AS Research Methods - · PDF file3.Primary and Secondary Data •Primary sources of data...

AS Research Methods

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1. Key concepts 2.Quantitative vs Qualitative Data

3.Primary and Secondary Data

4.Choice of Methods

5.Sampling 6.The Research Process

7.Primary Methods 8.Secondary Methods

9.Basic Theory

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1.Key Concepts

Reliability

Representativeness

Validity

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Reliability

Definition: This refers to whether another researcher, if repeating research using the same method for the same research on the same group, would achieve the same results.

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Usually linked to Quantitative data and Structural Theories!

Representativeness

Representative data is generalisable.

Generalizability: if the group sociologists choose to study are representative of the population as a whole, then they will be able to make generalizations about the whole society. If the group is not representative they will only be able to speak about the group studied.

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Usually linked to Quantitative data and Structural Theories!

Key term - ‘objectivity’

This is defined as ‘not being biased’.

It is linked to ‘value-freedom’, which is where a researcher is scientific and collects data in a clinical and detached fashion.

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Validity

Validity: is about truth: how far the findings of research actually provide a true picture of what is being studied.

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Usually linked to Qualitative data and Social Action Perspective!

2. Quantitative vs Qualitative Data

Quantitative Data

Positivism

Qualitative Data

Interpretivism

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Positivism vs Interpretivism

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POSITIVISTIC VIEW ‘structural sociology’

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Sociology as a science - Positivism

• Social structure

• Social forces

• Deterministic

• Observable facts

• Quantifiable

• Objectivity

• Cause and effect

• Correlations

• Laws of behaviour

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Quantitative research & postitivism

Quantitative research

Large scale

Produces numerical data

Allows for testing &

re-testing of

theories/hypotheses

Positivism

reliable results

generalisable

Possible to produce

clear cut results

Laws can be established

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INTERPRETIVISTIC VIEW

‘Social Action Sociology’

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Interpretivist concerns

• Social interaction

• The social construction of reality

• Human consciousness and the negotiation of social reality – freedom of choice

• Statistics are only subjective measures of ‘gatekeeper’ judgements

• Meanings define the nature of an act

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Qualitative research & Interpretivism

Qualitative Research

Small scale

Produces textual data

Theories emerge from data

Interpretivism

Rich, detailed data

Thick description

Rejects notion

of scientific method

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3.Primary and Secondary Data

• Primary sources of data

• Secondary sources of data

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Primary data

Primary data is collected first hand by the sociologist. (The sociologists controls the whole research process)

Quantitative methods - postal questionnaires, structured interviews, longitudinal studies and even experiments

Qualitative methods - unstructured interviewing, participant observation and other ethnographic techniques.

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Advantages Disadvantages

Creating data specifically relevant to

the research aims

Control over question

design/structure/format

Clear focus on the research purpose.

Choice over which methods to use -

quantitative, qualitative, a combination

The researcher can also create their

own conceptual definitions

Deciding the most appropriate ways to

put concepts into measurable forms.

Control over the research sample to be

studied.

More able to interpret and present the

data.

Can take up chance research

opportunities

No useable secondary data exists for

some groups/issues

Time consuming - limiting material

collected

Problem of gaining enough funding

The source of funding exerts an influence

over what is researched and what

methods are used.

Difficulties with the creation of the type of

sample required.

Each method of primary data collection

has its own specific disadvantages.

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Secondary data

• Where researchers use data already in existence.

• Quantitative – statistics

• Qualitative – letters, diaries, newspapers

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Already in existence

Often comprehensive

Readily available

Easy to access

Cheap

Sometimes pre-analysed

Often in a format which allows for

comparative analysis

Often based on a very large sample

making it more representative

Secondary evidence is sometimes the

only material available.

Can be very patchy in coverage.

Qualitative documents in particular vary

greatly in coverage and are unlikely to

be representative.

The focus of study and the choice of

methods lie outside the control of the

researcher.

The concepts employed and their

operationalisation are beyond the

sociologist’s control.

The interpretation and presentation of

material also are the result of the work

of others. Official statistics, the source

of much secondary data, have

particular problems

Each source of secondary data has its

own specific strengths and

weaknesses.

