ABSTRACT SCHNELL, EUGENE ZACHARY. An Ethnobotany Study…

ABSTRACT

SCHNELL, EUGENE ZACHARY. An Ethnobotany Study: A Comparison of Peoples

Medicinal Plant Use in an Urban and Rural Setting in the Province of Romblon, Philippines.

(Under the direction of Gary Blank.)

Ethnobotany has been used to study cultures and how people have used plants for

medicine since the term was created. This study analyzed the comparison of medicinal plant

use with an urban site called Odiongan and a rural site called Ferrol in the Philippines. A test

was conducted to examine if there are any significant differences in age, gender and location

in relation to the number of medicinal plants used. Through a semi-structured interview 22

used medicinal plants were identified and collected for the study. A survey was produced to

ask the participants to identify which of the medicinal plants they used and were recorded in

a structured interview. The survey also reviews the attitudes towards western medicine and

plant based medicine. There were 195 total participants between both study sites and only

age was found to be significant in relation to the number of medicinal plants used. The

majority of participants (71%) prefer to use plant based medicine, yet 48% find their

medicine comes from a local drug store. The study provides a new look into studying and

testing communities for medicinal plant use and also provides data to show that a rural and

developing urban site in the Philippines show no significant difference in the amount of

medicinal plant used. While most studies focus primarily on the plants, this study gives

focus to the people and how they use their environment for medicine.

An Ethnobotany Study: A Comparison of Peoples Medicinal Plant Use in an Urban and

Rural Setting in the Province of Romblon, Philippines

by

Zachary Eugene Schnell

A Thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of

North Carolina State University

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Science

Natural Resources

Raleigh, North Carolina

2015

APPROVED BY:

Dr. Gary Blank Dr. Bob Patterson

Chair of Advisory Committee

Dr. Tim Wallace

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BIOGRAPHY

Zachary Eugene Schnell was born on January 12, 1989 in Wilmington, North

Carolina as the son of Ron and Julie Schnell. He attended Eugene Ashley High school and

graduated with honors in 2007. Following high school, Zac began his college career in 2007

at North Carolina State University. During his freshmen year at North Carolina State, Zac

did not really know what he wanted to study and learn about for his future. During his last

two weeks of his freshman year in college he came across the Environmental Technology &

Management program in the College of Natural Resources and thought “why not.” While

pursuing his degree, he found a love of working in the environmental field and enjoyed

learning and expanding his understanding of the natural environment. During his

undergraduate work Zac was very involved on campus participating and volunteering in

environmental clubs, performing in musicals and theatre productions with university theatre,

and working as a teacher assistant for different professors and classes. During his first

summer internship Zac worked in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park at Tremont as a

Teacher Naturalist. Zac loved interacting with people of all ages and enjoyed working in the

great outdoors while teaching others about the natural world around them. Also during his

undergraduate years, he participated in a study abroad program that sent him down to the

Amazon Jungle in Peru. It was there that Zac learned about Shamanism and using plants for

medicine and gained an interest in the subject of ethnobotany.

Sharing his love for the natural environment and learning from others in the field of

environmental management became very interesting to Zac. During his senior year he wasn’t

sure what he wanted to do after graduation and through some searching and talking to

different people he came across the Master’s International program. The program offers

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students to earn a master’s degree and becoming a Peace Corps volunteer at the same time.

With the guidance from some of his professors at NC State University Zac began his

application to graduate school through the College of Natural Resources and was accepted

into the Masters of Science in Natural Resources program with a concentration of

Assessment and Analysis in 2011. It was then that he applied to the U.S. Peace Corps

Volunteer service program and was accepted and assigned to serve in the Southeast Asian

country of the Philippines. Zac’s assignment was in the Coastal Resource Management

sector, where he lived and worked with local Filipinos in the environmental sector.

Interacting with people and the environment is what brought him to conduct research in the

ethnobotanical field and further his interest in medicinal plants. From 2012-2014 Zac served

as a Peace Corps volunteer in the Philippines and then returned to finish his master’s degree

for the Spring 2015 semester.

Zac is a motivated individual and uses the different opportunities that life gives him,

even if they are random occurrences. Zac is a free-spirit, and has a love for life and

adventure. He rarely meets a stranger, and enjoys interacting with new people. Traveling the

world has become a hobby for Zac. His experiences at NC State have given him a chance to

pursue his interest in learning as much as he can about different people and different cultures.

Living life to the fullest is nothing new to Zac. In his down time, Zac enjoys hiking,

kayaking, and boating. He also has a knack for videography and photography, and can

typically be found filming something for a new video. His love for putting together exciting

recreations of his life’s adventures has become a teaching tool for Zac to use to share his

experiences with others. He enjoys helping others see the beauty of the world around them

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and reminding people that there is something new and exciting in every new adventure life

offers you.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to give a special thanks to my graduate advisor Dr. Gary Blank for his

willingness to guide me through this adventure of pursuing a master’s degree. My thanks

and gratitude also goes to Dr. Bob Patterson for always finding the time to help me and

sharing the excitement through my studies. Special thanks to Dr. Tim Wallace for being

flexible and providing advice and new perspectives.

Also would like to thank Dr. Bob Bruck for all of your work and effort you provided me

through my undergraduate and graduate degree. Also for the fun study abroad adventures!

Thank you to Solomon Ghezehei for assisting me with computing analysis of results and

willingness to help answer some analysis questions.

A very grateful thank you goes to my Peace Corps family that has assisted me with collecting

data and providing support for my studies. A heartfelt thank you goes to Arturo Muros in

your responsiveness and always supporting me and being a great friend. To my counterpart

Ernie Falo, you have helped me with anything and everything and your kindness I will never

forget. Thank you Leonito “Lito” Falo and your hospitality and kind family were always

understanding and generous with assisting me, and I will always be ready to have some

“sleeping vitamins” in your home. Special thank you to Luz Gelito for being a hard worker

in helping with improving peoples lives and a terrific supervisor to serve under.

