun of the central block and Raya, Sarkidew and Kalika of the southern block were chosen for the study. The details of the study area are presented in the map 1.

The major parts of the study area lie above the temperate climatic zone (2100m). The area is characterized by a semi-arid climate. The humidity of the area in the winter falls below 20%. The area receives an average annual precipitation of 1000-1500mm, with a high rainfall in the month of July to August and snowfall in January to February. Most of the area remains covered with snow for about four months and the area above the elevation of 3000m remains covered with snow for more than six months of the year.

The highest mean monthly temperature generally occurs in April or May before the monsoons breaks and mean monthly temperature decreases to its lowest during the month of January or February. The northwest monsoon (winter monsoon) from the Mediterranean Sea brings more precipitation in this area in comparison to the eastern parts of the country in the winter.

There is some micro-climatic variation primarily due to aspect. The northern aspect is more moist and vegetated than that of southern one and receives more snowfall in winter. Thus, the southern facing sides are comparatively warm, dry, and less vegetated.

Humla scores the lowest Human Development Index (HDI) of all 75 districts in Nepal, according to the recent UNDP report on Nepal’s Human Index Development. The district suffers from its remoteness and ruggedness coupled with the perennial food scarcity and hunger related problems.

 

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The major source of income in the area is agricultural and livestock production followed by NTFP collection and trading. NTFPs are one of the major sources of cash earning. In the study area the highest proportion of livestock is sheep, followed by cattle, goat, buffalo, and fowls. The products they produce are wool, milk, meat, ghee, yogurt, and eggs. Livestock such as goat, sheep, mule, horse, yak, and cross-bred yak (Juma) are used for the transportation of goods.

In summary, the population of the study area lives in poor economic conditions, has a low literacy rate, lacks basic infrastructure, and suffers from low agricultural productivity.

Map 1: NTFPs Surveyed VDCs of Humla district

 

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1.2.1 Major habitats and vegetation types 1. Temperate zone (2000-3000m)

1. Lower temperate forests a. Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest b. Blue Pine (Pinus wallichiana) forest c. Oak forest (Quercus leucotrichophora, Q. floribunda) d. Mixed broad-leaf forest (Juglans, Acer, Populus, Alnus) e. Riverine forest (Aesculus indica, Juglans regia) 2. Upper temperate forests

a. Oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) forest

b. Mixed broad-leaf forest (Acer spp., Rhododendron spp.) c. Mixed Blue Pine-Oak (Q. semecarpifolia) forest d. Coniferous forest (Pinus wallichiana, Abies spectabilis, Tsuga dumosa, Taxus wallichiana, Picea smithiana) 3. Burned areas 4. Rocky slopes 5. Grasslands

2. Sub-alpine zone (3000-4000m)

1. Sub-alpine forests

a. Oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) forest b. Fir (Abies spectabilis) forest c. Birch (Betula utilis) forest d. Rhododendron-Birch forest e. Juniper (Juniperus spp.) steppe 2. Sub-alpine scrubs (Rhododendron and Sorbus microphylla shrubs) 3. Sub-alpine grasslands

3. Alpine and nival zone (above 4000m) 1. Scrubland (Rhododendron, Juniperus) 2. Grasslands (Graminae, Cyperaceae) 3. Rocky slopes (mat patches, scarcely vegetated rocks, and screes) 4. Glacier and snow-covered land

Although, the commercial exploitation of plant products collected in Humla has been limited, according to key informants, several medicinal and aromatic plants have been collected for fifty years or more. People from Jumla, especially those of the Sinja area, used to come into Humla to harvest Kutki (Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora), Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum), Nirbishi (Delphinium himalayai), Panchaunle (Dactylorhiza hatagirea), Guchchi-

 

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chyau (Morchella conica), and Silajit (organic exduate from rock). Traders also used to come from Sama Bargaon (Jajarkot district) to barter tools, grains, and clothes for herbs like Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora and Delphinium himalayai.

The markets for most wild harvested plants from Humla have developed more recently. The commercial products include medicinal and aromatic products, plant fibers, herbal dyes, food and flavors, and wood for cottage industries. Bhutkesh (Selinum tenuifolium), Lekh-Satuwa (Trillidium govanianum), Bhojpatra (Betula utilis) and Sugandhwal (Valeriana jatamansii) have been harvested for only a few years and India's current demand for Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora) dates back to just over two decades. The high value, low volume plant products that were legally collected for established markets are: Delphinium himalayai, Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Nardostachys grandiflora, Valeriana jatamansii, Morchella conica, and Satuwa (Paris polyphylla).

In addition to the trade for cash income, a large number of plants were used locally to provide food, medicine, fibers, dyes, tannin, gums, resin, incense, building materials, fodder, fuel wood, and agricultural implements. Some commercially traded plants were also used for local medicine and incense making. The most notable products are Kakarsingi (insect gall on Pistacia integerima), and roots of Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora and Nardostachys grandiflora. These locally used plant products were also found to be bartered for grains in Humla and its neighboring districts. The species banned for collection by the government of Nepal such as Dactylorhiza hatagirea is also found in the area.

The area also inhabits a number of wild fauna including the following eight protected and endangered species: Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferous), Wolf (Canis lupus), Leopard Cat (Felis bengalensis), Wild Yak (Bos mutus), as well as Impeyan Pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus), and Satyr Pheasant (Tragopan satyra).

 

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CHAPTER TWO

2. Methodology A variety of information sources and methods were used for the study. The main methods used for the study were: biodiversity inventories, growth and yield studies, participatory rapid appraisal (participatory resource assessment, participatory mapping, group discussions, key informant interviews, informal talks, and participant observations), and a review of secondary sources of information. A brief description of these methods follows.

2.1 Data collection

Both primary and secondary information were used to fulfill the objective of the study.

2.1.1 Primary data collection

The primary information regarding the NTFPs distribution and ethno botanical use of NTFPs were collected during the field work using PRA tools. Primary data collection was done by following methods:

2.1.1.1 Key informant survey and resource mapping

Information about the availability, current status and use of NTFPs were collected from forest user groups. Discussions were done for listing of available NTFPs and their identification, priority ranking of NTFPs for the inventory and suitable site selection.

The workshop was conducted at the district level comprising the community members, FUG members, LFUGs members, DFO staffs, traders, concerned stakeholders, media personnel and other key informants at Simikot. The objectives for the conduction of workshop were:

Participatory assessment and information on the traded NTFPs, Collection sites and trading pattern/trading centers of NTFPs, Prioritization of NTFPs, Existing NTFPs based enterprises in the district, Potentiality for the establishment of various models of community, based

forest enterprises in the district, NTFPs having the potentiality of value addition locally, Sustainable promotion of NTFPs, Value chain analysis of the selected NTFPs.

 

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2.1.1.2 Focus group discussion

Group discussions/interactions were conducted with members of individual FUG and informal collector groups to find out their perceptions, knowledge, and skills on historical resource use patterns, harvesting methods, seasons of collection, regeneration, availability, abundance, local use, trade value, and marketing of forest products.

2.1.1.3 Identification of NTFPs

NTFPs were identified visually on the basis of researcher's knowledge. Unidentified species were identified consulting with the reference literatures Stainton and Polunin (1984); Stainton (1988); Lama et al. (2001); Manandhar (2002); IUCN (2004). Documentation of all available NTFPs was carried out according to Shrestha (1998) and Press et al. (2000).

2.1.1.4 Inventory of NTFPs

Inventory methods include two different steps; habitat identification and sampling.

2.1.1.4.1 Habitat identification

The sampling was conducted in defined habitats. The identification of NTFPs habitats was done systematically by observing at each of the following characteristics.

• Altitude • Forest type • Aspect • Slope • Plant abundance

2.1.1.4.2 Sampling Given the objectives of the study and the resources available, the sampling was done using the following principles:

• Determine confidence level, which is dependent on the magnitude of real difference between the parameters of estimates, sample size, and variance in the population;

• Characterize the population of the study to make strata;

• Stratify by independent variables: habitat types, elevation, and aspect.

Sampling was done separately for each species, since their habitats do not overlap completely. But the sampling methods were almost the same for all species as described below.

 

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The overall sample for the inventory was based on three-stage sampling procedure:

1. Habitat specific sites,

2. Strips of 50m elevation interval, and

3. Sample plots

Sample selection was stratified and balanced to make the overall sample proportionately representative of the main parameters thought to influence the distribution and abundance of vegetation types.

• First stage sampling: Two to four sites for each of the four species (Jatamansi, Sunpati, Kutki, and Juniper) were selected to represent different habitat types. The sampling intensity was determined from a pre-sample and the variability in density. For the pre-sample, information obtained from collectors, observations, and characteristics of the sites were used to identify the sites of different densities for sampling. This was further cross-checked with the biological survey results. Since the variability was reasonable (<5%) within each stratum, was relied on the initial sampling intensity.

• Second stage sampling: Stratification for aspect and elevation range was used. For the two aspects (predominantly north and south) a line transact across the elevation gradient was taken from the bottom to the top of the habitat range of the selected species.

• Third stage sampling: One to four sample plots were selected randomly at an interval of 50m across the elevation gradient. The number of plots to be sampled was determined by the area (to represent approximately 5-10% of the area) in a given elevation range.

• The plots were determined as 1m X 1m for herbs, 5m X 5m for shrubs and 10m X 10m for trees (Raunkiaer, 1934).

• Inventory forms were filled for every sampling plot.

2.1.2 Secondary data collection

Secondary data were collected from all the possible documents as reports, articles, maps, official records, and other published and unpublished documents etc. related to NTFPs assessment and surveys.

2.2 Data processing and analysis

Data obtained from the field were analyzed to find out density of the selected species, matrix preference ranking (MPR), rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA), potentiality for value addition and market linkage, etc.

 

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2.2.1 Density of selected species

Density expresses the numerical strength of the presence of species in a community. It is the number of individuals per unit area and is expressed as number per hectare (Raunkiaer, 1934; Zobel et al. 1987).