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4.Choice of Methods

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Why do sociologists use different methods of research ?

• Sociologists use different methods of research

for a host of different reasons.

• It is not a random process the choosing of methods, but a detailed and considered exercise where a number of issues have to be taken into account before a decision can be made.

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P.E.T Factors

• P = practical

• E = ethical

• T = theoretical

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Theoretical Factors Structural Sociology Social Action Sociology

Focus on institutions guiding behaviour

(Functionalism, Marxism)

View social forces external to people shaping action.

Positivistic – emulate scientific method

- cause and effect

Prefer use of quantitative data that is measurable,

numerical and enables statistical analysis = produce

correlations.

Emphasis on objective reality beyond individuals

that is universal and can be examined/measured.

MACRO RESEARCH

People in SOCIETY

Social surveys, structured interviews, use of statistics

Methods with strong reliability

Focus on individuals interacting and creating the

world.

View social constructionism and how people make

sense of reality in their minds, which then informs

action.

Interpretivistic – humanistic

Prefer use of qualitative data that is more ‘wordy’

and enables insights into individual meanings and

perceptions.

Reality is not objective but subjective and can be

experienced differently by different people.

MICRO RESEARCH

PEOPLE in society

Unstructured interviews, participant observation,

diaries, letters

Methods with strong validity back 24

Practical Factors Factors Details

Funding Who is financing the research ? Whoever sponsors research may want a say in research design, methods etc.

Cost How much money does a researcher have ? This will affect sample size, length of time available for study, number of researchers used, geographic limits, etc

Time Length of time available will limit size of research. Qualitative methods need more time for detailed analysis compared to a quantitative survey.

Topic What is being studied ? The topic may limit choice of method. Many studies of deviant behaviour have been qualitative and covert due to sensitive nature of topic and issue of validity. This also raises the factor of access to study group.

Opportunity Sometimes researchers find opportunities emerge with direct their choice of method. In the case of Howard Parker (The View from the Boys) and also Cohen and Robbins (Knuckle Sandwich), both adopted a form of participant observation which they found possible in their role as youth workers.

Personal Issues

Some researchers are limited by personal matters. • Home life – family responsibilities. • Career - the demands of their everyday job, ie) University lecturer • Profile - gender, age, ethnicity, physical limitations • Topic - personal interest in topic – influence focus and method.

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Ethical Factors

Sociologists are also limited by ‘ethics’ (outlined by the British Sociological Association).

• Some researchers will not use COVERT methods

because they feel that they are being deceitful and that it is wrong to research people without their consent.

• Researchers need to be careful not to bring harm to their subjects, themselves and the discipline of sociology. Certain methods have more potential to harm subjects and leave them feeling ‘invaded’ after a study has ended.

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Ethics continued

• Deception – covert/hidden/lying/no informed consent

• Debriefing – exit research can be sudden (almost abusive)

• Self at risk (dangerous contexts)

• ‘guilty knowledge’ (law)

• Invasion of privacy – abusive/exploitative

27 Qualitative methods tend to be more ‘unethical’

5. Sampling Methods

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Sampling

• What is sampling?

• Types of sampling: - random - systematic - stratified - quota - opportunity - snowballing

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Representative sampling • Many sociologists want their

results to be representative.

• This means that, what they discover about a certain group can be said to be true for all people in that group across society.

• This is also known as ‘making generalizations’ about the group under study

eg) in other words, the results

discovered about the attitudes of

young criminals in London

should be the similar to those in

Manchester or Glasgow.

To be representative, a sociologist needs to be careful with their sample. Different sampling techniques can be used to help produce results that can be representative of the whole population. Some sampling techniques are called ‘random’ and others are ‘non-random’. back 30

What is sampling? • Researchers do not have to

study everybody in society.

• They select a ‘population’, (a group under study) to focus upon that is suitable for their study.

• Sociologists cannot study everybody in society who are actually part of this social group (population), so they select a small ‘sample’ of the population to focus upon.

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Sampling frames

• This is a complete list of all members of a chosen population.

• They are not always available. How many young criminals would give officials their names to add to list, just in case a researcher needs to get in touch ??!??