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An extraordinary thank you goes to Ben Burke for helping with the procurement of mailing

plant specimens from the Philippines to the USA. An enormous special thank you goes to

Katie Gulilly, Loren Michelle, and Ata Tsafalus with the assistance in collecting information

and being responsive when needed. Many thanks to my fellow Peace Corps volunteers, you

all made the adventure much more entertaining and worth wild. Some notable mentions and

thanks goes out to the Founding Fathers for keeping life interesting and always providing any

help that they could. Also to my fellow Peace Corps batch mate Romblomanons, Joshua

Flickinger and Siobhan Gibbons, thank you both for your loyal and generous assistance

during our Peace Corps service. Your friendship and aid will never be forgotten.

To all of my Peace Corps Philippines family I say, “Maraming, maraming salamat po sa

inyong lahat!”

Of course I cannot forget my crazy loving family and all of their patience and support they

have given me from day one. To my mother and father for listening to all the stories and

letting me live life to the fullest, words cannot express my gratitude. To my sister, Dr.

Nicole Schnell, thank you for always helping me with various assignments and completing

them, especially in editing and reviewing papers. Thank you to many of my relatives for

offering their support through the years, especially to my uncle Dr. Raymond Schnell and

grandfather Don.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. ix

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1

STUDYING ETHNOBOTANY ........................................................................................... 1

A HISTORY OF ETHNOBOTANY .................................................................................... 3

THE STUDY OUTLOOK .................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA ................................................................................................ 8

GEOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................... 8

CLIMATE ............................................................................................................................. 9

FLORA & FAUNA ............................................................................................................... 9

DEMOGRAPHICS & GENERAL INFORMATION......................................................... 10

TOWN DESCRIPTIONS .................................................................................................. 111

CHAPTER 3: METHODS ................................................................................................. 155

PLANTS ASSESSED ....................................................................................................... 155

SURVEY DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 177

SURVEY DISTRIBUTION AND COLLECTION .......................................................... 199

DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................... 199

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ................................................................................................... 211

PLANT RESULTS ............................................................................................................ 211

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY RESULTS ................................................................... 255

GENERAL SURVEY RESULTS ..................................................................................... 255

SURVEY RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 277

ODIONGAN VS FERROL ................................................................................................. 30

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 34

RESULTS SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 34

PLANTS .............................................................................................................................. 34

SURVEY RESULTS .......................................................................................................... 36

URBAN VS RURAL .......................................................................................................... 38

viii

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 40

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 422

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Income Classification for Municipalities ................................................................... 12

Table 2 Used Medicinal Plants in Romblon Province ............................................................ 21

Table 3 How the plants are used ............................................................................................. 23

Table 4 Number of Participants .............................................................................................. 26

Table 5 ANOVA of Age & Gender Compared to # of Medicinal Plants Used ...................... 28

Table 6 Age Group Significant Comparisons ......................................................................... 28

Table 7 Odiongan vs. Ferrol Participants ............................................................................... 31

Table 8 ANOVA of Age & Gender Compared to Location (Municipality) ........................... 31

Table 9 Odiongan Age Ranges Comparison ........................................................................... 32

Table 10 Ferrol Age Ranges Comparison ............................................................................... 32

Table 11 Survey questions answered with Odiongan vs Ferrol .............................................. 33

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Map of Philippines with Romblon Province outlines in red .................................... 13

Figure 2 Map of Romblon Province ....................................................................................... 13

Figure 3 Map of Tablas Island with Odiongan & Ferrol ........................................................ 14

Figure 4 Graph Showing # of Plants Used Compared to Age with Trend line ...................... 27

Figure 5 Medicinal # Use ........................................................................................................ 27

Figure 6 Where People Typically Receive Medicine Percentage ........................................... 29

Figure 7 How Often People Use Plant Medicine Percentage ................................................. 29

Figure 8 Preference of Medicine Use Percentage ................................................................... 30

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

“Many admire, few know” is a famous quote attributed to Hippocrates, the father of

western medicine. His work evolved into the modern medicine that has expanded into many

parts of the world, affecting how medicine is used today. Western medicine is the evidence-

driven form that is mostly used in western societies and some parts of the developing world.

Yet not all medicine is derived from Hippocrates’ works. Rather, many of the earth’s

medicines derive from the natural environment around us. Many indigenous tribes on the

planet rely on this form of medicine, and the knowledge of the local indigenous people has

been documented and preserved through studies conducted all over the globe. These studies

estimate that about 75-90% of people living in rural areas use plants as their main health care

(Fowler, 2006), and show how plants are collected for medicine and other uses (Hitesh R &

R. S., 2013; Rahman, 2013; Santos et al., 2013). This use of plants in medicinal practices,

practices created over thousands of years in human civilizations, has been documented by the

field of ethnobotany. This document presents an ethnobotanical study conducted in the island

nation of the Philippines. It examines how people use medicinal plants in both urban and

rural sites. This comparison also seeks to determine if there is a difference between plant use

as medicine in relation to age, gender and location.

STUDYING ETHNOBOTANY

Ethnobotany, simply defined, is the study of human interactions with plants in non-

industrialized societies. Dr. Richard Schultes is considered the father of the ethnobotany

field with his research pioneering into medicinal and hallucinogenic plants in the Amazonia

region (Davis, 2002); he defines ethnobotany with a more inclusive definition as the study of

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the uses, classification, agricultural systems, conservation techniques, magico-

religious concepts, technological manipulation, and general economic and sociological

importance of plants in primitive or pre-literate societies (Schultes R. E., 1994). The goal of

ethnobotanists is to document culturally-significant flora, describe their use, and explain their

relationship to cultures, including how they are used, perceived, and managed in human

societies. It is important for an ethnobotanist to not only be knowledgeable about the study

of plants, but also to be sensitive to the dynamics of how cultures work (Veilleux & King,

1996). Therefore, data collection for an ethnobotanist is found not only in the form of plant

and animal collections and laboratory analysis, but also recorded interviews, photographs,

market surveys and so on (Martin, 2004).

