Approach, Methods,

Techniques

Edward Anthony

- There are three hierarchical elements – approach, method,

technique

Explanation:

Approach = set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language,

learning and teaching

Method = an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based

upon a selected approach

Techniques = the specific activities manifested in the classroom that

are consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an

approach as well

Theodor Rogers, Jack Richards

- Proposed a reformation of the concept of method

Method = their method is more referred to “methodology“

= a generalized set of classroom specifications for

accomplishing linguistic objectives.

The subordinate themes are: approach, design, procedures

Elements and subelements of method – Richards and Rogers

Approach Design Procedure

1. theory of native 1. the general and the classroom

language specific objectives techniques+procedures

2. a theory of the nature 2. syllabus and behaviours

of language learning 3. types of learning and observed when

teaching activities the method is used

4. learner´s role

5. teacher´s role

6. the role of instrumental

materials

Definitions that reflect current usage:

Methodology = the study of pedagogical practices

in general (how to teach)

Approach = theoretical positions and beliefs about

the nature of language, the nature of language

learning

Method = a generalized set of classroom

specifications for accomplishing linguistic

objectives

Syllabus = design for carrying out a particular

language program

Technique = any of a wide variety of exercises,

activities or devices used in the language

classroom for realising lesson objectives

Repka´s model

Approach Method

Planning operation

Programming – syllabus selection of tasks –

(specification of objective) dynamization of

techniques

Stern – 3 theories

1. Theory of teaching foreign language

2. Approaches and methods

3. Proved hypotheses concerning approaches and methods

TECHNIQUE

- Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives

- Technique is also referred to a task, procedure, activity and exercise

ACTIVITY

- Anything that learners actually do in the classroom

- Some sort of performance on the part of learners

PROCEDURE

- The actual moment – to moment techniques, practices and behaviours that operate in teaching language

- Includes techniques

Categorizing techniques

1. From manipulation to communication

◊ manipulative = totally controlled by the teacher and require a predicted response from the students (choral repetition, drills, dictation and reading aloud)

◊ communicative = students´ responses are open-ended and unpredictable (story-telling, brainstorming, role – plays, games)

Drill

◊ mechanical drill = only one correct response from a student

= no connection with the reality

◊ meaningful drill = may have a predicted response, but is connected to some form of reality

◊ quasi-communicative practice = if the exercise is communicative is no longer a drill

2. Controlled to free techniques

Controlled Free

= teacher centered =student centered

= manipulative = communicative

= structured = open-ended

= predicted responses = unpredicted responses

= pre-planned objectives = negotiated objectives

Taxonomy of techniques

Controlled techniques

- warm up

- setting

- organizational

- content explanation

- role-play demonstration

- reading aloud

- question-answer, display

- drill

- translation

- dictation

- copying

- identification

- review

- testing

Semi controlled techniques

- Brainstorming

- Story-telling

- Dialogue

- Narration

- Information transfer

- Information exchange

- Wrap up

- Preparation

Free techniques

- Role play

- Games

- Report

- Problem solving

- Drama

- Simulation

- Interview

- Discussion

- composition

Supporting materialsTextbooks

- Selecting a textbook is a complex task, different things must be taken into consideration:

a) goals of the course

b) background of students (age, education, native language, motivation)

c) approach

d) language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing)

e) general content (proficiency level, authenticity)

f) quality of practice material (exercises, explanation, review)

g) sequencing

h) vocabulary

i) sociolinguistic factors (variety of English, cultural content)

j) format

k) supplementary material (workbook, tapes, tests, posters)

l) teacher´s guide (answer keys, alternative exercises)

Other written texts

- among other written texts available for use is an unlimited supply of real-world textual material such as signs, schedules, calendars, advertisements, menus, notes...

Audio-visual aids

1.Commercially produced – audio cassettes with: listening exercises

lectures

stories

- video tape and films: documentation

instruction

- slides, photographs, posters

2.Creative your own – tapes of conversations of people known to the students

- posters, charts, magazine pictures

3. Realia

Objects – food items, cosmetics, tools and other materials

Computer assisted language learning (CALL)

- tutorial programs (covering grammar, vocabulary, revising, editing)

- text building programs

- process writing (drafting, revising, editing)

- games

- testing

The Revised Bloom’s

Taxonomy: An Overview

Shared by: Lorain Anderson

University of South Carolina

A Fundamental Truth

We don’t see the world as it is;

we see the world through the

lens through which we look at

it.

Bloom’s Taxonomy as a

Framework

A taxonomy of educational objectives “could do much to

bring order out of chaos in the field of education. It could

furnish the conceptual framework around which our

descriptions of educational programs and experiences

could be oriented. It could furnish a framework for the

development of educational theories and research. It could

furnish the scheme needed for training our teachers and for

orienting them to the varied possibilities of education”

(Bloom, 1949)

Who were the taxonomists?