• Useful sampling frames that can

be used include research: - An electoral Roll - A school register - A doctor’s list of patients

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Types of Sampling

Random sampling Systematic sampling Stratified sampling

Quota sampling Opportunity sampling

Snowball sampling

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Random Sampling

What is it? Every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected e.g. Pulling names out of a hat Why useful? For very large samples it provides the best chance of an unbiased representative sample

Weaknesses For large populations it is time-consuming to create a list of every individual.

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Stratified ‘random’ Sampling What is it? Dividing the target population into important subcategories. Selecting members in proportion that they occur in the population e.g. 2.5% of British are of Indian origin, so 2.5% of your sample should be of Indian origin… and so on Why useful? A deliberate effort is made to make the sample representative of the target population

Weaknesses

It can be time consuming as the subcategories have to be identified and proportions calculated

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Systematic ‘random’ Sampling What is it? Choose your participants from a sampling frame using a system, e.g. numbering the participants 1,2,3 and then selecting every 3rd person to be a participant. Why useful? It’s a bit like random sampling and can therefore give unbiased samples from large populations.

Weaknesses

In some situations using a system to select participants can make the sample biased, e.g. by picking every 10th house you might only pick out ‘corner houses’ etc.

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Quota ‘non-random’ Sampling What is it? Dividing the target population into important subcategories. Selecting members in proportion that they occur in the population, e.g. 2.5% of British are of Indian origin, so 2.5% of your sample should be of Indian origin… and so on Why useful? A deliberate effort is made to make the sample representative of the target population

Weaknesses • It can be time consuming as the

subcategories have to be identified and proportions calculated.

• There might be a bias in the sample making it unrepresentative because researchers just ask people until you have enough.

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Opportunity ‘non-random’ Sampling

What is it? Simply selecting those people that are available at the time. e.g. going up to people in cafés and asking them to be interviewed Why useful? Quick, convenient and economical. A most common type of sampling in practice.

Weaknesses

Very unrepresentative samples and often biased by the researcher who will likely choose people who are ‘helpful’

Tend to be used by interpretivists back 38

Snowball ‘non-random’ Sampling What is it? Participants are selected from an initial contact who puts the researcher in touch with other possible participants.

Why useful? A useful way of finding participants with a certain attribute (e.g. they’re a member of a cult, or a drug user), who might not wish to be found otherwise.

Weaknesses

• Can be very biased, people with more friends are more likely to be selected as participants.

• Some people might not want to be ‘found’ by sociologists.

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6. The Research Process

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The Research Process

Hypothetico-deductive model

Operationalizing concepts

Pilot study

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Hypothetico-Deductive Model

This is the research process linked to natural science. It involves observing the world and producing a hypothesis (testable statement) to explain what has been observed. Research is then designed to test this hypothesis (theory) by gathering evidence to prove/disprove it.

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Operationalizing Concepts

This is ‘to define something so that it can be measurable’ in research.

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Pilot Study

A pilot study is a ‘small preliminary testing of a method before the full method is conducted’.

It helps to ‘iron out’ any problems and make the final method more effective. eg, some questions may be

unclear or leading.

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7.Primary Methods

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Primary Methods

Quantitative Qualitative

Experiments

Surveys/questionnaires

Longitudinal Studies

Structured Interviews

Unstructured Interviews

Structured Observation

Unstructured Observation

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Primary Quantitative Methods

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Methods Experiments/Field Experiments

Description • Experiments are a positivistic/ scientific approach to research • They are systematic, rigorous and allow the researcher to observe the effects of variables under controlled conditions • They are all about observing cause and effect relationships to identify correlations • They are scientific and explore cause and effect relationships • They generate measurable, quantifiable data • They can be related to social forces shaping people • They are objective and unbiased • They are replicable and findings can be generalised

The 2 types of expt

Lab Expts • Takes place in a laboratory under controlled conditions • Mainly used in Psychology

Field Expts • Takes place inside society in real-life conditions • Follows behaviour in natural setting

Examples Milgram – Obedience study Psychology experiment into conformity and obedience Electric shocks given as part of a new ‘learning programme’ A significant number of people followed the lead of lab assistants and ‘killed’ learners who failed to make progress Ethical problems with study