Dr. Richard Schultes and his revolutionary work popularized and helped solidify the

field of ethnobotany. In 1941, Schultes traveled to the Columbian Amazon rainforest where

he documented and collected over 24,000 plant specimens, 2,000 of which are used as

medicines or poisons (Woo, 2001). His work began with the search for a poison known as

curare down in the Amazon basin; today, a derivative of curare is used in modern medicine

as a muscle relaxant for surgeries.

The depth of Schultes’ research—which led to his profound contributions to

science—derived in part from his living and working with shamans of the Amazon. In many

societies, shamans are considered sources of wisdom and power derived from their

understanding of the natural world and their connection to the spirit world. The word

“shaman” comes from a Siberian tribal word for a person who is able to go into an altered

state and leave his or her body to interact in spirit realms (Mokelke, 2009). Indigenous

communities traditionally relied on local shamans to provide local herb lore to heal sickness.

3

Many rural communities today still have some form of shaman to help cure ailments,

particularly those that have not fully adapted to the introduction of western medicine (in

many cases, knowledge of how to use western medicines is lacking) (Werner, 1990).

However, in general, shamans have been in decline in most tribal communities due to

urbanization and the encroachment of western civilization (Luna, 1984). Urbanization

around the world has therefore led to the decline in medicinal plant knowledge.

A HISTORY OF ETHNOBOTANY

Ethnobotany has been an important form of human civilization; some scientists

(Wooten, 1972; Schultes & Reis, 1995) suggest that the ethnobotanical inquiry between

indigenous groups could be one of the oldest studies of mankind. It is unclear how

indigenous societies originally acquired medicinal knowledge of plants, but studies have

suggested they may have relied upon trial and error while searching for food (Johns, 1996).

With the creation of written language, some cultures, including Mayas and Aztecs, began

documenting their plant uses, leading them to developing a method for measuring the natural

phenomena of such plants. From ancient times, ethnobotany could be considered a branch of

natural philosophy or just as a subset of medicine and agriculture (Abner, 1986; Schultes &

Reis, 1995). Starting in the 19th

century, ethnobotany was becoming a science study before

the term “ethnobotany” was suggested in the literature.

Karl Friedrich Phillip von Martius collected ethnobotanical data in the Brazilian

Amazon from 1817 to 1820 and recorded information on the different Indian tribes and their

customs (Schultes & Raffauf, 1990). Another collector, Richard Spruce from 1849 to 1864

traveled through the Brazilian Amazon to Venezuela and over to the Andes of Ecuador,

collecting seeds of Cinchona, Heavea, and Banisteriopsis caapi. From the travels and

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documents produced by these two ethnobotanists, other compilations arose, and from this

examination a name for this study was born.

It was first proposed as an academic discipline in the U.S. by an archaeologist named

John Harshberger in 1895 (Harshberger, 1896). He brought the attention to the idea of

studying people and plants together, suggesting an entirely different field of study.

Ethnobotany as a scientific discipline is considered a new field of study when compared to

other physical sciences like physics, mathematics, and geology (Feldmen, 1969). The

acceptance of ethnobotany as a discipline earned Dr. Richard Schultes the title of the “Father

of Ethnobotany” and inspired greater respect and reputation for his contributions.

While many ethnobotanists have followed Schultes in his studies of the Amazonia

region, others have trekked into other remote regions of the world, including Pacific Oceania.

Anthropologists and ethnographers were some of the first professional scientists to arrive in

the Pacific Oceania islands (Merlin, 2000). Botanists, such as Jacques Barrue, were among

some of the first scientists to study in Southeast Asia and in the Pacific. Barrau contributed to

the understanding of regional cultivated species in traditional subsistence agriculture and

gave insights into the origins of cultivated plants and their domestication in Oceania (Barrau,

1958; 1961; 1965). While there have been other ethnobotanical studies conducted in the

Pacific Oceania region, very few are conducted through the use of ethnobotanical surveys.

Conducting ethnobotanical surveys about people and plants helps increase cultural and

biological understanding by revealing how plants are used for medicine and how cultures

perceive these plants. For ethnobotanists, the world’s rain forests are libraries of information

and the indigenous people, the indexes of the books (i.e. plants) of those rainforests.

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Ethnobotany has begun the difficult yet fascinating work of preserving this important

knowledge in modern society.

Today the field of ethnobotany is also used to help promote biodiversity, reverse

cultural erosion, and preserve traditional knowledge (Barrett, et al, 2000). It also combines

concepts derived from the disciplines of anthropology, agriculture, biochemistry, genetics,

ecology, horticulture, conservation biology, botany, and linguistics (Prance, 2007). In the

words of Richard Ford (1978) “the accumulation of methods, viewpoints, and data from each

of these fields has enriched and enlivened ethnobotany.” Ethnobotany is important also for

the development of drugs that are used in western medicine and in traditional societies today.

In fact about 25% of prescription drugs are directly or indirectly derived from plants (Fowler,

2006). The chemistry of plants provides humans with a mixture of natural medicinal agents,

made effective over thousands of years of evolution.

Through the development and urbanization of countries and cultures, however, a

decline in the use of plants for medicinal purposes has been observed. Over the years, a

number of studies have documented the loss of medicinal plant knowledge (Almeida et al.,

2010; Voeks, 2007; Teklehaymanot, 2009; Case et. al., 2005), which some believe is from

acculturation and global development (Phillips & Gentry, 1993). These studies have

researched medicinal plants used in one site as compared to another but not specifically a

developing urban site compared to a rural site; however, comparing sites at different stages

of development may help increase understanding of how urbanization affects medicinal plant

use.

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THE STUDY OUTLOOK

This study looks at medicinal plant use as a curative in the island nation of the

Philippines in the province of Romblon. Serving as a Peace Corps volunteer and

participating in the Peace Corps Master’s International (PCMI) program through North

Carolina State University, I have investigated how people use plants for medicine in my

assigned site. Some studies focus on the number of cited plants, but not the number of plants

actually used as compared to other locations. I decided to take a different approach in

examining the local people’s thoughts and attitudes towards using plants for medicine. This

study provides insight and a new approach into perceptions about medicinal plants and

examine if there is any difference in age, gender, and location with relation to the number of

medicinal plants people use.