• Post World War II

• Students received course credit by passing the examinations (credit-by-examination)

• Quite obviously, the exams had to be based on course objectives (validity) and of sufficient length to be reliable.

• University Examiners

• Responsible for designing or helping to design end-of-course examinations

They Needed a Set of Categories

that Cut-Across Subject Areas

“Although the objectives … may be specified in an almost unlimited number of ways, the student behaviors involved in these objectives can be represented by a relatively small number of classes. Therefore, the taxonomy is designed to be a classification of the student behaviors which represent the intended outcomes of the educational process” (p. 18).

Looking Through a New Lens

Evaluation

Synthesis

Analysis

Application

Comprehension

Knowledge

The Original “Bloom’s TaxonomyThe Original “Bloom’s TaxonomyThe Original Bloom’s Taxonomy

Without the Lens

The student will recall the

names of the parts of a

flower.

With the Lens

The student will recall the names of

the parts of a flower.

This is a knowledge objective.

Objectives were used to form

categories; then categories were

used to classify objectives.

80 % of the objectives fell into

the Knowledge category

The Revision

• Began in November 1996

• Led by David Krathwohl

• Involved cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists, teacher educators, and measurement and assessment specialists.

• Group met twice a year for four years.

• Draft completed in 2000; text published in 2001.

• Two books – soft cover for teachers and other “practitioners” and hard cover for academicians.

In education, objectives are

statements of what we want

students to learn as a result of the

instruction we provide. Standards

are simply mandated objectives.

The Common Format of

Objectives

Subject Verb Object

S V O

The SUBJECT is the Learner or

the Student.

The student (will)

The student (should)

The students (might)

Quite often, the subject is

implicit or understood.

The verbs provide clues as to the

cognitive process category intended

by the person or persons writing the

standard. Adopted from the original

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational

objectives, there are six cognitive

process categories.

Bloom Revised Bloom

• Remember

• Apply

• Understand

• Analyze

• Evaluate

• Create• Evaluation

• Analysis

• Synthesis

• Application

• Comprehension

• Knowledge

Each of the six cognitive process

categories was divided into specific

cognitive processes. Nineteen (19)

specific cognitive processes were

identified.

Cognitive Processes

• Remember

• Understand

• Recognizing

• Recalling

• Interpreting

• Exemplifying

• Classifying

• Summarizing

• Inferring

• Comparing

• Explaining

Cognitive Processes

(continued)• Apply

• Analyze

• Evaluate

• Create

• Executing

• Implementing

• Differentiating

• Organizing

• Attributing

• Checking

• Critiquing

• Generating

• Planning

• Producing

THE TAXONOMY TABLE

COGNITIVE PROCESS DIMENSION

1.

REMEMBER

Recognizing

Recalling

2.

UNDERSTAND

Interpreting

Exemplifying

Classifying

Summarizing

Inferring

Comparing

Explaining

3.

APPLY

Executing

Implementing

4.

ANALYZE

Differentiating

Organizing

Attributing

5.

EVALUATE

Checking

Critiquing

6.

CREATE

Generating

Planning

Producing

Unlike the verbs, the objects of the

standards are subject-specific (e.g.,

math, science, social studies). The

objects specify the CONTENT of

the standard. For several reasons,

CONTENT was replaced by

KNOWLEDGE.

What are Differences Between

Content and Knowledge?

• Content is subject-matter specific. If you focused on content, then, you would need as many taxonomies as there are subject matters (e.g., one for science, one for history, etc.).

• Content exists outside the student. A major problem, then, is how to get the content inside the student. When content gets inside the student, it becomes knowledge. This transformation of content to knowledge takes place through the cognitive processes used by the student.

Four Types of Knowledge

• Factual Knowledge

• Conceptual Knowledge

• Procedural Knowledge

• Metacognitive Knowledge

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THE TAXONOMY TABLE

COGNITIVE PROCESS DIMENSION

FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

DIMENSION

1.

REMEMBER

Recognizing

Recalling

2.

UNDERSTAND

Interpreting

Exemplifying

Classifying

Summarizing

Inferring

Comparing

Explaining

3.

APPLY

Executing

Implementing

4.

ANALYZE

Differentiating

Organizing

Attributing

5.

EVALUATE

Checking

Critiquing

6.

CREATE

Generating

Planning

Producing

CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGEPROCEDURA

L KNOWLEDGEMETACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE

THE TAXONOMY TABLE

D6D5D4D3D2D1D. Metacognitive

Knowledge

C6C5C4C3C2C1C. Procedural

Knowledge

B6B5B4B3B2B1B. Conceptual

Knowledge

A6A5A4A3A2A1 A. Factual

Knowledge

1.