• Rosenham et al – mental patients • Sissons – actor asking directions to Paddington Station • Smith – Job applications and racism • Garfinkel – queues, home as a hotel

Evaluation Advantages Disadvantages

Lab Experiments • Controlled environment • Observe variables – cause and effect • Removes bias • Replicable (reliable) • Generalisable Field Experiments • Behaviour in real life setting – natural behaviour • Able to control some variables and observe effects • Insight into meanings and perceptions held by

subjects • No Hawthorne effect as subjects not aware of being

observed

Lab Experiments • Lacks validity • Ethical questions • Society cannot fit in a laboratory – not true to life • Hawthorne effect Field Experiments • Impossible to control all variables • Ethical issue of deceit • Depends on skill of observer/selectivity

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The Hawthorne Effect This is where people who are being observed during research change their behaviour. It is also called the ‘observer effect’. Named the ‘Hawthorne Effect’ following the research at a factory where Elton Mayo found that workers changed their behaviour to please the researchers, rather than acting naturally.

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Methods Surveys/Questionnaires

Description • ‘research projects which collect standardised data about large numbers of people’. • Closed question format (usually) to enable generation of statistical trends and correlations. • Posted to home of respondents with SAE - anonymity in many cases • Results can now be compiled by computers. • Quantitative method = macro = numerical = trends. • Linked to structural sociology = comparative method - examines variables and finds relationships. • Closed questions generally as examining TRENDS and not individual situations.

Examples • CENSUS - whole population—every 10 years—1st year of decade (1991, 2001) - examines household numbers, employment, health, leisure, transport etc. Government uses data for social planning. Business use data for marketing and forward planning.

• General Household Surveys (annually) - similar to census. • Market Research - CONSUMER BUREAU - consumer research of tastes/expenditure etc.


• Cheap method • Quick (if returned) • Wide geographic area • Less effort needed to administer • No problem of interviewer bias • Selected people—more likely to be honest • Large number studied = reliable data • Pre-coded questions = statistical analysis • Identifies correlation - features of different

groups in society • Replicable - testable by others—verification

• Low response rate—25-35% • Reminders need sending—increased costs • Dependent on an educated/literate sample • Incomplete questions • Respondent not like official looking document

wary of uses—not truthful • Dishonesty - exaggerate/underestimate. • Too many ‘don’t knows’ = bias • Who fills it in? Do we know for sure? • Sabotage • Statistics/Closed questions give no detail of

individual meanings, interpretations and experiences—not VALID (interpretivism)

• People may attach different meanings to questions (interviews overcome this problem of interpretation)

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Methods Longitudinal Studies

Description • A research project following a group of people over a lengthy period of time. Measures changes in attitudes and behaviour over time.

• Quantitative – researchers gather a wealth of descriptive/numerical data at intervals to enable them to make comparisons between groups and change over time periods.

• Positivistic – explores differences between groups and how their social position influences their lives. Correlations are formed and general statements about particular social groups are made.

Examples • Child Health and Education Survey – follows the lives of every child born between 3-9 March 1958 • 7 UP – Granada TV series – follows a group of children from the age of 7 years (in the early 1960s) – at 7 year intervals to see

how their expectations at 7 have been met etc • JWB Douglas – All Our Future – followed a group of children throughout their school careers. (see EDUCATION NOTES) • West & Farrington – Who Becomes Delinquent? – followed 411 London boys from aged 8 until they were 18 years old – see

what factors were linked to delinquency.


• Useful for making comparisons – see what stays the same and what changes over time. Better than just a snapshot impression.

• Keeping the same sample – allows for a more specific study to take place.

• Large scale social movements can be mapped –useful for seeing how social groups behave and characteristics influence their development and experiences, ie) social class, ethnicity – of various institutions; education, health, crime etc

• Sample shrinkage – death, immigration, refusal to continue – study loses its representativeness.

• Representativeness – over time the demographic population may change and therefore the original sample is no longer representative.

• Changing research interests – concerns of 40 years ago may not be relevant today. If study focus changes then ‘comparability of data’ is undermined.

• Sample membership and their response – people may alter their behaviour if they know they are being studied over time.