10000quadrat of area studiedquadrat ofnumber Total

speciesany ofplant ofnumber TotalPl/haDensity ××

=

2.2.2 Frequency of selected species

Frequency is the number of sampling units in which the particular species occur, thus express the dispersion of various species in a community. It refers to the degree of dispersion in terms of percentage occurrence (Raunkiaer, 1934; Zobel et al. 1987).

100studied quadrats ofNumber Total

occured speciesin which quadrats of No.Frequency ×=

2.3 Prioritization of NTFPs Matrix preference ranking (MPR) was used to find out most preferred NTFPs. By using this tool, the most preferred NTFP species were identified from forests of each VDC for the detail study. The criteria of preference were made by the users, availability of the resources and potential for value addition.

Moreover, the prioritization criteria formulated by other development organizations like NSCFP, SNV, ANSAB, BDS-MaPS and matrix ranking criteria have been thoroughly examined to attain the set objectives with proper justification.

Table 1: Matrix preference ranking

SN Criteria Scale and value 1 Market demand High (3), moderate (2), low (1) 2 Margin/profit High (3), moderate (2), low (1) 3 Availability (in time ) Almost always (3), occasional (2), seasonal rare (1) 4 Geographical distribution Widespread (3), moderate (2), low (1) 5 Conservation status High (3), moderate (2), low (1) 6 Potential for cultivation High (3), moderate (2), low (1) 7 Regenerative potential High (3), moderate (2), low (1) 8 Contribution to income High (3), moderate (2), low (1) 9 Gender impact Only women (3), both men and women (2), only

men (1)

 

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10 Potential for value addition

High (3), moderate (2), low (1)

11 Processing technology Manual/local technology (3), mechanical/expertise required (2), sophisticated/foreign technology (1)

12 Ethno botanical value Diverse uses (3), medium use (2), single use (1) Source: Gurung and Pyakurel (2006) and Gurung (2007)

2.4 Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA)

Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) method was used to collect information to identify species, resources or sites that may be at risk of over exploitation. It was developed as a quick way of collecting both scientific and indigenous information about species and has been used to recommend whether or not that resource species is suitable for harvest.

Table 2: Criteria for RVA

Criteria Potential for sustainable use

Low High

Ecology

Low abundance (1) High abundance (2) Slow growth (1) Fast growth (2) Slow reproduction (1) Fast reproduction (2) Sexual reproduction only (1)

Both sexual & vegetative reproduction (2)

Habitat – specific (1) Habitat - non specific (2) High habitat diversity (1) Low habitat diversity (2) High life form diversity (1) Low life form diversity (2)

Life forms Tree and shrub (1); herb (2) Parts used Roots, rhizomes and bulbs (1); leaves, flowers, barks, fruits (2) Harvesting methods

Size/age classes not selected for harvesting (2); particular size/age classes selected for harvesting (1)

Source: Watts et al., 1996; Cunningham, 1994, 1996a, 2001; Wong and Jenifer, 2001; Gurung and Pyakurel (2006) and Gurung (2007)

2.5 Growth and yield studies The criteria for measuring growth depend on the product harvested. For Juniper (berries) and Sunpati (leaves), it is necessary to know how much new resource was produced each season by individuals that had been harvested the previous season. For Jatamansi and Kutki (roots and rhizomes), one should know how many new individuals of merchantable size enter the population each year.

 

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Given the time, resources at hand, and remoteness of the area, the growth and yield data for Juniper, Kutki, Sunpati and other important plants utilized by community forest user groups were estimated from the information obtained from interviews with collectors and field observations and/or measurements.

For example, the Juniper data from the inventory provided distribution, quantity of growing stock, and regeneration status. Combining the yield data for different age classes with the data on growing stock provided a rough idea on yield per unit area. A determination of how much or what proportion of berries should be left to ensure regeneration will be a long-term study.

For growth and yield studies, analysis of variance (ANOVA) for yield of roots and other characters was carried out to see the main effects and interactions between various factors. Correlation between various characters has also been explored to aid interpretations. After the test of ANOVA, least square deviation (LSD) test was carried out at a 5% error level to find out the significant difference between the specific pair of means.

 

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CHAPTER THREE

3. Assessment of threats to biodiversity

3.1 Internal and external factors affecting biodiversity Natural resources are beginning to be exploited above their sustainable capacity for the rising human population to meet their subsistence and cash needs. Transhumance (migratory herding system), terrace farming, collection of fodder, fuel wood and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), and slash and burn agriculture locally called as kurilla halne, are still in practice in Humla. Many households keep large herds of sheep, goats, cattle, mules, and horses.

Human use of the resources has converted formerly diverse vegetation into homogenous strongholds of a few resilient species indicating the degradation and loss of biological diversity, especially close to human settlements. Degraded areas are often taken over by resilient species such as Urtica dioica, Girardinia diversifolia, Salvia moorcroftiana, Chenopodium album, Prinsepia utilis, Artemisia sieversiana, Rumex nepalensis, Berberis asiatica and B. aristata. Many of the side valleys still harbor stands of native coniferous forest (Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana).

With the increasing extraction of NTFPs for commercial purposes, the degradation trend of these resources is also increasing. The threats to these resources are linked to human activities such as uncontrolled harvesting (over harvesting, inappropriate timing, and methods of harvest), over grazing, burning, shifting cultivation, poaching, and other activities that lead to deforestation and habitat loss. These human activities are the results of several socio-economic factors such as poverty, immediate cash needs of local people, lack of alternative income generating opportunities, defective property rights, lack of incentive for conservation, limited knowledge on conservation, and increasing market demand for these products.

3.2 Major threats to biodiversity The top threats to biological diversity were identified and ranked by the local people and the researcher. Ranking of these threats was based on four criteria:

1. Size of the affected area;

2. Intensity of the damage;

3. Urgency to counter the threat; and

4. Feasibility of countering the threat.

 

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3.2.1 Uncontrolled burning of pasture and forest Fire is a common phenomenon in the area and this destroys the valuable biological resources. People set fires for a number of reasons. In some cases, it is for bringing up the new shoots of grasses for grazing, in other cases, it is for slash and burn farming (Kurilla halne), and still in other cases, for honey collection or hunting. Sometimes it also happens without any intention. It has been found that fires destroy some portion of the forests every year and threaten the biodiversity of the area. Uncontrolled burning tied for number one in a ranking exercise on threats.

3.2.2 Uncontrolled harvesting of NTFPs Uncontrolled harvesting includes the over harvesting as well as inappropriate timing and methods of harvesting. This tied for number one with burning in the threat ranking exercise. The communities of Humla have been harvesting a large number of plant products from the government owned national forest and grasslands. Since these forests and grasslands were considered to be under the government property regime and not under the control of the communities, there was an incentive to harvest as much as possible before someone else got to it. At the same time, there was little or no awareness of conservation coupled with any alternative income generating opportunities that would change the unsustainable practices.

Although there was little pressure on species that were collected for local use on a subsistence basis, the pressure on some of the commercial species has already resulted in over harvesting, and in some cases, immature and unscientific harvesting leading to the threat of extinction. The indigenous knowledge and traditional skills of a few individuals on harvesting NTFPs at a subsistence use level were not enough or enforceable to apply to the harvesting of commercially demanded species. The same was true on production management, post harvest operations, processing, and marketing.

3.2.3 Slash and burn farming Slash and burn agriculture, is the process of burning the forest trees and the shrubs in which the crown fire is set and small patch of the forest is cleared for the cultivation of cereals and potatoes. Though the first year’s production is comparable to “regular agricultural areas”, the production gradually goes down year after year and the people finally abandon the land. These lands are then susceptible to soil erosion and landslides. This ultimately leads to the loss of vegetation and disturbs the ecosystem thereby threatening the biodiversity of the area. Slash and burn was ranked as the second major threat to biodiversity in Humla.

3.2.3 Unmanaged harvesting of timber, fodder and firewood Harvesting of timber, fodder, and firewood for subsistence purpose has exceeded sustainable yields. All factors related to property rights mentioned

 

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in the case of NTFPs are also responsible for inappropriate methods of harvesting, ultimately destroying the regeneration potential of the species being harvested. This category was ranked third among the six categories of threats.

3.2.4 Over grazing During the summer season (May to October) the farmers keep their cattle around a goth (a temporary hut for farmers during herding season) and graze the cattle in the forest. Grazing is done generally from the land close to the homestead as well as the alpine pasture located as high as 4500m. The grazing animals include cattle, Juma (Yak hybrid), horse, goat and sheep. There is pressure from both over grazing and lopping trees for fodder. Common trees used for fodder are Quercus semecarpifolia, Acer acuminatum, Betula utilis, and Sorbus microphylla. While leaves of some medicinal plants such as Jurinea dolomaea, Megacarpa polyphylla, and Rheum australe are grazed by most of the animals and severely affected, leaves of other plants, such as Jatamansi, are only grazed by sheep and goat and less severely affected. Secondary effects of grazing, such as trampling, compaction, destruction of rootstock, and soil erosion adversely affect the biodiversity.

Construction of goths in the forest during the grazing season has also accelerated the deforestation rate in the area. Matured trees of Birch and Fir are cut down to construct a goth. The people staying at a goth also require a lot of fire-wood for cooking and heating purposes. Thus, the areas around the goths were found degraded with an abundance of resilient species such as Hale (Rumex nepalensis) and Bijauri phool (Senecio chrysanthemoides).

 

16 

 

CHAPTER FOUR

4. Assessment of five commercially harvested NTFPs

4.1 Distribution and habitats

The distribution of the important plant species is mapped from the knowledge of key informants and field observations. A summary of the distribution and habitats of five important commercial plant species of the study area is presented in Table 3. The five species are Jatamansi, Kutki, Sugandhwal, Atis, and Guchchi Chyau. Table 3 shows the total area, elevation range, major habitats, slope range, aspect, soil type, mean ground cover percent, and frequency of occurrence of five commercial species.