REMEMBER

Recognizing

Recalling

2.

UNDERSTAND

Interpreting

Exemplifying

Classifying

Summarizing

Inferring

Comparing

Explaining

3.

APPLY

Executing

Implementing

4.

ANALYZE

Differentiating

Organizing

Attributing

5.

EVALUATE

Checking

Critiquing

6.

CREATE

Generating

Planning

Producing

How it Works

Explain the political alliances and

policies that impacted the United

States in the latter part of the 20th

Century, including NATO, the UN,

and OPEC

Verb = Explain

Object = the political alliances

and policies that impacted the

United States in the latter part

of the 20th Century

including NATO, the UN, and OPEC

[Extraneous information]

Verb = Explain = Understand

Object = the political alliances

and policies that impacted the

United States in the latter part

of the 20th Century =

Conceptual Knowledge

Summarize the provisions of the

13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to

the Constitution, including how the

amendments protected the rights of

African Americans and sought to

enhance their political, social, and

economic opportunities

Verb = Summarize

Object = Provisions of the 13th,

14th, and 15th Amendments to

the Constitution

Including how the amendments

protected the rights of African

Americans and sought to enhance their

political, social, and economic

opportunities [Extraneous information]

Verb = Summarize = Understand

Object = Provisions of the 13th,

14th, and 15th Amendments to

the Constitution = Factual

Knowledge

THE TAXONOMY TABLE

COGNITIVE PROCESS DIMENSION

Standard 1

FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

DIMENSION

1.

REMEMBER

Recognizing

Recalling

2.

UNDERSTAND

Interpreting

Exemplifying

Classifying

Summarizing

Inferring

Comparing

Explaining

3.

APPLY

Executing

Implementing

4.

ANALYZE

Differentiating

Organizing

Attributing

5.

EVALUATE

Checking

Critiquing

6.

CREATE

Generating

Planning

Producing

CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGEPROCEDURA

L KNOWLEDGEMETACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE

Standard 2

The SVO format of standards in

combination with the two-

dimensional structure of the

Taxonomy Table allows us to

classify standards so we better

understand their intent and

meaning in terms of student

learning.

Additional Benefits

• Increase curriculum alignment

• Improve validity of assessments

• Improve quality of instruction

Curriculum Alignment

Assessments Objectives

Instructional Activities/

Materials

Curriculum

Alignment

Why is Alignment Important?

• Increases validity of assessment

• Increases students’ opportunity to learn

• Provides more accurate estimates of teaching effectiveness

• Permits better instructional decisions to be made

Traditional Alignment

• What content is included in the objective?

• What content is included on the

assessment(s)?

• Is the content included in the objective

and/or on the assessment included in the

instructional materials?

• If the content is the same, there is a high

level of alignment.

ALIGNMENT

USING THE

TAXONOMY

TABLE

Objectiv

es

Assessme

nts

Instruction

al Activities

Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create

Factual

Conceptual

Procedural

Meta-

Cognitive

INTRODUCTORY MATERIAL

(1) Written (2) Pictorial (3) Realia

STEM

(1) Question (2) Incomplete Statement (3) Directive

RESPONSE

(1) Short-Answer (2) Extended Response

* Supply (Fill in the blank) * Written

* Select (Multiple-choice, * Performance

Matching, True-False)

THE ANATOMY OF AN ASSESSMENT TASK

Remember Factual Knowledge

• No Introductory Material

• Stem as Question or Incomplete

Statement

• Supply (Recall) or Select (Recognize)

Format

Apply Procedural Knowledge

• Introductory Material is Present

• Stem as Directive

• Extended Response Format

1. Focus students’ attention on important facts and terms, using,

among other things, study guides, colors, and verbal markers.

2. Structure the information to be remembered (e.g., outlines,

diagrams, pictures).

3. Use repetition, incorporating songs and rhythmic activities (e.g.,

clapping, chanting, cheering).

4. Use mnemonic devices & acronyms; teach memory strategies

(e.g., rehearsal, elaboration, making connections with familiar

places and things).

5. Use distributed practice.

Teaching Students to

"Remember Factual Knowledge"

Teaching Students to "Understand Conceptual

Knowledge“

1. Emphasize defining features or key characteristics; ask

"what makes X, X?"

2. Give examples, non-examples, and “near” examples.

3. Teach concepts in relation to one another; show

connections and relationships using visual

representations and graphic organizers.

4. Use metaphors and similes.

5. Use “hands-on” activities and manipulatives; build

models.

Why the Revised Taxonomy?

• Historical link (1949 to the present)

• Two dimensions match the structure of all objectives: subject-verb-object.

• Complete “crossing” of rows with columns makes knowledge and cognitive processes equally important

• The use of verbs is critical since the verbs represent the cognitive processes that students use on or with the content so that learning occurs