A limited number of studies have utilized ethnobotanical surveys in general, and in

the Philippines specifically. Some studies, conducted in a variety of countries, only provide a

list of plants used for medicine, but don’t necessarily document details of use (Morilla,

Sumaya, Rivero, & Madamba, 2014). This study seeks, not only record how medicinal

plants are used in the Romblon province of the Philippines—including who uses them—but

also to compare use between two municipalities (one rural, the other urban) to analyze the

effect of urbanization on medicinal plant use. The municipality of Ferrol represents a rural

community, whereas the municipality of Odiongan represents a developing urban site.

Based on evidence gained through semi-structured interviews, the used medicinal

plants of Ferrol and Odiongan are documented and presented in this ethnobotanical survey.

The survey was distributed to people living in Odiongan and Ferrol and then collected and

analyzed to determine if there is a difference in medicinal plant use between the two study

7

sites. This study provides a preview of how and if people are still using plants in a rapidly

developing urban site and a rural site. This document is divided into 6 chapters: the

introduction, the study area descriptions, methodology of the study, plants assessed for the

study, results, and discussion about the results.

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CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA

The Odiongan and Ferrol municipalities are the two sites used for this study located

in the province of Romblon. This chapter provides the background information on Odiongan

and Ferrol to understand the context of this study. The official languages of the Philippines

are Filipino and English. The Filipino language is a derivative of Tagalog; therefore for this

study Tagalog and Filipino represent the same language.

GEOGRAPHY

The Philippines covers approximately 300,000 sq. km. The terrain comprises of

7,107 islands with narrow coastal lowlands and about 65% classified as mountainous

(Anonymous, 2012). The Philippines nation is shown in Figure 1 to give a representation of

the location of the country in relation to the rest of Southeast Asia.

Manila is the capital city of the Philippines, and the province of Romblon is located

south in a different region. The Romblon province, where this study was conducted, is

located in about the middle of the Philippines and is part of the MIMAROPA Region IV-B.

The Romblon province is shown on Figure 2. The province is about 346km south of Manila

and to the east of the island of Masbate and to the west of the island of Mindoro. Odiongan

and Ferrol municipalities are located in the province of Romblon and both are located on the

island known as Tablas. The town center of Odiongan is located at 12°24′N latitude

and 122°00′E longitude and the Ferrol town center is located at 12°20′N latitude and

121°57′E longitude (National Statistical Coordination Board). Each municipality contains a

barangay (the word for community) called Poblacian, which each Poblacian is considered

the town center of the municipality.

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CLIMATE

Due to the geographical location of the Philippines, its climate is classified as a

Tropical Rainforest (Schoolmeester). The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical &

Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) classifies the Romblon province as a Type

III season. Type III is described as having the season not very pronounced overall and

having a dry season from November to April and wet for the rest of the year (PAGASA-

DOST, 2014). Average rainfall for the Romblon region is approximately 2203.9mm

(PAGASA, 2014).

The mean temperature during the coolers days in the Philippines averages at about

25.5°C and the warmer days for the summer months at 28.3°C (PAGASA, 2014). The

Philippines is prone to many different types of natural disasters and extreme weather

patterns. Some natural disasters that occur in the area include typhoons, volcanos,

earthquakes, floods, landslides, and ext. All of these natural disasters can affect the local

people and the terrestrial and marine life.

FLORA & FAUNA

The vegetation in the coastal areas resembles the typical island tropical paradise. The

coastlines contain different mangrove species and just inland there are different types of

ferns, orchids, tall coarse grass and various trees. Some fruit bearing tree species include

palm coconut trees (Arecaceae cocos), various mango tree species, and guyabano (Annona

muricata L.). The Philippines is not known for many different types of woody tree species.

There are few studies done on the different kinds of trees found in the Philippines compared

to the rest of Southeast Asia (Langenberger, 2004).

10

There are more than 200 inhabited species of mammals including water buffalo

(carabao), goats, horses, cats, dogs, monkeys, squirrels, and red and brown deer. Hundreds

of different birds flock through the Philippines such as peacocks, parrots, hornbills, and the

endangered Philippine eagle (Hernandez, 2015). The Philippines is more known for the

variety of marine life living there in the water, due to being located in the coral triangle of the

world.

DEMOGRAPHICS & GENERAL INFORMATION

Odiongan was founded in 1855 and today is classified as a 1st income class (1 being

more wealthy) municipality (National Statistical Coordination Board). The income ranking

system for a class 1 municipality shows that the municipality has at least a 55,000,000 peso

annual income (National Statistic Coordination Board, 2014). The entire class ranking

system can be seen in Table 1 with estimate dollar conversions. There are 25 barangays

located in the municipality of Odiongan. According to the 2010 census, the population of

Odiongan is 43,676 (National Statistic Coordination Board, 2014). The native language is

known as Asi, while Filipino and English are also used languages. The total area of land is

approximately 185.67 km2, therefore Odiongan has an estimate of 235 people/km

2.

Ferrol was founded in 1850 and became as part of Odiongan but was separated and

incorporated in 1978 as its own established municipality. Ferrol is classified as a 6th income

class municipality, so therefore has an annual income of less than 15,000,000 pesos (National

Statistic Coordination Board, 2014). Class 6th

ranking is classified as a poor municipality.

There are a total of 6 barangays in Ferrol. During the 2010 census, the total population is

estimated at 6,802 people (National Statistic Coordination Board, 2014). The total land area

is approximately 22.72 km2 and is about 300 people/km

2. The local language is called

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Onhan, but the use of Filipino and English are also used languages. Ferrol and Odiongan

map locations can be found on Figure 3.

TOWN DESCRIPTIONS

Odiongan would be described as a large town/urban area. There are many

restaurants, internet cafes, shops, and a large market available to the public. The town is the

main port for the island of Tablas. There are approximately 12 regularly scheduled main

vessels each week utilizing the Odiongan port. These large ships are used for transportation

of food, people, and goods. The shipping vessels are connected to other main ports of the

Philippines such as the Manila and Batangas pier that have high boat traffic. Odiongan is the

most well connected port for the Romblon province. There is also the presence of foreigner

investments and other travelers that use the municipality of Odiongan for business and

common traveling. Odiongan is also the home to the main campus of Romblon State

University. Many students of Romblon State University are from the Romblon province and

choose to study in Odiongan, therefore increasing the size of Odiongans population. There is

1 hospital and 26 health centers found in Odiongan that the people have access to use.