The major associated species of five commercial plants is presented in Table 4 with an elaborate list of associates presented in Annex 1. Associated species are important, as it presents a sense of what other species can be conserved when commercial species’ harvesting is better managed and/or other threats to biodiversity are reduced.

According to the local key informants, Jatamansi was most widely distributed (approximately 36,052 hectares of land) of the studied areas, among the five species followed by Kutki, Sunpati, Sugandhwal, and Juniper. Among the surveyed species, Jatamansi was also the most frequently occurring species within its range (54.2%) followed by Juniper, Sunpati, and Kutki. But in terms of ground/canopy coverage Juniper is first, followed by Sunpati, Kutki, and Jatamansi.

In the studied sites, Jatamansi was observed between sub-alpine and alpine regions covering an elevation range of 3500-4500m. This falls within the range described in the literature: 3300-5100m (Department of Medicinal Plants, Nepal 1970; Polunin and Stainton, 1984). Jatamansi’s distribution is patchy and grows predominately in dry, rocks, edges, small depressions, scrubs, and in open meadows on north, northeast, and northwest facing slopes.

In the study area, Kutki is distributed between the elevations of 3650-4500m. Within this range, it is found in open meadows, on the screes, rocks, and open slopes of sub-alpine and alpine. It is found in steeper places than any other presently harvested species.

Juniper is found in open dry slopes of the sub-alpine habitat, sometimes forming pure stands of Juniper scrub. The elevation range of this species within the study area is between 3200-3800m. While, Sunpati is distributed in an elevation range of 3500-4300m in open slopes of sub-alpine and alpine scrub land. Sugandhwal is found comparatively in lower elevation ranges, 1700- 2700m, in temperate riverine moist forests/areas.

 

17 

 

Table 3: Distribution and habitats of selected commercial plant species in Humla studied sites

Commercial species

Total area (ha)

Elevation

range1(m)

Habitat types Slope in

degree

Aspect Soil type

Mean ground

cover2

(%)

Frequency of

occurrence3

(%)

Jatamansi 36,051.86 3500-4500m

(3300-5100m)

Birch forest, open meadows, bushy cover of Rhododendron companulatum and R. anthopogon, open slopes, rocky surface, and small depression of sub alpine zone

20-40 North, northeast, northwest

Black humus and deep soil

26.2 54.2

Kutki 27,674.77 3650-4500m

(2700-4800m)

Open meadows of sub alpine on the screes, rock, and open slopes

20-50 North, northeast, northwest

Sandy loam, rocky boulder

28.0 20.2

Sunpati 18,262.71 3500-4300m

(3000-4800m)

Open slopes of the sub alpine scrubland

10-35 East, northeast and north

Humus soil

39.7 51.3

Juniper 9,550.00 3200-3800m

(2200-4500m)

Open dry slopes of the sub alpine habitat, forming sometimes pure Juniper shrub stands

15-35 Southeast, south

Sandy loam, shallow soils

42.0 51.7

Sugandhwal 13,075.00 1700-2700m

(1500-3600m)

Temperate riverine forest and moist Blue Pine forest

10-30 North, northwest

Humus and black deep soil

NA NA

 

18 

 

Notes:

1. Elevation ranges within parenthesis are taken from literature: Department of Medicinal Plant, 1970; Polunin and Stainton, 1984. 2. Mean ground cover percentage is for those plots where the species is present (see frequency of occurrence). In the case of Juniper, this represents canopy cover of the species. 3. Frequency of occurrence percentage is the number of total sample plots in which the species is present. For example, if we take a random sample of 100 plots, for Jatamansi in the elevation range 3500-4500m it will be found in 54 plots = a frequency of occurrence of 54%.

Table 4: Major associated species of selected plant species in Humla

SN Selected species Major associated species 1 Jatamansi Anaphalis sp., Juniperus indica, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora,

Geum elatum, Rhododendron companulatum, R. anothopogon, Sorbus microphylla, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Rheum australe, Morina polyphylla, Jurinea dolomiaea, Selinum tenuifolium, Aconogonum sp., Potentila sp., Arnebia benthamii, Megacarpa polyphylla, Bistorta sp., Iris sp., Primula sp., Delphinium sp., Caltha palustris, Pedicularis sp., Thalictrum sp., Rumex nepalensis, Mosses and lichens, grasses

2 Kutki Anaphalis sp., Betula utilis, Juniperus indica, Jurinea dolomiaea, Nardostachys grandiflora, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Geum elatum, Rhododendron anthopogon, Aconitum bisma, Potentila sp., Rheum australe, Chenopodium album, Berberis sp., Bistorta sp., Megacarpa polyphylla, Primula sp., Caltha palustris, Selinum tenuifolium, Morina polyphylla, Primula spp., mosses and lichen, grasses

3 Sunpati Geum elatum, Rhododendron companulatum, Drosera peltata, Aconogonum sp., Anaphalis sp., Anemone sp., Rheum australe, Aconitum sp., Nardostachys grandiflora, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Delphinium sp., Jurinea dolomiaea, Morina polyphylla, Caltha palustris, Abies pindrow, Sorbus macrophylla, Betula utilis, Primula spp., grasses

4 Juniper Pinus wallichiana, Abies spectabilis, Cupressus torulosa, Rhododendron anthopogon, Betula utilis, Anaphalis sp., R. companulatum, Primula sp., Anemone sp., Quercus semecarpifolia, Polygonum sp., Delphinium himalayai, Prinsepia utilis, Berberis sp., Cotoneaster sp., Prunus sp., Rosa sericea, Rosa macrophylla, grasses

5 Sugandhwal Pinus wallichiana, Quercus semecarpifolia, Abies spectabilis, Fragaria nubicola, Arisaema sp., Selinum tenuifolium, Anaphalis sp., Populus ciliata, Asculus indica, Acer acuminatum, Cotoneaster himalayansis, Bergenia ciliata, Salix sp.

 

19 

 

4.2 Current stocks of selected NTFPs Overall frequency of occurrence, mean fresh product stock per hectare, ratio of fresh to dry weight, and kilograms of dry product per hectare for Jatamansi, Kutki, Sunpati, and Juniper are given in Table 5. Low, medium, and high estimated total stocks in terms of clean dry commercial products available within the study area are given in Table 6. The three different estimates are derived from 95% confidence interval for the mean production. The mean and medium production figures are the same. However, for the purpose of enterprise planning the resource management the study has been using the low scenario figures in harvesting targets and community natural resource management plans. Both the mean production and total stock available is highest for Jatamansi among the selected species.

Table 5: Overall frequency of occurrence and mean stock of fresh products of selected NTFPs of the study area

Plant species

Frequency of occurrence (%)

Fresh Products (kg/ha)

Ratio of fresh to dry weight

Dry Products (kg/ha)

Jatamansi 54.23 2,315.60 1:0.44 1,018.86

Kutki 20.20 817.52 1:0.61 498.69

Sunpati 51.29 1,045.40 1:0.44 459.98

Juniper 51.72 997.11 1:0.70 697.98

Table 6: Area covered and total stock of clean dry products by species for study area

Plant species

Total area (ha) Total stock of clean dry product (Ton)

Low Medium High

Jatamansi 36,051.9 17,648.72 19,919.75 22,190.79

Kutki 27,674.8 2,234.29 2,787.82 3,341.21

Sunpati 18,262.7 3,894.36 4,308.57 4,722.77

Juniper 9,550.0 640.29 3,447.49 6,254.69

Source: ANSAB, 1999 The major factors that affect distribution of these selected NTFPs include elevation, habitat types (ground coverage), aspect, slope, and moisture

 

20 

 

condition. Association among the species is also dependent on these factors. Table 7 reveals that the association of these three species is largely dependent on elevation and that their habitats overlap with each other. For example, Jatamansi starts growing a lower elevation (3600-3700m), then is found mixed with Kutki and Sunpati up to 4000m, while above 4000m both Jatamansi and Kutki are present, but Kutki dominates. Sunpati has a much narrower elevation range in comparison to Jatamansi and Kutki. Table 7 also reveals that production for each of the species is higher when they are not associated with the other two.

Table 7: Distribution and production of the selected NTFPs by different combinations of association with other species

Species and its association

Mean ground

cover (%)

Mean production ±95% CI1 (kg/ha)

Habitat types

Elevation range (m)

Jatamansi

Jatamansi only 30.62 2772.49±426.92 1,6,8,10 3600-3800

Jatamansi and Kutki

50.35 2022.16±1011.08 1,6,8,10 3700-4200

Jatamansi and Sunpati

22.6 1919.47±332.80 1,6,8 3700-4000

Jatamansi, Kutki and Sunpati

19.65 1771.25±726.00 1,6 3700-3900

Kutki

Kutki only 33.47 883.13±219.31 6,8,10 3800-4250

Kutki and Jatamansi

12.97 435.00±127.10 1,6,8,10 3700-4200

Kutki and Sunpati 20.80 622.50±141.86 6,8 3800-4000

Kutki, Jatamansi and Sunpati

12.65 377.00±201.29 6 3700-3900

Sunpati

Sunpati only 50.96 1339.38±197.61 1,6,8 3800-4000

Sunpati and 28.23 1213.00±165.29 1,6,8 3700-4000

 

21 

 

Jatamansi

Sunpati and Kutki 28.16 745.31±174.90 6,8 3800-4000

Sunpati, Jatamansi and Kutki

20.24 613.03±218.68 6 3700-3900

1 95% confidence interval for mean production

Habitat types code: 1: Tree cover, 6: scrubland, 8: grassland, 10: rocky surface

Further detailed study was done for Jatamansi, Kutki, and Sunpati to document the effect on production of elevation, habitat type, aspect, slope, and moisture content. These results are detailed in Tables 8, 9, and 10.