• Cost – very expensive – need a dedicated/focused team.

• Research team may change over time.

• The problems aimed at most quantitative data methods (see theory notes)

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Methods Structured Interviews

Description These are face to face surveys.

Examples


Advantages over postal surveys • Can collect more complex and detailed data • Reach a wider range of respondents

(overcome the literacy problem) • Have an improved response rate (70-80%) • Quick to do (as not dependent on postal

return)

Other advantages • Greater flexibility in asking (and answering of

questions) • Individual attention can be given to help

respondents (explain/repeat questions) • Can be used with all sections of the

population (more representative) • Interviewer presence can make answering

questions more interesting for respondent • Fewer ‘don’t knows’ when face to face

• Very costly • Time consuming • Need to train interviewees • Wages for interviewees • Interviewer can can sometimes

forget/misinterpret a response • Face to face interaction may influence

respondents • The emotional state of the interviewee could

affect their responses • Interview situation is always artificial • What people say and do are not always the

same (validity issue), • ie) Cumberbatch & Bates ‘video nasties’ • Only gain a ‘snapshot’ of population ata certain

time

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Methods Structured Observations

Description • Structured Observation is when a researcher records behaviour in a systematic way. • This usually involves using some kind of record sheet – with tick-box categories. • It is praised by POSITIVISTS!

Examples • Classroom observations – into teacher-student relationships/labelling • Road traffic surveys (non sociological) • Football Hooliganism – the Eric Dunning work in the terraces at Leicester City FC • Women and public space – Karen Evans


• Creates quantifiable data • Patterns and trends can be noted • Less time consuming that unstructured

observation • It is replicable (can be repeated) • Verifiable (testable by others) • Overt and ethical

• Difficult to conduct in a covert manner • Overt observation can affect the behaviour of

the observed • Data isn’t valid – says little about meanings and

motives of people • Categorising of observable behaviour is

subjective • Mentally demanding

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Primary Qualitative Methods

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Methods Unstructured Interviews

Description • These are more in-depth interviews. They do not follow a structured and standardized list of questions. They are more OPEN and are like a ‘focused conversation’. Researchers use an ‘interview schedule’ to guide their questioning.

• This is a more QUALITATIVE method because it is very detailed and allows the researcher to have a detailed understanding of the people being studied. They are used to explore peoples lives, feelings and motives in detail.

• The data produced is very wordy and this is why researchers usually record their data on a tape-recorder, which they can listen to and write up later.

Examples • Paul Willis in ‘Learning to Labour’ used this method. He interviewed a small group of working-class boys at school to learn about their hopes for the future and why they acted as they did at school. He found out a great deal about why they caused trouble at school and the reasons for this.

• Ann Oakley in ‘From Here to Maternity’ interviewed a small group of young mothers to discover about their experiences of childbirth and caring. In ‘Housewife’ she discussed the nature of housework and how far men actually did support them at home.

• Laud Humphries in ‘Tearoom Trade’ used this method along with observation work when he researched the homosexual encounters within public lavatories. He found out a great deal about what they did, where they did it and why. He was able to learn about their lives in detail and to explore their experiences in depth.


• High response rate. • Interviewees can talk at length and in great detail

about issues (investigate the attitudes towards school, motives, explain actions etc)

• Answers can be developed more as the interviewer can ask follow on questions to discover more.

• Questions can be explained and rephrased more to help the respondent answer the question better.

• They are friendly and more personal. • They are seen to be quite valid and the data gained is

more honest and trustworthy.

• They only use a small sample size and therefore cannot be representative of the whole population.

• Interviewers need to be very skilled in order to keep the conversation going and to get people to open up.

• There is the problem of interviewer bias and the encouraging of respondents to answer in certain ways.

• Interviewees may just give the answers that they think the interviewer wants to hear (this is called the ‘Hawthorne Effect’).

• They are very time-consuming. • They are very difficult to ‘do again’ and replicate as they

do lack structure. • It is more difficult to analyse wordy text than numbers.

– need to be quite skilled here in what to focus on. • Ethical issue of—invading privacy • Ethical issue - how to exit relationship with interviewee back 55

Key term - ‘interview schedule’

This is a list of questions to be asked in an interview.