Unlike Odiongan, Ferrol is a small town with limited resources. There is only 1

health center for the whole municipality of Ferrol which is located in the town center or

Poblacian. Ferrol has no restaurants, no market, and very few small shops available on the

average day. There are no ports or piers for larger ships to use for any shipment of materials.

Ferrol relies more on agriculture products including rice & other food crops and the people

will travel to Odiongan if they are in need of a specific item to purchase. There are about

1600 registered fishfolk in the municipality of Ferrol. Registration of fisherfolk was

12

conducted as a Peace Corps project. The majority of Ferrol’s industry is farming and fishing.

The municipality has begun starting implementing plans for tourism to begin to help improve

the economic status of Ferrol. Ferrol contains many future touristic destinations of white

sand beaches, caves, and cultural understanding opportunities. Some residents of Odiongan

travel to Ferrol for the peace and quiet setting Ferrol provides. Ferrol is ranked as the third

smallest municipality in population size in the whole province of Romblon and the smallest

municipality on Tablas Island.

Table 1 Income Classification for Municipalities

Class Average Annual Income Estimated Dollar Amount (₱42 = $1)

First P 55 M or more X ≥ $1309523.81

Second P 45 M or more but less than P 55 M $1309523.81 ≥ X ≥ $1071428.57

Third P 35 M or more but less than P 45 M $1071428.57 ≥ X ≥ $833333.33

Fourth P 25 M or more but less than P 35 M $833333.33 ≥ X ≥ $595239

Fifth P 15 M or more but less than P 25 M $595239 ≥ X ≥ $357142.86

Sixth Below P 15 M $357142.86 ≥ X

13

Figure 1 Map of Philippines with Romblon Province outline in red

Figure 2 Map of Romblon Province

14

Figure 3 Map of Tablas Island with Odiongan & Ferrol

Odiongan

Ferrol

15

CHAPTER 3: METHODS

From September 2012 to September 2014, I served as environmental volunteer in

Peace Corps Philippines. I was placed in the municipality of Ferrol located in the province of

Romblon. The work I conducted in Ferrol and the neighboring municipality of Odiongan

proceeded as appropriate to both my service responsibilities and graduate studies through

North Carolina State University. After living in Ferrol for about three months, I started

asking local people about plants and how they used them for medicine. Through informal

conversations with a variety of people I started constructing a plan of what type of study I

could conduct.

In this study, I chose methods based on resources available in the two study areas.

Because the Ferrol and Odiongan sites are considered more remote, not as many options are

available to pursue.

This chapter is divided into 4 sections: assessed plants, survey design, survey

distribution and collection, and data analysis. These sections describe how the data was

collected and analyzed.

PLANTS ASSESSED

First, to know which plants to study, it is necessary to learn about the common

medicinal plants used as a curative in the area. Over the course of my Peace Corps volunteer

service, I collected information about plants from local people in Ferrol using the chain-

referral sampling method. This method involved engaging with locals to distinguish others

who might be able to provide information required for a study. By speaking to locals about

the study, I was able to identify, not only the most used medicinal plants, but also experts that

could help document those plants and elaborate upon their use.

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Two brothers, Ernie Falo and Leonito Falo, provided their knowledge of medicinal

plants. Ernie and Leonito both live in barangay Bunsoran, Ferrol. Both men have been using

plants for medicine for most of their lives and were willing to provide me with the

information about the local plants they use in the area. Their knowledge of medicinal plants

came from elder family members while growing up over years when western medicine was

not a viable option to treat an ailment. These plants are commonly found in the wild and are

therefore accessible to everyone. After determining the common plants used for medicinal

purposes, we spent several days conducting field walks to examine, collect and preserve (i.e.

using a plant press) these plant species in the case further identification is needed. I used a

hand-written journal to document the information we collected, including the name of each

plant (usually in Tagalog), what part of the plant is used (leaf, roots, etc.), and how to prepare

the plant to be used as medicine (boiling for tea, rubbing on the skin, etc.). This information

later contributed to the creation of the survey. (Further analyses of the plants, as well as each

plant’s English common name and scientific name, are shown in Chapter 4 Table 2.)

During documentation, I collected and labeled plants. Depending on the size of the

plant, pieces, such as leaves, were collected and preserved using a plant press, in case the

plant is needed for future analysis. Using old newspapers and other paper documents to dry

them out, the plants were pressed, a common method for preserving plants for a herbarium.

An example of this method is referenced from the Botanical Research Institute of Texas

(Botanical Reserach Institute of Texas).

Once the plants were collected, a permit through United States Department of

Agriculture (USDA) and Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) allowed for

the plants to be shipped to North Carolina State University from the Philippines. When the

17

plants arrived, they were taken out for further identification. With the help of Ernie and

Leonito, the plants were matched to the Tagalog and English names, and further verified by

Filipino plant journal articles (University of the Philippines Los Baños, 2013). Other

organizations such as the USDA (United States Department of Agriculture, 2015) and the

online plant database The Plant List (The Plant List, 2013) contributed in the identification of

the plants by their scientific family and species name.

SURVEY DESIGN

As shown in the literature, ethnobotanical knowledge can vary by different variables

such as geographical origin, religion, age, ethnicity, and gender. Some published articles

provide examples of different variables effecting traditional plant knowledge (Voeks, 2007).

The survey prompts for this study were created from observations and conversations from the

locals. The survey was designed to include respondents from two different municipalities

and to avoid participant disclosure of traceable information to help ensure anonymity. Also,

due to cultural sensitivity, some questions such as education and income level were omitted

from the survey. These and other factors led to the creation of a comprehensible survey,

resulting in a high response rate and providing a greater sample population for the study.

Many studies reviewing plant knowledge and use, including those by Cheikhyoussef et al.