Production of Jatamansi varies significantly with elevation, habitat types, aspects and moisture content. Generally, the higher production is observed in mid elevation (3800-4000m) and under shrubs (Table 8). Table 9 reveals that the production of Kutki is higher in upper elevations within its range. Table 10 reveals that production of Sunpati is higher in shrub land, in the slopes facing east, northeast and southeast, and in areas with less than 20° slope.

Table 8: Mean production of fresh Jatamansi rhizomes by elevation, habitats, aspect, slope, and Soil moisture content

Variables

Frequency of occurrence

(%)

Mean production

± 95% CI (kg/ha)

Mean ground cover (%)

Elevation range (p=0.000)

3550-3800m 55.1 1555.88±296.0 22.2

3800-4000m 54.4 2835.5±452.0 27.3

4000-4250m 52.0 2659.3±680.6 32.3

Habitat types (p=0.000)

Tree cover 48.6 1490.5±407.6 21.3

Scrubland 55.4 3135.7±491.3 29.8

 

22 

 

Open grassland

56.3 2021.7±370.4 25.7

Overall 54.2 2315.6±264.0 26.3

Table 9: Mean production of fresh Kutki roots by elevation, habitats, aspect, slope, and Soil moisture content

Variables

Frequency of occurrence

(%)

Mean production

± 95% CI (kg/ha)

Mean ground cover (%)

Elevation range (p=0.001)

3650-3800m 20.1 494.1±199.3 24.1

3800-4000m 20.2 820.2±215.8 24.8

4000-4250m 20.5 1309.6±451.2 39.1

Habitat types (p=0.09)

Tree cover 20.7 510.2±262.1 20.4

Scrubland 17.0 788.5±305.1 16.5

Open grassland

22.8 971.2±251.4 38.1

Overall 20.2 817.5±162.3 28.0

Table 10: Mean production of fresh Sunpati leaves by elevation, habitats, aspect, slope, and Soil moisture content

Variables

Frequency of occurrence (%)

Mean production

± 95% CI (kg/ha)

Mean ground cover (%)

Elevation range (p=0.2)

3650-3800m 42.7 938.9±183.1 36.3

3800-4000m 60.1 1131.5±147.8 43.3

 

23 

 

4000-4250m 48.8 967.4±190.5 38.4

Habitat types (p=0.001)

Tree cover 35.3 672.4±132.3 32.0

Scrubland 76.6 1275.9±157.2 42.5

Open grassland

38.3 822.1±128.0 35.7

Aspect (p=0.003)

North 56.5 893.6±219.1 30.8

Northeast 49.0 1039.5±234.4 37.4

East 71.7 1449.6±221.2 50.9

Southeast 40.5 1106.3±397.3 48.0

South 14.3 490.6±378.5 25.0

Southwest 22.2 489.4±308.7 39.7

West 50.0 860.2±241.0 30.8

Northwest 60.0 941.6±277.6 32.4

Slope (p=0.007)

=< 200 58.0 1376.5±223.6 49.7

210-350 42.9 911.0±124.1 33.6

360 and above

57.8 1074.5±182.3 32.5

Overall 51.3 1045.4±100.5 39.7

4.3 Regeneration

4.3.1 Jatamansi Jatamansi is a perennial herb, nearly 15-30cm tall, broad-leaved, with rose-purple to whitish flowers. Jatamansi flowers in June-July and its seeds mature in late August. The herb regenerates both by seed dispersal and root division in its natural habitat. In most cases, plants tend to start bearing flowers and

 

24 

 

producing seeds after three years. Local gatherers indicated that the roots benefit from being thinned, as thicker and stronger roots are then produced. Collectors also indicated that rhizomes found under bushes multiply faster than those in open areas, and herbs growing at higher elevations have larger roots. Cultivation is possible using seedlings or rhizome cuttings but the plants from cutting grow faster than seedlings.

Jatamansi regenerates well, if harvesting is done properly. Proper harvesting includes time of year harvested, age of plants harvested, amount harvested in terms of percentage of root taken from an individual plant and number of plants taken in a given area, interval between harvesting, and halting and/or reduced incidence of destructive practices (e.g. burning). For example, harvesting of Jatamansi in summer before rainfall is detrimental to regeneration. Local harvesters indicated that fire, grazing and unscientific harvesting (premature and over harvesting) are the main destructive factors for the growth and regeneration of this species.

4.3.2 Kutki Kutki is a perennial herb with radical, spathulate, and sharply serrated leaves; and elongate, stout creeping rootstock. Kutki flowers in June-August and its seeds mature in late September. This species regenerates naturally by both seeds and rhizome. Kutki has a lower regeneration rate than Jatamansi. The regeneration of Kutki is better in shady and moist areas rather than in open areas. It can also be cultivated at higher altitudes of the Himalayas using seeds or rhizome cuttings.

Kutki is more threatened in the study areas than Jatamansi. Local harvesters indicated they have to walk a longer distance to harvest Kutki than the previous years and realized the traditional harvesting method (i.e. uprooting of all plants) is not suitable for the regeneration of this species. Premature collection is also threatening the sustainability of this species, but fire is the most destructive factor for Kutki growth and regeneration.

4.3.3 Sugandhwal Sugandhwal is a perennial, slightly hairy, tuft herb that grows up to 45cm in height with persistent long petioled and deeply cordate-ovate radical leaves. Sugandhwal flowers in April-June and its seeds mature in July. It regenerates by seeds and rhizome. It propagates easily from its seeds and has been cultivated successfully from seed in some parts of Nepal. The seed sowing period is February-March. Being a shade loving plant, Sugandhwal regenerates better in shady and moist areas than on open slopes. The natural regeneration of this species after harvest is moderate, not as strong as Jatamansi, but better than Kutki. Sugandhwal also suffered from the same destructive factors as Kutki and Jatamansi in natural habitats.

4.3.4 Sunpati Sunpati is a small, strongly aromatic shrub with ovate leaves and compact clusters of 4-6 white or yellow flowers. It regenerates from seeds and

 

25 

 

underground root. It flowers in June-July and its seeds mature in August. The natural regeneration of this species after harvest is moderate. Regeneration of this species is not as problematic as Jatamansi, Kutki, and Sugandhwal, as the harvesting method is less destructive to the plant. Only the young leaves and twigs are handpicked or cut with cutting tools, which does not harm the plant’s growth. Sunpati is one of the under-used plants in the studied area. Fire and other biological disturbances severely affect the regeneration of Sunpati. Destruction of Sunpati cover also affects the growth of Jatamansi growing underneath it.

4.3.5 Juniper Juniper is a prostrate shrub or a tree with two types of leaves; awl-shaped on the lower branches and scale like on the terminal branches. It regenerates from seeds. It can be cultivated easily from seed. Juniper plant starts fruiting at the age of 4 years but the plant produces abundant fruit after 6 years. The normal fruiting season is from May-July. The leaves can be collected from the plants of three or more years of age. The regeneration of the species depends upon the number of fruiting trees, fruit production, seed dispersal, and other ecological factors.

 

26 

 

CHAPTER FIVE

5. Prioritization of NTFPs

The species were prioritized based on 8 principal criteria viz. (i) highly demanded commercial species (ii) species having high market price (iii) having potential for domestic value addition (iv) species available over wide geographical range (v) species harvestable in short rotation period (vi) land fertility requirement for species (vii) species importance in ethno botany and (viii) species conservation status.

5.1 Prioritization of NTFPs in Humla

NTFPs were prioritized on the basis of the interaction during the workshop with the concern stakeholders and as per the discussion with the collectors during the field visits. NTFP species prioritized for value addition, marketing linkage and further assessment in Humla are Kutki (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia), Chirayito (Swertia chirayita), Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora), Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum), Padamchaal (Rheum australe), Lauth salla (Taxus wallichiana), Dhatelo (Prinsepia utilis), Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii), Satuwa (Paris polyphylla), Bhutkesh (Selinum tenuifolium), Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon), Ghodemachha (Thymus linearis), Guchchi chyau (Morchela esculenta and M. indica), Dalechuk (Hippophae salicifolia), Bhui chuk (Hippophae tibetana) and Okhar (Juglans regia). The details are given in table below:

Table 11: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Humla district

Criteria⇒

NTFP species

⇓

Mar

ket d

eman

d

Mar

gin

/ Pr

ofit

Ava

ilabi

lity

( in

time

)

Geo

grap

hica

l dist

ribut

ion

Con

serv

atio

n st

atus

Pote

ntia

l for

cul

tivat

ion

Rege

nera

tive

pote

ntia

l

Con

tribu

tion

to in

com

e

Gen

der i

mpa

c t

Pote

ntia

l for

val

ue a

dditi

on

Proc

essin

g te

chno

logy

Ethn

o bo

tani

cal v

alue

Tota

l

Kutki (Neopicrorhiza 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 3 29

 

27 

 

scrophulariifolia)

Chirayito (Swertia chirayita)

2 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 1 1 2 24

Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora)

3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 31

Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum)

3 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 1 1 1 26

Dhupi (Juniperus indica)

3 3 3 1 3 2 1 1 3 3 3 3 29

Padamchaal (Rheum australe)

3 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 25

Lauth salla (Taxus wallichiana)

2 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 17

Dhatelo (Prinsepia utilis) 1 1 3 2 3 3 2 1 3 3 3 3 28

Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii)

3 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 1 29

Satuwa (Paris polyphylla)

2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 20

Bhutkesh (Selinum tenuifolium)

2 2 3 2 2 3 2 1 3 1 1 1 23

Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon)

3 3 3 2 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 29

Ghodemachha (Thymus linearis)

1 1 3 3 2 3 2 1 3 3 3 3 28

Guchchi chyau (Morchela esculenta/M. indica)

3 3 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 25

Dalechuk (Hippophae salicifolia

3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 3 3 3 29

Bhuichuk (Hippophae tibetana)

3 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 3 3 3 27

Okhar (Juglans regia) 1 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 24

 

28 

 

5.2 Threat analysis

Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) analysis was carried out for the prioritized NTFPs species of the study area of Humla. RVA was conducted on the basis of the following criteria: 1) Ecology, 2) Life form, 3) Parts used and 4) Harvesting method.