For structured interviews this is similar to a list of ‘closed’ questions like a survey.

For unstructured interviews it is looser – a kind of ‘areas of focus’ with themes and ‘open’ questions.

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Methods Unstructured Observation (participation observation)

Description • This is a type of observation where the researcher takes part in the situations that they are observing. In other words they are observing and participating also.

• Participant observation can be overt (this is where we people know that they are being watched) or covert (this is undercover and people are unaware that they are being observed).

• Researchers find themselves almost ‘living amongst’ the group that they are studying and for quite a while too. • This method is used by interpretivistic sociologists who are trying to find detailed meanings behind people’s

behaviour. It is a qualitative method that reveals much about the experiences of social groups.

Examples • Laud Humphries in ‘Tearoom Trade’. He went undercover in public toilets in the USA, where he developed a greater understanding of the experiences and lifestyles surrounding ‘gay liaisons in such places. He took on the role of the ‘watch queen’ and kept a look-out for approaching strangers. He discovered that most of the men involved were not homosexual but in fact ‘straight men’ in search of a gay experience.

• Eileen Barker in ‘The Making of a Moonie’ went undercover with the Moonies cult to find out how far they actually did brainwash their members.

• James Patrick in ‘A Glasgow Gang Observed’ became involved with a gang of violent young criminals in Scotland. He spent many hours with them to try and understand how and why they performed the crimes that they did.


• People can be studied in natural surroundings. In the classroom = interactions—relationships – labelling

• Researchers can see things from the point of view of the observed and therefore have a deeper understanding of those observed...vestehen

• This data gathered is seen as more VALID as it is a true reflection of the actually people and their lives.

• It allows researchers to explore more secretive groups and their lifestyles.

Non-PO

• Less drawn into group activity. • Researcher is less biased and more neutral.

• It is hard to gain entry to groups. • It is hard to record information, such as taking notes. A

researcher’s memory may not be accurate. • Researchers may put themselves at risk. • It takes a lot of time and commitment—expensive. • A researcher may ‘go native’ and become too involved

with group. This may lead to them becoming biased. • The presence of the researcher may influence the

group and they may change behaviour. This is the ‘observer effect’.

• You cannot repeat this form of study accurately. Hard to test the results.

Non-PO

• Researcher finds it hard to see the world through the eyes of those observed.

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‘Covert’ and ‘Overt’ Observation Pros Cons

Overt • Can openly ask questions to clarify meanings

• Ethical approach because the observer gains the informed consent of those involved

• The observer may have more freedom to join in or not join particular activities

• Knowing the observer’s true identity/ purpose may affect the group’s behaviour, reducing the validity of the data created

• Some aspects of the group’s behaviour may be closed to covert researchers

• The group may refuse access

Covert • Does not disturb the normal behaviour of the group – leading to more valid data

• Allows the observer to dig deeper into the group’s behaviour because of their status as a group member

• Access to certain areas of the groups’ behaviour may be only be possible in secret

• If the real purpose of the observer is uncovered, the research may be jeoparised

• Ethical issues of trust, lack of informed consent etc.

• Recording behaviour is difficult without raising suspicions

• Hard to do over any long period of time

• There may be an element of danger in trying to maintain a secret identity

• There may not be a suitable role for the observer to occupy back 58

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8. Secondary Methods

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Secondary Methods

Quantitative Qualitative

Official Statistics

Documents

Content Analysis

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Secondary Quantitative Methods

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Methods Official Statistics

Description • They are created by government departments and agencies • They offer data on a wide range of social issues (ie, crime, education, traffic, divorce) • They are collected and presented in a quantified form

• These are desired by Positivists as they are quantifiable/measurable and useful for correlations (ie, take a school with

high truancy rate and correlate with grades achieved, teenage pregnancy and single parent families!!) • They are; objective, factual and measurable • They are large scale (representative/generalisable)

Examples • Crime Statistics – annually – Home Office – number of crimes and police effectiveness assessed • Census – demographic data collected each decade • Unemployment figures – monthly – show increases/decreases • League Tables – academic performance • Marriage/Divorce rates