Journal of Ethnobiology and ethnomedicine and Meretika et. al. Acta Bot. Bras, include

fewer than 100 participants; this survey includes 195. Due to the study’s survey of human

subjects, an application was submitted to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at North

Carolina State University and accepted.

While the survey was designed to be applicable to Ferrol and Odiongan, it can be

altered slightly using the same format for other site studies, allowing for accurate

18

comparative research to be conducted at other sites around the world in the future. The

questions on the survey are shown in English and Filipino, the Philippines national language.

In order to be easily understood by people of all ages, the survey was made simple by

requiring only 8 responses. The prompts were:

1. Gender

2. Age

3. Location of residence

4. Where do you typically get medicine from?

5. Would you rather use western medicine or plants for medicine?

6. Have you ever used plants to treat a sickness?

7. How often do you use plants for medicine?

8. Which of the following plants have you or your family used for medicine before?

These different variables help demonstrate a comparison of the level and variety of medicinal

plant use with relation to age, gender, and location. Question 4 has three choices for

participants to choose from, which include: Any Drug Store, Plants, or Both. Question 5

introduces the element of preference, apart from basic knowledge or use, to identify trends in

medicinal care in both sites. Question 6 gives perspective on the degree to which a

population as adopted western medicine; comparison between question 6 and particularly

question 2 (age), gives some indication of degrees to which generations have bought into or

rejected traditional medical practices. Question 7 helps to verify whether a plant used for

medicine is tied to strict cultural or societal practices or if it is used purely for healing of the

sick; this question will have the following choices: Daily, Weekly, Bi-weekly, Monthly, and

19

It Depends If Someone is Sick. A list of identified medicinal plants was given to participants

to confirm if they have used a specific plant for medicine. The choices of plants in question

8 were generated from the plants identified and documented with Ernie and Leonito Falo,

shown in Table 2.

SURVEY DISTRIBUTION AND COLLECTION

Distribution of this survey to participants involved what is known as convenient-

surveying. The convenient-survey method is a research technique that researchers use

because it is fast, inexpensive, and easy, as subjects are readily available.

In this study, the application of this method involved asking different people on the

street, houses, schools, government buildings, etc. to complete the survey. This produced

diversity in the population sampling and helped avoid bias. Any person age 18 and older was

allowed to complete the survey. Peace Corps volunteers, friends and co-workers, living in

the either the municipality of Odiongan or Ferrol, assisted with distribution, and participants

helped identify other people to complete the survey. For example, a fellow Peace Corps

volunteer teacher might distribute the survey to not only Filipino teachers at his or her

school, but also the family with whom he or she is living. Different groups distributed the

surveys to fellow friends, host families, colleagues, Non-Government Organizations, etc.

The paper survey distributed to participants was collected upon completion (surveys

took generally 5 minutes or less to complete) before answers were added to a master

spreadsheet where they could be further analyzed.

DATA ANALYSIS

This study examines the variables of age, gender, and location in relation to the

20

number of plants used. The statistical analysis methods for this study include analysis of

variance (ANOVA), and regression of age ranges comparisons. Tukey’s Studentized Range

Test is used to test for significance between the age category ranges. All statistical analysis

used the computer program SAS 9.4 edition. Quantification is not the only method to

analyze the data; thus other qualitative information has been examined and reference through

observations, cultural concepts, and information provided by the people of the Philippines.

By working with statistics and numbers, there is risk of forgetting that the validity ultimately

depends on the quality of the data gathered and the information used to generate them

(Phillips, 1996).

The information generated by thus study is reviewed in Chapter 4. Both results about

the plants used and survey responses are further reviewed in the discussion section (Chapter

5).

21

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

PLANT RESULTS

This chapter will provide an analysis of the plants collected and used for the survey.

An overview of the collection of plants, a description of the common medicinal plant uses,

and how the plants are prepared for medicinal use will be examined. Table 2 provides a list

of the 22 plants recorded for medicinal plant use and is arranged alphabetically by genus of

the plants scientific name.

Table 2 Used Medicinal Plants in Romblon Province

Scientific Name Scientific Family

Name

Local Name

(Tagalog)

Common English

Name

Annona muricata Annonaceae Guavano Soursop

Antidesma bunius Phyllanthaceae Bignay Chinese Laurel

Blumea balsamifera Asteraceae Sambung Blumea Camphora

Bryophyllum pinnatum Crassulaceae Katakataka Air Plant

Calophyllum blancoi Calophyllaceae Bitaog none

Capsicum annuum Solanaceae Sili Red Pepper

Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Hagunoy Devil Weed

Chrysophyllum cainito Sapotaceae Kaimito Star Apple

Gliricidia sepium Fabaceae Kakawati Aaron's Rod

Grammatophyllum scriptum Orchidaceae Tawa Tawa Bell Orchid

Jatropha gossypifolia Euphorbiaceae Tuba-Tuba Red Physic Nut

Lagerstroemia speciosa Lythraceae Banaba Queen's Flower

Mimosa pudica Fabaceae Makahiya Bashful Mimosa

Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Malunggay Miracle Tree

Origanum vulgare Lamiaceae Oregano Oregano

Persea americana Lauraceae Abocado Avocado

Piper betle Piperacea Ikmo Betel Pepper

Premna odorata Verbenacea Alagaw Fragrant Premna

Psidium guajava Myrtales Guayabas Guava

Senna alata Fabaceae Akapulko Guajava (Candle Bush)

Tabebuia avellanedge Bignoniaceae Maravelos Taheebo

Vitex negundo Lamiaceae Lagundi Chinese Chasetree

22

Table 2 identifies the local Tagalog, English, and scientific names. The Tagalog and

English names have been identified with the help from Ernie and Leonito Falo and from

reviewing Filipino plant journal articles (University of the Philippines Los Baños, 2013).

The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture, 2015) and The Plant List organization

(The Plant List, 2013) and the collection of plants were used in compiling the scientific

names.