5.2.1 RVA analysis in Humla

On the basis of RVA analysis, the most vulnerable NTFP species of Humla are Lauth salla (Taxus wallichiana), Dhupi (Juniperus indica), Kutki (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia), Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon), Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora), Dalechuk (Hippophae salicifolia) and Bhuichuk (Hippophae tibetana). The details are shown in table below:

Table 12: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Humla

 

29 

 

Criteria⇒

NTFPs

⇓

Abu

ndan

ce

Gro

wth

Rate

of r

epro

duct

ion

Mod

e of

repr

oduc

tion

Habi

tat

Habi

tat d

iver

sity

Life

form

div

ersit

y

Life

form

Parts

use

d

Harv

estin

g m

etho

ds

Scor

e

Kutki (Neopicrorhiza

scrophulariifolia)

1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 14

Chirayito (Swertia chirayita) 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 16

Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora)

1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 15

Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum) 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 17

Dhupi (Juniperus indica) 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 13

Padamchaal (Rheum australe) 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 16

Lauth salla (Taxus wallichiana) 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 12

Dhatelo (Prinsepia utilis) 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 17

Sugandhwal (Valeriana jatamansii) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 18

Satuwa (Paris polyphylla) 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 16

Bhutkesh (Selinum tenuifolium) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 18

Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon)

1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 14

Ghodemachha (Thymus linearis) 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 19

Guchchi chyau (Morchela esculenta/M. indica)

1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 16

Dalechuk (Hippophae salicifolia 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 15

Bhuichuk (Hippophae tibetana) 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 15

Okhar (Juglans regia) 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 16

 

30 

 

CHAPTER SIX

6. Overview of enterprise modalities to be set up in Humla

Forest based enterprises exist in various modalities, which can be outlined in aspects of ownership structure, linkages to raw materials, target markets, seasonality of operation, technological sophistication, management structure, product types and other similar characteristics.

On the ownership dimension, 5 different modalities can be set up in Humla, they are as follows:

a) Sole enterprise,

b) FUG enterprise,

c) Consortium of FUGs enterprise,

d) Cooperatives and

e) Private limited company

In terms of linkages of raw materials, economic and enterprise activities are based on raw materials drawn from community forests and government forests of the district.

6.1 Identification of enterprise modalities to be set up in Humla

On the basis of the resource availability, processing technology, communities’ willingness and market linkage, the following are the potentiality for enterprise development in the study areas.

Table 13: Potentiality for enterprise development in Humla

SN NTFPs/ Products Potentiality for enterprise development

1. Allo fibre (Girardinia diversifolia), Hemp fibre (Cannabis sativa), Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii), Kutki (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia), Satuwa (Paris polyphylla), Chiraiyito (Swertia chirayito), Padamchal (Rheum

Collective marketing centre- A cooperative model

 

31 

 

australe), Guchhi chyau (Morchella conica/M. esculenta), Bhutkesh (Selinum tenuifolium), Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum)

2. Roots/rhizomes of Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora), Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii)

Leaves and berries of Juniper (Juniperus indica)

Leaves and aerial parts of Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon)

Leaves of Ghodemachha (Thymus linearis)

Processing of Valerian oil from Sugandhawal roots/rhizomes –Establishment of processing unit at Raya/Ripa village

Processing of Jatamansi oil from Jatamansi roots/rhizomes –Establishment of processing unit at Pangkha/Fucha/Kurilla villages

Processing of Juniper needle oil/Juniper berry oil from the needles and berries of Juniper - Establishment of processing unit at Langdung (Bargaun)

Processing of Anthopogon oil from leaves of Sunpati- Establishment of processing unit at Langdung (Bargaun)

Processing of Himalayan thyme oil from the aerial parts of Ghodemachha at the processing units of the aforementioned locations

3. Atis, Chirayito, Sugandhawal, Satuwa, Padamchaal, Bhutkesh, etc.

1. Establishment of multipurpose nursery;

2. Commercial cultivation enterprises in private lands of the respective villages

4. Fruits of Dalechuk (Hippophae salicifolia) and Bhuinchuk (H. tibetana)

Juice and herbal drinks making at Simikot/Bargaun villages

5. Titepati leaves, Timur leaves and barks, Angeri leaves (Lyonia ovalifolia), Bulu leaves (Pieris formosa), Ketuke (Agave cantula)

Organic insecticides/pesticides making at the respective villages

6. Seeds of Dhatelo (Prinsepia utilis), Pangar (Aeculus indica), Okhar (Juglans regia), Chuli (Prunus

Edible/vegetable oil expelling enterprises at the respective villages

 

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armeniaca), Khamu (Prunus sp)

7. Allo and hemp fibres Fibre processing and clothes weaving enterprise at respective villages

8. Herbal tea from Ghodemachha, Ram tulsi (Origanum vulgare), Gandraino (Pleurospermum dentatum)

Herbal tea enterprises at the respective villages/household level

6.2 Requirements for enterprise success

The success of the enterprises can be assessed on the basis of the following dimensions:

a. Raw material availability

A long term biologically sustainable supply of the targeted natural product in sufficient quantities is necessary for the enterprise activity to be financially viable.

b. Legal access to and control over the natural resources

Collectors should be able to manage natural products harvesting and incorporate the enterprise activity into their overall forest management plans. Enterprise activities must comply with a range of legal requirements.

c. Equitable distribution of benefits

If community members do not feel the benefits are being distributed fairly there will be less incentive to protect the natural resources. The overall raw material source could become threatened as well as the commercial activity and ecosystem’s biodiversity.

d. Appropriate processing technology

Is the technology compatible with the prevailing infrastructure and human resource conditions at the chosen location?

Conditions to be considered include: transport and storage facilities; equipment/machinery availability; power or fuel required for the processing activity and technical skills available.

 

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e. Good management

People with knowledge of, and experience with managing proposed activities should be available to run the enterprise or they should be closely involved in its operations.

f. Commercial sustainability

Commercial sustainability is a simple concept. Sell the product at a price and volume that covers all the costs associated with the natural product enterprise with enough money left over as profit.

g. Access to capital

Start up capital and on going working capital is needed for the enterprise.

h. Available and accessible market for the products

Is there a market for the available quantity and quality of product? Is there adequate demand at the expected selling price? Who will buy the product?

6.3 Challenges for forest based enterprises

Marketing barrier is the major identified challenges for the NTFP based enterprises. The specific challenges are as follows:

• Limited number of wholesalers and controlled price information. • Less developed market for many products and high price fluctuations. • Many producers with small quantities of products receiving only a small

portion of the total income. • Role and services of brokers and middlemen. • Lack of market information; current marketing channels, amount of each

products, price variation as well as future supply and demand of the products, processed product, development and future price projection etc.

• Most of the traders with an inadequate marketing knowledge and skills. • Limited access to availability of information and technology for product

development. • Lack of marketing infrastructure like storage, transportation, quality testing

laboratory facilities, etc. • Difficulties in matching market requirements by suppliers due to several

uncertainties such as production fluctuation, decreased collection due to unfavorable weather, inconsistent quality of products, lack of quality checking facilities, etc.

 

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CHAPTER SEVEN

7. Growth and yield studies On the basis of the data obtained by observations during field study, data captured with the help of key informants, the data obtained from assessment conducted by ANSAB during 1997/1998, the growth and harvest of Jatamansi has been presented in Table 14.

Table 14: Mean production of fresh Jatamansi roots and rhizomes by habitat types and harvest intervals (in kg/ha)

Harvest interval Habitat

Bushy Open Row average

1 Year 872.57 723.50 730.25

2 Years 2227.34 1626.50 1724.88

3 Years 3700.66 2314.06 2976.04

4 Years 5484.38 4301.79 4215.34

5 Years 6375.00 5250.00 5707.06

Column average 2843.25 1673.40 2030.84

Note: F-test: a critical value of p<0.00 for harvest interval and p<0.03 for habitat types; N=130 LSD for harvest intervals (in year): 5 NS 4, 5 or 4*3 or 2 or 1, 3*2 or 1, 2*1

The data in Table 14 reveals that the mean yield increases significantly with the increase in the years of harvesting interval from one year to four years but the least significant difference test (LSD) shows that there is no statistically significant increase in the yield after four years. Similar is the result for the percentage of ground-cover increment with the increase in the years of harvest interval (Table 15). Although there is no statistical significance in the yield obtained from the plots of 4 and 5 years of rotation, the increased yield and reduced cost of collection make it economical to harvest at an interval of 5 years.

Although the percentage of ground cover by Jatamansi is not significantly different in open or busy habitats, the Jatamansi yield obtained from busy habitats is significantly higher than that from the open grassland for all rotational lengths. This might be due to the availability of more organic matter and moisture for the Jatamansi plant under the bush.

 

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Table 15: Mean ground cover percentage of Jatamansi by habitat types and harvest intervals

Harvest interval Habitat

Bushy Open Row average

1 Year 18.81 14.14 14.79

2 Years 19.33 19.23 18.33

3 Years 23.17 24.71 22.85

4 Years 49.25 51.25 41.31

5 Years 57.13 52.23 51.52

Column average 23.81 20.92 25.62

Note: F-test: a critical value of p<0.000 for harvest interval and p<0.914 for habitat types; N=130

7.1 Harvest impacts In determining sustainable yield levels, it is important to focus on how and when products are harvested, as it is to emphasize the amount harvested. This is an important lesson, as too often management plans only focus on the amount harvested and/or permits are issued for amounts without consideration of harvesting method. Table 16 provides a comparison of the total estimated production in tons (clean dry products) of Jatamansi and Kutki to the 2006/2007 harvest levels.