• Readily available – data exists • Cheap method • Large samples – government access whole

population • The law ensures completion – high response rate • Usually coded and pre-analysed • Visibly clear and easy to read • Reliable – re-testable • Reveals trends and correlations • Published regularly – good for tracking changes • Provide background information • Help generate research hypothesis • Sociologists can use trends to inform research • Help to identify political agendas and bias • Give access to areas that sociologists may not access

otherwise

• Lack of control by the researcher – produced by others using their own definitions and categories (usually to meet their own needs , ie) unemployment is defined in such a way that the figures do not include people who are on YTS schemes

• Official definitions – effect measurement process – not the same as sociologists.

• Social construction of statistics – not factual but shaped by actions of individuals.

• Political bias – Marxist view about political influence on statistic collection process ie) The Black Report on health and social class (1981)

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Official Statistics Positivists Interpretivists

These are desired by Positivists as they are quantifiable/measurable and useful for correlations (ie, take a school with high truancy rate and correlate with grades achieved, teenage pregnancy and single parent families!!) They are; objective, factual and measurable They are large scale (representative/generalisable)

Interpretivists distrust official statistics

They can distort the truth and are the product of the bias and expectations of the researcher collecting them (the social construction of official statistics) They are also just showing us a general picture of social life and lack validity Statistics are not ‘facts’ – they are not objective Statistics are the ‘product’ of negotiation and the opinions and judgements of social actors All statistics reflect are the prejudices of the collectors – they are a record of their actions! back 65

Case study 1 – Crime Statistics

• Produced annually by the Home office

• Reveal crime rates and police effectiveness

Uses Problems

Reveal trends

Help target resources

Compare regional forces

selective policing

chivalry factor

under-reporting,

under-recording, unknown

dark-figure of crime

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The social construction of crime statistics

Before a crime is recorded it has to have been….

observed

identified as a crime

reported

investigated

dealt with by courts

At each stage

there are actors

making decisions

that affects the

reaching of the

next level

This is not a

factual process

but a subjective

one based upon

opinions,

prejudices and

decisions!!!

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Case study 2 – suicide statistics • Based upon the recorded cases in

coroner’s courts annually

• Problems (social construction)

- rely upon coroner’s judgements

(Atkinson)

- people ‘hide’ suicide

- ‘the meanings of suicide’ (Douglas)

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Secondary Qualitative Methods

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Documents

• Letters, diaries

• History books

• Newspapers

• Content Analysis

Life documents back 70

Documents – what are they?

• These are documents that have been produced by individuals or organisations

• They are ‘text’-based and rich in language

• These can be PRIVATE documents, like letters and diaries

• These can be PUBLIC documents, like newspapers and memoranda back 71

Why are they valued by Interpretivists?

• Interpretivists value their potential for giving access to the ideas and meanings held by individuals and organisations

• They are loaded with meaning and give vital insight into people’s opinions and perceptions. back 72

Life documents

This is another name for qualitative documents.

They include: blogs, emails, social networking, suicide notes

General evaluation back 73

Life documents - evaluation


• Interesting/unusual – offer variety

• Validity – allows the researcher to see “how it really is” – verstehen

• Cheap/easy to use – they pre-exist.

• Authenticity – created in the passing of everyday life so not artificial.

• They can add real depth to research data collected using other methods.

• Interactionists see life documents as revealing personal meanings which they see as shaping behaviours.

• Sometimes hard to obtain – people may object to them being used

• They might not be true – e.g. sometimes people fantasise in their diaries rather than record actual experiences

• Could be highly biased interpretations of events/people

• Hard to generalise meaningfully from such individual documents

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Methods Letters, Diaries

Description • These are personal journals kept by people to record their experiences and thoughts on a day to day basis.

• Diaries are usually private and the audience is generally the author of the diary.


• Offer a valuable insight into motives/actions of individuals

• High level of VALIDITY

• Sometimes these are the only ‘road into’ lives of certain groups

• They can be cross referenced against other sources

• All diaries are written in a selective way. They edit/exaggerate events.

• Letters are written for a specific audience.

• Some groups – illiterate people – cannot keep diaries – so they are not a representative method.

• Difficult to assess accuracy of diaries.