A description of the common uses and preparation methods of each plant are shown

in Table 3. The plant medicinal uses are notes gathered from Ernie and Leonito Falo first

documented in a journal, and then entered into a spreadsheet edited and formatted for this

document. There is a range of different medicinal uses represented in the 22 used medicinal

plants. Some common occurrences such as wounds, headaches, or skin itch relief are

examples of some of the common ailments humans come across more frequently than some

other ailments. Table 3 provides details about the medicinal use for each plant and shows the

part of the plant used, the mode of preparation, and the medicinal uses from each plant.

Leaves are the most common part of the plants used for medicine. Using leaves

accounts for 20 out of 22 plants. Only 2 plants were cited for using bark, 1 using the seeds, 1

using the stem and 1 using the roots of a plant. Out of the 22 plants only 3 (malunggay, tuba-

tuba, and bigay) of the plants cited have multiple plant part uses. It is common in

ethnobotanical studies for leaves to be the most frequently used parts of the plants

(Mahmood, et al., 2011; Kulip, 2003).

The column labeled “Mode of Preparation” provides the method for using the

medicinal plant. Decoction, the preparation of boiling plant materials to release the active

constituents is the second most common method of preparing the plant for medicinal use.

23

There are 8 plants that regime the decoction method for preparation. Decoction allows for

the oils and other compounds to be extracted from the plant in the form of a tea to be

ingested. Other methods of preparation include infusion, poultice, extraction, direct

application, and eating raw plant material.

Table 3 How the plants are used

Scientific Name Local Name

(Tagalog)

Part Plant

Used Mode of Preparation Medicinal Uses

Annona muricata Guavano Leaves Decoction Lower blood pressure

Antidesma bunius Bignay Bark, Leaves Decoction Lower sugar levels

Blumea balsamifera Sambung Leaves Decoction, Poultice UTI, Stomachache

pain

Bryophyllum

pinnatum Katakataka Leaves

Mashed & applied

directly Wound

Calophyllum

blancoi Bitaog Leaves

Mashed & applied

directly, Infusion Infected Eyes

Capsicum annuum Sili Leaves Applied Directly Stomachache pain

Chromolaena

odorata Hagunoy Leaves Poultice, Crush

Stop bleeding on

wound

Chrysophyllum

cainito Kaimito Leaves Decoction Help LBM

Gliricidia sepium Kakawati Leaves Applied directly Skin itches

Grammatophyllum

scriptum Tawa Tawa Stem Extraction Eye Pain

Jatropha gossip

\olia Tuba-Tuba Bark, Leaves

Applied directly,

Infusion Bone fracture, Fever

Lagerstroemia

speciosa Banaba Leaves Decoction

UTI, Good for

kidneys

Mimosa pudica Makahiya Leaves Crush & applied

directly Skin itches

Moringa oleifera Malunggay Seeds,

Leaves Eat Raw

Lower blood

pressure, healthy

nursing milk

Origanum vulgare Oregano Leaves Extraction Helps coughing

Persea americana Abocado Leaves Decoction Good for kidneys

Piper betle Ikmo Leaves Mashed & applied

directly Fever relief

Premna odorata Alagaw Leaves Applied directly Headache relief

Psidium guajava Guayabas Leaves Applied directly, Eat

raw Wound, help LBM

Senna alata Akapulko Leaves Applied directly Skin disease (ex.

whiteheads)

Tabebuia

avellanedge Maravelos Roots Decoction Help LBM

Vitex negundo Lagundi Leaves Decoction Helps coughing

24

Soaking a piece of the plant (i.e. leaves) in a liquid solution is referred to as infusion.

The preparation of infusion accounts for 2 plants: tuba-tuba (Jatropha gossypifolia) and

bitaog (Calophyllum blancoi). The poultice method is used when the plant material is placed

in a cloth and dampened with water and then applied to a wound. This method is only

applied when using sambung (Blumea balsamifera) for stomachache pain. Taking a piece of

a plant such as the leaves or stem of a plant and breaking them to gain access to a liquid

found inside is referred to as the extraction method. Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) and tawa

tawa (Grammatophyllum scriptum) are the only two plants with using the extraction method.

The directly applied method describes using a piece of the plant in direct contact with the

body. This is most commonly used method due to 10 plants being used by people. For

example, Senna alata, or akapulko plant leaves are used and rubbed on the skin of the body

to treat for itchy skin that could have been caused by a common bug bite. Eating raw plant

material such as seeds or leaves is the last method of preparation with malunggay and

guaybas (Psidium guajava). Sometimes the plant parts are used in cooking specific food

dishes.

All of the parts of plants used and methods of preparation is represented in Table 3.

The information presented in Table 2 and Table 3 are representations of used medicinal

plants found on the island of Tablas in Romblon, Philippines. Both municipalities of

Odiongan and Ferrol have access to the listed plants. This is important because the plants

show a wide-use of medicinal uses. Most plant medicinal uses are common occurrences for

humans. All of these plants provide an external and/or internal application of different

ailments. For example, it is more common for a person to have a skin itch or a headache than

it is to have a very rare disease that there might not be a common known plant cure. Table 3

25

shows the common reasonable ailments that a plant could be used to treat a daily or weekly

occurrence. The plants listed are the same plants shown on the survey.

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY RESULTS

As discussed in the Plant Results section, 22 plants were collected and used in a

variety of preparations. These plants were then included in a survey to determine how many

people reported use of each plant. The results of this study were formulated through the use

of statistical quantitative techniques to determine if there are any statistical significance

differences between the variables. Analyses were conducted to evaluate the medicinal plant

number use between the ages and genders of the participants, and the location of where the

participants live. Additionally, the analysis of how often participants use plants, their

preference of medicine use, and where the participants typically receive their medicine from

will be examined.

The assumptions of analysis of variance (ANOVA) were verified to test for

significant differences for each variable. The statistical procedures were performed using

SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina) and conducted at the α=.05 level. Some

of the survey questions were analyzed with percentages using Microsoft Excel.