Table 16: Comparison of Total clean dry products production estimates to actual harvest levels in 2006/2007 (in Tons)

Plant species

Low production

estimate

Medium production

estimate

High production

estimate

Harvest Levels

2006/2007

Jatamansi 17,648.72 19,919.75 22,190.79 81.84

Kutki 2,234.29 2,787.82 3,341.21 23.08

 

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The comparison between the lowest estimate for total growing stock of Jatamansi and Kutki to the 2006/2007 harvest levels indicates current harvest levels (and even increased levels) are sustainable provided proper methods of harvest and regeneration management are practiced.

Since the marketable products of Jatamansi, Kutki and Sugandhwal are the roots, the whole plant was being destroyed as collectors would uproot the entire plant. In the case of Sunpati and Juniper, only vegetative parts (leaves and berries) are harvested, which can be done without killing the plant assuming enough leaves are left. Some portion of the berries must also be left for the Juniper plant cannot reproduce.

Participatory monitoring and field observations uncovered traditional harvesting practices that were detrimental to regeneration. Guidelines and recommendations were made to mitigate the adverse impacts, and some FUGs have already adopted the improved practices. As more FUGs formalize and implement their resource management plans the adoption rate is expected to go up. A comparison of the traditional and recommended harvesting methods for selected species is presented in Table 17. The time of year the product is harvested also impacts on its ability to regenerate.

 

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Table 17: The parts harvested and harvesting practices for the selected commercial species

Plant species

Parts harvested

Traditional practices of harvest

New harvesting practices adapted by

FUGs

Jatamansi Rhizomes Whole plants are dug out (without leaving any plant) from the earth using kuto, a local digging tool. No restrictions in the use of tools, seasons, parts of forest and quantity of harvest. The method is destructive for the regeneration and growth of the plants. It also loosens the soil surface making it more prone to surface erosion.

Whole plants are pulled out from the bushy area and dug out carefully from the open grassland with Kuto leaving approximately 20% plants undisturbed for regeneration. Restrictions are applied in the use of tools, season, parts of forest and quantity of harvest, generally following a five-year rotational cycle.

Kutki Rhizome and roots

Whole Kutki plants are uprooted with kuto and are sometimes hand picked without leaving any plants and propagules for regeneration. No group restrictions are applied.

Kutki is dugout with kuto and hand picked if the rhizomes are long leaving about 20% of the Kutki plant. Similar restrictions are instituted as in the case of Jatamansi.

Sunpati Leaves Only negligible quantity of leaves are handpicked or twigs are cut for local use (mixed with other herbs to make incense).

Leaves are either handpicked or cut with scissors leaving more than 30% leaves for plant growth.

Juniper Leaves and berries

Branches are cut to collect the leaves for local use for subsistence purposes only.

Berries are handpicked and leaves are collected from the small branch cuttings with little disturbance to the plants.

 

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7.2 Documentation of sustainable harvesting practices The important aspect of the documentation on sustainable harvesting practices is the emphasis on methods and timing of extraction. The amount harvested is not the most critical factor in instituting sustainable harvesting practices. Table 18 provides a summary of the recommended optimal harvesting practices for selected NTFPs as determined from the field research and studies in Humla.

Table 18: Recommended optimal harvesting practices for sustainable use

Plant species and parts harvested

Optimal harvest season

Optimal rotational interval

Optimal percentage of

plant not harvested

Optimal harvesting method

Jatamansi (rhizomes)

Fall 5 years 20% plants undisturbed

Whole plants pulled from bushy areas and dug out carefully with prescribed tool (kuto) from open grasslands.

Kutki (rhizomes and roots)

Fall 3-5 years 20% of plants undisturbed

Plant is dug out with kuto or hand picked if rhizome is long.

Sunpati (leaves)

Fall 1 year 30% of leaves left on plant

Leaves handpicked or cut with scissors.

7.3 Adoption of conservation practices There have been several promising trends in the area of adoption of conservation practices. Since these practices are new to the communities, yet are encouraged that the following sustainable practices have been adopted by some villages in the studied area with positive economic and environmental results.

• Reduced pasture burning in the major NTFP collection areas;

• Implementation of rotational harvesting and enforcement of group collection practices at the village level;

• Institutionalization of rules and regulations and effective policing by FUGs; and

• Initiation of biological and social monitoring of harvesting practices by FUGs.

 

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CHAPTER EIGHT

8.1 Conclusion

Resource assessment of NTFPs in Humla district using the inventory parameters and relevant analytical tools revealed that there are tremendous potentialities for the cultivation, harvesting, value addition and marketing of prioritized NTFPs. The local communities are more curios for the promotion of NTFPs which would support their livelihood.

Stock studies and enterprise development potentialities assessment of selected NTFPs in Humla revealed that there are immense potentialities of enterprise set up for the product lines as edible oil/vegetable oil expelling, herbal drinks/juice making, organic insecticide/pesticide, cultivation of NTFPs, collective marketing centre for crude herbs and NTFPs and essential oils extraction (Anthopogon oil, Jatamansi oil, Juniper oil, Oregano oil, Thyme oil and Valerian oil) in various locations of Humla district.

For genesis, operation and growth of forest based enterprise in Humla; a biologically sustainable harvesting mechanism should be prepared for each community forests, leasehold forests and government managed forests. Moreover, some factors that contribute to or hinder the genesis, operation and growth of enterprises should be taken into account. These include: awareness raising, technical assistance, financial support, marketing support, marketing outlets, community characteristics, natural resource base, technology, policy factors, enterprise consequences and natural resource conservation.

In conclusion, the communities’ motivation towards entrepreneurship, institutionalization of user groups (both FUGs and LFUGs) and regulatory mechanisms for sustainable harvesting of NTFPs would definitely create the income generating opportunities and would assist in the conservation of biodiversity and reduction of poverty in Humla district.

 

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8.2 Recommendations

The local communities play a crucial role for the conservation and sustainable utilization of NTFPs in Humla district.

Conservation, sustainable management and responsible utilization of NTFPs are the ever raised issues, but why and how to conserve and manage are the big questions challenging ever. Therefore, the following steps and actions are recommended for addressing conservation of NTFPs and linking livelihood issues of local communities in Humla:

1. Awareness programs (workshops, exhibitions, exposure visits, and demonstration of the products) on the importance of NTFPs; conservation and sustainable utilization, cultivation and responsible harvesting at local level need to be conducted.

2. Capacity building/strengthening the concerned FUGs/LFUGs on institutional development, governance/equity, fund mobilization, financial management, record keeping, benefit sharing mechanism etc. should be initiated.

3. Field based training package on NTFPs promotion; time and technique of collection, local processing technology, storage, quality control, packaging, labeling, and cultivation of major NTFPs should be conducted.

4. Detailed inventory and quantification of the total stock of all the prioritized NTFPs should be conducted.

5. Development of biological sustainable harvesting system; blocks rotation system preferable for harvesting; participatory monitoring system should be prepared for each user groups.

6. Detailed assessment of the potential enterprises that can be set up in the district should be conducted in collaboration with various user groups.

7. Feasibility study on market linkage, technology transfer, equipments and availability of skill manpower should be conducted for each product line.

 

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8. Micro-credit facilities should be provided for the initiation of small scale enterprises and financial and operational support should be provided for the small/medium scale consortium enterprises.

9. Initiation for the management and conduction of pilot model enterprise preferably, herbal incense; Seabuckthorn juice making, vegetable oil expelling (Dhatelo, Walnut, Chuli and Khamu), essential oil production (Anthopogon, Jatamansi and Juniper oils) and herbal tea making.

10. Formation of committee/organization for providing necessary technology, seeds/seedlings to farmers.

11. Establishment of marketing information system (MIS) on NTFPs at Simikot, and Shreenagar blocks.

12. Formation of collective marketing centre/cooperative for marketing NTFPs/NTFPs products in Simikot, Sarkeghat and Shreenagar.

 

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References

ANSAB. 1999. Monitoring the Effects of Community Based Conservation and Commercial Utilization of Natural Products on Biodiversity in Humla, Nepal. Asia Network for Small Scale Bioresources, Kathmandu, Nepal.

ANSAB. 2000. Enterprise Development for Natural Products Manual. Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresources/Enterprise Works Worldwide.

Cunningham, A. B. 1994. Integrating Local Plant Resources and Habitat Management. Biodiversity and Conservation. 3. pp 104-115

Cunningham, A. B. 1996 a. People, Park and Plant Use: Recommendations for Multiple Use Zones and Development Alternatives around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. People and Plants Working Paper No 4. UNESCO, Paris. pp 58.

Cunningham, A. B. 2001. Applied Ethnobotany: People, Wild Plant use and Conservation. People and Plants Conservation Manual. Earthscan.

FAO, 1999. Towards a Harmonized Definition of Non Wood Forest Products. Unasylva. 50 (198). pp 63-64.

Gurung, K. 2007. Resource Assessment of Commercially Important Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone (SNPBZ). A report submitted to Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone Support Project (SNPBZSP), Namche Bazaar, Solukhumbu.

Gurung, K. 2007. Resource Assessment of Potential Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) for Commercialization in Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone (LNPBZ). A report submitted to Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone Support Project (LNPBZSP), Dhunche, Rasuwa.

Gurung, K. and Pyakurel, D. 2006. Identification and Inventory of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) of Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA). A report submitted to Manaslu Conservation Area Project (MCAP)/National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), Gorkha.

IUCN. 2004. National Register of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. IUCN Nepal.

Lama, Y. C., Ghimire, S. K. and Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. 2001. Medicinal Plants of Dolpo: Amchis Knowledge and Conservation. WWF-Nepal Program, Kathmandu.

Manandhar, N. P. 2002. Plants and People of Nepal. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon, USA.

Polunin, O. and Stainton, A. 1984. Flowers of the Himalaya. Oxford University Press. New Delhi.