• Some diaries are written after events have happened (retrospectively) and may be written with the benefit of ’20-20 hindsight’.

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Methods History books

Description These are books written by historians using a range of sources.

Examples • Geoffrey Pearson’s study of hooliganism showed us that it dates back to Victorian England and not so new.


• Using historical documents can be useful to sociologists in terms of studying social change and understanding the context in which social behaviour takes place, (they are a good cross-reference).

• It can help consider the DEVELOPMENT of social behaviour over time and how they may not be a recent phenomena.

• Help to triangulate and use alongside other methods

• Main problems of these documents are in terms of representativeness, accuracy, language and how they are interpreted

• Historians can be selective and biased in their presentation of material.

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Methods Newspapers/mass media

Description These are produced for a public audience. They contain articles and editorial pieces. They are a vital source of mass communication in modern society. The media includes magazines, books and other forms of literature

Examples • Glasgow University Media Group (GUMG) (Greg Philo et al) - Studied the portrayal of many groups in the media and considered the bias there, ie) the reporting of strikes, the handling of HIV and AIDS stories, racism in the media. They argue that the capitalist media serve to promote an ideology that benefits the powerful in society.

• Stanley Cohen – Folk Devils and Moral Panics - Groundbreaking research into media reporting of the

mods and rockers violence in the mid-60s. Noted how stories were exaggerated and led to a labelling and bias that caused more cases of violence take place.

• Stuart Hall – Policing the Crisis - A Marxist author who explored the ‘moral panic’ of the mugging

scare in the early 1970s. Hall noted how the press exaggerated the stories and led to a stereotyping and associating with street crime and black youths in 1970s England. This fuelled selective policing and the biased ‘suss laws’ to be introduced.


• Media material is very comprehensive • Britain’s mass media represents a wide range

of opinion • Media reports can be fairly easily organised

systematically – ie) gender representations of characters in articles

• Loaded with bias and distortion

• Quantitative measurement (content analysis of media) identifies patterns but this does not explain WHY the media is so distorted

• Problems with exploring meanings carried by words and images – interpretation is always selective!

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Methods Content Analysis

Description This is a method to investigate the content of the mass media. It focuses on how issues are ‘presented in the media’. It involves a statistical analysis of the media by using categories and counting up the number of times that the things fall into certain categories. This analysis then allows researchers to note any patterns and then explore the meanings involved here.

Examples Sexism in the advertising • Counting how many times women are portrayed in TV adverts in ‘traditional stereotypical ways’ and

in ‘non-traditional stereotypical ways’. Racism in newspapers • Counting the number of times ‘negative words’ are used in stories in stories on immigration

compared to ‘positive words’.


• It produces statistical data. • It is cheap and easy to carry out. • It limits 'researcher effect'. • It monitors most recent events. • Results may be tested or compared by

repeating the analysis. • It is relatively easy to gain access to the • broadcast or publication you want to

study. • It can present an objective account of

events, themes, issues. • It is ethical and unobtrusive.

• How representative are the samples? • How objective are the categories used –

researchers are selective? • What problems arise with the

categorisation ('coding up') of material under analysis?

• Fails to explain qualitative issues of meaning and significance.

• Analysis of content tells us nothing about audience response.

• Time consuming process. • It describes rather than explains.

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9. Basic Theory

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Structural vs Social Action theories

Structural theories Social Action sociology

Functionalism Marxism Symbolic Interactionism

Focus on social institutions and their role in meeting the needs of society. Institutions shape our actions in a deterministic way (cause and effect relationship). Some institutions perform socialisation (school, family, religion, media) – transmit norms and values which guide behaviour.

Focus on society being like a hierarchy with a powerful minority who control society. Institutions control us by making sure we conform to ideas that benefit the powerful. Some institutions transmit ideology which condition us to support the powerful and think certain ideas.

Focus on humans having consciousness and choice in their actions. Explore how meanings are created through interaction and social constructionism. How we label situations influences how we act in those situations.

Quantitative methods = cause and effect relationships Qualitative methods = explore

meanings and interaction back

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AS Research Methods - · PDF file3.Primary and Secondary Data •Primary sources of data...

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