 

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Press, J. R., Shrestha, K. K. and Sutton, D. A. 2000. Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. The Natural History Museum, London.

Raunkair, C. 1934. The life forms of Plants and Statistical plant geography. Oxford.

Shrestha, K. 1998. Dictionary of Nepalese Plant. Mandala Book Point, Nepal.

Stainton, A. 1988. Flowers of the Himalaya, A Supplement. Oxford University Press. New Delhi.

Subedi, B. P., Ojha, H. R., Nicholson, K. and Binayee, S. B. 2002. Community Based Forest Enterprises in Nepal: Case Studies, Lessons and Implications. Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresources (ANSAB)/ The Netherlands Development Organization (SNV/Nepal).

Watts, J., Scott, P. and Mutebi, J. 1996. Forest Assessment and Monitoring for Conservation and Local use: Experience in three Ugandan National Parks. pp 212-243. In; Recent Approaches to Participatory Forest Resource Assessment. Rural Development Forestry Study Guide 2. Carter, J. (ed). ODI, London.

Wong, W. and Jenifer, L.G. 2001. Resources Assessments of Non- Wood Forest Products: Experience and Biometric Principles. Non-Wood Forests Products Series-13. FAO

Zobel, D. B., Jha, P.K., Behan, M. J. and Yadav, U. K. R. 1987. A Practical Manual for Ecology. Ratna Book Distributors, Kathmandu, Nepal.

 

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Annex: 1

Lists of NTFPs of Humla district SN Botanical name Local name Family

1 Abies pindrow Royle Thingo Pinaceae 2 Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb. Thingo Pinaceae 3 Acanthopanax cissifolius (Griff. ex Seem.) Harms Araliaceae 4 Acer acuminatum Wall. ex D.Don Tilailo Aceraceae 5 Acer caesium Wall.ex Brandis Aceraceae 6 Acer campbellii Hook. f. & Thoms. ex Hiern Phirphire Aceraceae 7 Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser. Bikh Ranunculaceae 8 Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Atis Ranunculaceae 9 Aconogonum molle (D.Don) H.Hara Polygonaceae

10 Aconogonum tortuosum (D.Don) Hara Chawanle Polygonaceae 11 Acorus calamus L. Bojho Araceae 12 Aesculus indica (Colebr.ex Cambess.) Hook. Hippocastanaceae 13 Agapetes hookeri (C.B.Clarke) Airy Ericaceae 14 Ajuga lupulina Maxim Labiatae 15 Allium carolinianum DC. Jangali lasun Amaryllidaceae 16 Allium wallichii Kunth Jimbu Amaryllidaceae 17 Alnus nepalensis D.Don Betulaceae 18 Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. Betulaceae 19 Anaphalis contorta (D.Don) Hook.f. Buki jhar Compositae 20 Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) C.B. Clarke Buki phul Compositae 21 Androsace geraniifolia Watt Primulaceae 22 Androsace strigillosa Franch. Primulaceae 23 Anemone obtusiloba D.Don Kangre jhar Ranunculaceae 24 Anemone polyanthes D.Don Ranunculaceae 25 Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC. Bagh paile Ranunculaceae 26 Anisodus luridus Link & Otto Solanaceae 27 Aralia cachemirica Decne. Dal Kabro Araliaceae 28 Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott. Chare banko Araceae 29 Arisaema griffithii Schott Araceae 30 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Male banko Araceae 31 Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott. Bhang Banko Araceae 32 Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G.Don) I.M. Maharangi Boraginaceae 33 Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Besser Compositae 34 Artemisia gmelinii Weber ex Steckmo Pati Compositae 35 Arundinaria racemosa Munro Gramineae 36 Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Kurilo Liliaceae 37 Asparagus racemosus Willd. Kurilo Liliaceae 38 Aster falconeri (C.B. Clarke) Hutch. Tare phool Compositae 39 Aster himalaicus C.B. Clarke Compositae 40 Aster stracheyi Hook.f. Compositae 41 Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Thulo ausadhi Saxifragaceae

 

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42 Begonia dioica Buch.- Ham. ex D. Don Begoniaceae 43 Berberis angulosa Wall. ex Hook. f. & Thomson Chotto Berberidaceae 44 Berberis aristata DC. Chotto Berberidaceae 45 Berberis asiatica Roxb.ex DC. Chotto Berberidaceae 46 Berberis insignis Hook. f. & Thomson Berberidaceae 47 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Saxifragaceae 48 Betula utilis D.Don Bhojpatra Betulaceae 49 Bistorta affinis (D.Don) Greene Simauro Polygonaceae 50 Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene Polygonaceae 51 Bistorta macrophylla (D.Don) Sojak Myakuri Polygonaceae 52 Calanthe tricarinata Lindl. Orchidaceae

53 Caltha palustris L. Ek aankhe phool Ranunculaceae

54 Cannabis sativa (Lam.) Small & Cronquist Cannabaceae 55 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medikus Tori ghans Cruciferae 56 Caragana brevispina Royle Leguminosae 57 Caragana gerardiana Royle Leguminosae 58 Cardamine loxostemonoides O.E.Shulz Cruciferae 59 Carum carvi L. Jangali jeera Umbelliferae 60 Cassiope fastigiata (Wall.) D.Don Ericaceae 61 Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A.DC. Fagaceae 62 Celtis australis L. Ulmaceae 63 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Umbelliferae 64 Cephalanthera longifolia (L.) Fritsch Orchidaceae 65 Chesneya nubigena (D.Don) Ali Chyali Leguminosae 66 Cicerbita macrorhiza (Royle) Beauv. Doli phool Compositae 67 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae 68 Clematis buchananiana DC. Tinpate lahara Ranunculaceae 69 Clematis montana Buch.-Ham.ex DC. Junge lahara Ranunculaceae 70 Codonopsis convolvulacea Kurz Campanulaceae 71 Coelogyne sp Orchidaceae 72 Colquhounia coccinea Wall. Sano tusare Labiatae 73 Coriaria napalensis Wall. Machhaino Coriariaceae 74 Corydalis cashmeriana Royle Fumariaceae 75 Corydalis govaniana Wall. Fumariaceae 76 Corydalis juncea Wall. Papaveraceae 77 Cotoneaster frigidus Wall. ex Lindl. Ruis Rosaceae 78 Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. ex Lindl. Ghari Rosaceae

79 Cremanthodium arnicoides (DC. ex Royle) R. Good Compositae

80 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Akash beli Convolvulaceae 81 Cyananthus lobatus Wall. ex Benth. Campanulaceae 82 Cyathula capitata Moq. Amaranthaceae 83 Cynanchum canescens (Willd.) K. Schum. Giama dudh Asclepiadaceae 84 Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl ex Homem.) Bhende kuro Boraginaceae

 

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Thunb.ex Lehm. 85 Cypripedium cordigerum D.Don Orchidaceae 86 Cypripedium himalaicum Rolfe Orchidaceae 87 Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo Hatajadi Orchidaceae 88 Daphne papyracea Wall. ex Steud. Thymelaeaceae 89 Datura stramonium L. Dhature phool Solanaceae 90 Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) Rendle Tusare Urticaceae 91 Delphinium grandiflorum Bruhl Ranunculaceae 92 Delphinium himalayai Munz Nirbisi Ranunculaceae 93 Desmodium elegans DC. Bakhre ghans Leguminosae 94 Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.ex Griseb. Kande vyakur Dioscoreaceae 95 Diplazium giganteum (Baker) Ching Daunde Dryopteridaceae 96 Diplazium stoliczkae Bedd. Kalo nyuro Dryopteridaceae 97 Dipsacus inermis Wall. Mula pati Dipsacaceae 98 Drepanostachyum falcatum (Nees) Keng f. Tite nigalo Gramineae 99 Dryopteris flix-mas Unyu Dryopteridaceae

100 Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall. ex Royle Guyeli Elaeagnaceae 101 Elsholtzia eriostachya (Benth.) Benth. Bhote pati Labiatae 102 Elsholtzia flava (Benth.) Benth. Chhinke jhar Labiatae 103 Elsholtzia fruticosa (D.Don) Rehder Chhinki Labiatae 104 Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf. Sallejari Ephedraceae 105 Ephedra intermedia Schrenk & C.A. Mey Ephedraceae 106 Erigeron multiradiatus (Lindl. ex DC) C.B. Clarke Compositae 107 Eulophia sp Orchidaceae 108 Euphorbia stracheyi Boiss Dudhe jhar Euphorbiaceae 109 Euphorbia wallichii Hook.f. Pahelo bikh Euphorbiaceae 110 Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) H. Hara Bhande Polygonaceae 111 Ficus sp Moraceae 112 Fragaria nubicola Lindl. ex Lacaita Bhuin kaphal Rosaceae 113 Fritillaria cirrhosa D.Don Kakoli Liliaceae 114 Gentiana capitata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Hans phool Gentianaceae 115 Gentiana sp Gentianaceae 116 Geranium donianum Sweet Rato asne Geraniaceae 117 Geranium pratense L. Geraniaceae 118 Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Bhyangre Urticaceae 119 Gnaphalium affine D.Don Buki phool Compositae 120 Gynura nepalensis DC. Compositae 121 Hedera nepalensis K.Koch Pipal pate Araliaceae 122 Hedychium ellipticum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. Zingiberaceae 123 Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall. Rato gedi Scrophulariaceae 124 Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. Chhetaro Umbelliferae 125 Heracleum lallii Norman Chhetaro Umbelliferae 126 Heracleum nepalense D.Don Bhote jeera Umbelliferae 127 Herpetospermum pedunculosum (Ser.) Baill. Ban karela Cucurbitaceae 128 Hippophae salicifolia D.Don Tare chuk Elaeagnaceae

 

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129 Hippophae tibetana Schlecht. Bhuin chuk Elaeagnaceae 130 Hypericum elodeoides Choisy Jibre ghans Guttiferae 131 Ilex dipyrena Wall. Seto khasru Aquifoliaceae 132 Ilex excelsa (Wall.) Hook.f. Aquifoliaceae 133 Incarvillea mairei (Leveille) Grierson Bignoniaceae 134 Insect gall on Pistacia integrima Kakarsingi 135 Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) DC Compositae 136 Inula racemosa Hook f. Puskar mula Compositae 137 Iris goniocarpa Baker Piperi Iridaceae 138 Iris kemaonensis D.Don ex Royle Piperi Iridaceae 139 Jasminum humile L. Jai phul Oleaceae 140 Jasminum officinale L. Lahare chameli Oleaceae 141 Juglans regia C.DC. Juglandaceae 142 Juniperus indica Bertol. Dhupi Cupressaceae 143 Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. Dhup jadi Compositae 144 Lagotis kunawurensis (Royle ex Benth.) Rupr. Scrophulariaceae 145 Lamiophlomis rotata (Benth. ex Hook.f.) Kudo Labiatae 146 Leontopodium himalayanum DC. Jhulo Compositae 147 Leontopodium jacotianum Beauv. Jhulo Compositae 148 Leontopodium monocephalum Edgew. Jhulo Compositae 149 Ligularia amplexicaulis DC. Aankhe phul Compositae 150 Lilium nepalense D.Don Ban lasun Liliaceae 151 Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude Angeri Ericaceae 152 Maharanga emodi (Wall.) A. DC. Boraginaceae 153 Mahonia napaulensis DC. Mandre chutro Berberidaceae 154 Malva verticillata L. Laphe sag Malvaceae 155 Mazus dentatus Wall. ex Benth. Scrophulariaceae 156 Meconopsis grandis Prain Kyasar Papaveraceae 157 Meconopsis horridula Hook.f . & Thoms. Papaveraceae 158 Meconopsis paniculata Prain Kheldar Papaveraceae 159 Megacarpaea polyandra Benth. Cruciferae 160 Morchella conica Guchhi chyau 161 Morchella esculenta Guchhi chyau 162 Morina nepalensis D.Don Chilleti Dipsacaceae 163 Morina polyphylla Wall. ex DC. Dipsacaceae 164 Morus australis Poir. Kimbu Moraceae 165 Myricaria rosea W.W. Smith Humbu Tamaricaceae 166 Nardostachys grandiflora DC. Jatamansi Valerianaceae

167 Neolitsea cuipala (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Kosterm. Lauraceae

168 Neolitsea pallens (D.Don) Momiy Lauraceae 169 Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia (Pennell) Hong Kutki Scrophulariaceae 170 Origanum vulgare L. Ram tulsi Labiatae 171 Oxalis corniculata L. Chari amilo Oxalidaceae 172 Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill Boke Polygonaceae

 

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173 Paris polyphylla Sm. Satuwa Liliaceae 174 Parmelia sp Jhyau Parmeliaceae 175 Pedicularis hoffmeisteri Klotzsch Scrophulariaceae 176 Persea odoratissima (Nees) Kosterm. Kaulo Lauraceae 177 Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth. Labiatae 178 Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Jaringo sag Phytolaccaceae 179 Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. Jhulo Pinaceae 180 Pilea racemosa (Royle) Tuyama Urticaceae 181 Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Khote salla Pinaceae 182 Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jacks. Gobre salla Pinaceae 183 Piptanthus nepalensis (Hook.) D.Don Siksike Leguminosae 184 Plantago depressa Willd. Khete saag Plantaginaceae 185 Plantago erosa Wall. Khete saag Plantaginaceae 186 Plantago major L. Isabgol sag Plantaginaceae 187 Pleurospermum dentatum (DC.) C.B.Clarke Gandraino Umbelliferae 188 Pleurospermum hookeri C.B. Clarke Bhuset Umbelliferae 189 Podophyllum hexandrum Royle Laghu patra Berberidaceae 190 Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle Ramsikia Liliaceae 191 Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All Khirlung Liliaceae 192 Populus ciliata Wall.ex Royle Bhote pipal Salicaceae 193 Potentilla atrosanguinea (Lodd.) Hook.f. Rosaceae 194 Potentilla fruticosa L. Bhairung pate Rosaceae 195 Potentilla fulgens Wall. ex Hook. Bajradanti Rosaceae 196 Potentilla peduncularis D.Don Mula jhar Rosaceae 197 Primula macrophylla D.Don Primulaceae 198 Primula sikkimensis Hook.f. Primulaceae 199 Prinsepia utilis Royle Dhatelo Rosaceae 200 Prunus armeniaca L. Chuli Rosaceae 201 Prunus sp Khamu Rosaceae 202 Pterocephalus hookeri (C.B. Clarke) Diels Dipsacaceae 203 Punica granatum L. Darim Punicaceae 204 Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) M. Roem. Rosaceae 205 Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Rosaceae 206 Quercus lanata Sm. Phalant Fagaceae 207 Quercus leucotrichophora A.Camus Banjh Fagaceae 208 Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. Khasru Fagaceae 209 Rabdosia rugosa (Wall. ex Benth.) H.Hara Labiatae 210 Ramalina sp Jhyau 211 Ranunculus brotherusii Freyn Ranunculaceae 212 Ranunculus sceleratus L. Ranunculaceae 213 Ranunculus tricuspis Maxim. Ranunculaceae 214 Rheum acuminatum Hook. f. & Thoms. ex Hook. Khokkim Polygonaceae 215 Rheum australe D.Don Padamchaal Polygonaceae 216 Rheum moorcroftianum Royle Boke Polygonaceae 217 Rhodiola himalensis (D.Don) S.H.Fu Crassulaceae

 

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218 Rhododendron anthopogon D.Don Sunpati Ericaceae 219 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Lali gurans Ericaceae 220 Rhododendron barbatum Wall. ex G.Don Chimalo Ericaceae 221 Rhododendron campanulatum D.Don Seto chimal Ericaceae 222 Rhododendron campylocarpum Hook.f. Chimal Ericaceae 223 Rhododendron lepidotum Wall. ex G.Don Bhale sunpati Ericaceae 224 Rhus javanica L. Bhaki amilo Anacardiaceae 225 Rhus wallichii Hook. f. Bhalayo Anacardiaceae 226 Ribes glaciale Wall. Ban aiselu Grossulariaceae 227 Rosa brunonii Lindl. Gulab Rosaceae 228 Rosa macrophylla Lindl. Bhainsi Kanda Rosaceae 229 Rosa sericea Lindl. Jungali gulab Rosaceae

230 Roscoea alpina Royle Nakkali paanch aule Zingiberaceae

231 Roscoea purpurea J.E.Smith Rasgari Zingiberaceae 232 Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Majhitho Rubiaceae 233 Rubus ellipticus Sm. Aiselu Rosaceae 234 Rubus foliolosus D.Don Kalo aiselu Rosaceae 235 Rubus hoffmeisterianus Kunth & Bouche Rosaceae 236 Rumex hastatus D.Don Kapu Polygonaceae 237 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Hale Polygonaceae 238 Salix calyculata Hook. f. ex Andersson Salicaceae 239 Salix denticulata Anders Salicaceae 240 Sambucus adnata Wall. ex DC. Sambucaceae 241 Sarcococca hookeriana Baill. Khursani pate Buxaceae 242 Selinum tenuifolium Wall. Bhutkesh Umbelliferae 243 Silene sp Naru Caryophyllaceae 244 Skimmia laureola (DC.) Sieb.& Zucc.ex Walp. Narpati Rutaceae 245 Smilacina oleracea (Baker) Hook.f. in Hook.f. Liliaceae 246 Smilacina purpurea Wall. Sikari sag Liliaceae 247 Smilax aspera L. Syal daino Liliaceae 248 Sorbus cuspidata (Spach) Hedl. Chyuli Rosaceae 249 Spiraea canescens D.Don Rosaceae 250 Stellera chamaejasme L. Jharan Thymelaeaceae 251 Swertia chirayita (Roxb.ex Fleming) H.Karst. Chirayito Gentianaceae 252 Swertia nervosa (G.Don) C. B. Clarke Bhale chirayito Gentianaceae 253 Swertia racemosa (Griseb.) C.B.Clarke Tigta Gentianaceae 254 Symplocos paniculata (Thunb.) Miq. Lodh Symplocaceae

255 Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam. ex Kitam & Gould Bayo jadi Compositae

256 Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. Tuki phul Compositae 257 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Lauth salla Taxaceae 258 Thalictrum cultratum Wall. Ranunculaceae 259 Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Dampate Ranunculaceae 260 Thermopsis barbata Royle Leguminosae

 

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261 Thymus linearis Benth. Ghode machha Labiatae

262 Toona serrata (Royle) M. Roem. Meliaceae 263 Trigonella emodii Benth. Leguminosae 264 Trillidium govanianum (D.Don) Kunth Liliaceae 265 Tsuga dumosa (D.Don) Eichler Thingre salla Pinaceae 266 Urtica dioica L. Sisnu Urticaceae 267 Usnea longissima Ach. Jhyau Usneaceae 268 Usnea orientalis Jhyau Usneaceae

269 Valeriana hardwickii Wall. Nakkali jatamansi Valerianaceae

270 Valeriana jatamansii Jones Samayo Valerianaceae 271 Verbascum thapsus L. Guna puchhar Scrophulariaceae 272 Viburnum erubescens Wall. ex DC. Ban chulo Sambucaceae 273 Viburnum mullaha Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Mallo Sambucaceae 274 Viola biflora L. Ghatte phool Violaceae 275 Viola sp Violaceae 276 Viscum album L. Harchur Viscaceae 277 Waldheimia tomentosa (Decne.) Regel Compositae 278 Wikstroemia canescens Meisn. Kalo logte Thymelaeaceae 279 Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Dhanyero Lythraceae 280 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Timur Rutaceae 281 Zanthoxylum nepalense Babu Timur Rutaceae