GENERAL SURVEY RESULTS

The survey was distributed in municipalities of Ferrol and Odiongan. This survey

shows a representation of two Philippine municipalities and the medicinal plant use in the

two study areas. Table 4 provides the general population of all the participants. Figure 3

provides the visual representation of age and number of plants used while also showing the

increasing trend line. Further breakdown of ages have been split into three different age

26

ranges. The age ranges are: 18-29, 30-49 and 50+. These age ranges also provide about the

same amount of participants for each group and allow for a better comparison to other

ethnobotanical studies. The three ranges provide age categories that are compared to each

other for number of medicinal plant uses.

Table 4 Number of Participants

User Age Range /

Gender Men Women Total

Age 18-29 26 47 73

Age 30-49 26 47 73

Age 50+ 18 31 49

Total 70 125 195

Figure 5 gives the graphical representation of the number of medicinal plants

referenced and cited from the survey. The number listed above each column indicates the

total number of people who responded that they used each plant. The total sample size of

plants referenced and selected from the survey list is 1,390. The average number of plants

used per respondent is 7.13, out of the 22 listed. Males used average number of 7.76 of

plants, while females indicated an average use of 6.82 plants. The top three cited plants of

the total 22 are lagundi, malunggay, and oregano. Malunggay is the most cited plant (156)

and the least referenced is bitaog (1). The average number of plants per respondent use is

63.2, and only 10 plants were referenced by that many people.

27

Figure 4 Graph Showing # of Plants Used Compared to Age with Trend line

Figure 5 Medicinal # Use

SURVEY RESULTS

Age and gender are two variables examined when comparing the number of people

using each medicinal plant. Results for all 195 participants as one dataset are shown in Table

5. Comparing male to female number of medicinal plant uses is shown not to be significant

0

5

10

15

20

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

# o

f P

lan

ts U

sed

(n

=2

2)

Age (in years)

Age vs # of Plant Use

100

70 66

46

144

64

44

66

156

93

37 25

18

85

147

35

60

42

1

35 41

15

-5

15

35

55

75

95

115

135

155

175

195

# o

f T

imes

Ref

eren

ced

(n

=1

95

)

Medicinal Plant

28

with p > .05. Being a male or female does not affect the number of medicinal plants used.

Cross referencing age and gender show, with p-value equaling 0.9001 to be highly not

significant (p > 0.05); thus, to be a male or female, older or younger, will not be significant in

the total number of medicinal plants a person has used. Only age is significant (when p <

.05) with a p-value of 0.0016. This is due to the older age range (50+ years) citing more

usage of medicinal plants compared to the younger age category (18-29 years). The ages

compared to the number of medicinal plants used is expected to show significance.

Table 5 ANOVA Results of Age & Gender Compared to # of Medicinal Plants Used

Factor F Value Pr > F

Age 6.65 0.0016

Gender 0.48 0.4914

Age X Gender 0.11 0.9001

Using Tukey’s Studentized Range Test the age ranges compared to each other also

show significant differences (p < 0.05). The younger population (18-29 years of age) in

comparison to both other age groups (29-49 years & 50+) is significantly different (p < 0.05)

in the number of medicinal plants used according to the ANOVA results. The middle age

category (30-49 years) and the older age category (50+ years) are not significantly different

(p > 0.05) in the number of medicinal plants used. These results are shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Age Group Significant Comparisons

Comparisons significant at the 0.05 level

are indicated by ***.

Age Ranges

Comparison

Difference

Between

Means

Simultaneous 95% Confidence

Limits

30-49 vs 50+ -0.8440 -2.9111 1.2231

18-29 vs 50+ -3.5563 -5.6235 -1.4892 ***

18-29 vs 30-49 -2.7123 -4.5650 -0.8597 ***

29

The survey also questioned the participants about their preference for medicine,

where they typically receive medicine, and how often they use plants for medicine. These

results are shown in the following figures (Figure 5, 6, & 7).

Figure 6 Where People Typically Receive Medicine Percentage

Figure 7 How Often People Use Plant Medicine Percentage

48%

21%

31% Drug Store

Plants

Both

4% 2%

6%

88%

Daily

Weekly

Monthly

Depends

Total participants = 195


30

Figure 8 Preference of Medicine Use Percentage

Figure 5 represents the survey question “Where do you typically get medicine from?”

48% responded from a drug store, 21% mostly used plants and 31% thought they used both

outlets evenly. Figure 6 shows the results for the survey question “How often do you use

plants for medicine?” The majority of individuals only use plants when they are sick, as the

88% of the population size shows. Few of the respondents use plants for medicine other than

when they are sick. Additionally, 4% said they use plants daily, 2% on a weekly basis, 6%

on a monthly basis and while none are used on a bi-weekly basis. “Would you rather use

western medicine or plants for medicine” is the survey question results shown in Figure 7.

Approximately 71% said they would rather use plants more than western medicine, while the

remaining 29% would choose western medicine over plants for medicine.

ODIONGAN VS FERROL

After reviewing the results from the whole population sample, the dataset was divided

to between the two municipalities to analyze the Odiongan in relation to Ferrol to test if there

is a significant difference between the number of medicinal plants used in a rural site (Ferrol)

to an urban site (Odiongan). Table 7 shows the demographic breakdown of the age ranges,

gender, and specific site locations.

71%

29% Local Plants

Western

Medicine


31

Table 7 Odiongan vs. Ferrol Participants

User Group /

Gender

Odiongan

Men

Odiongan

Women Ferrol Men Ferrol Women

Age 18-29 20 35 6 12

Age 30-49 21 35 5 12

Age 50+ 8 15 10 16

Total 49 85 21 40

Table 8 shows the results from the ANOVA test to identify if there is any significance

using the variables age, gender and location in relation to the number of medicinal plants

used. Focusing on the comparison of the rural site Ferrol to the urban site Odiongan, there is

no significant difference (p > .05) reported in the number of medicinal plants used in each

municipality. Age and gender also factored into the location result with age and gender not

being statistically significant (p > .05) between the two municipalities medicinal plant use.

Table 8 ANOVA of Age & Gender Compared to Location (Municipality)

Factor F Value Pr > F

Location 1.46 0.229

Age X Location 0.11 0.8984

Gender X Location 0.31 0.5771

Age X Gender X Location 0.2 0.8151

A further analysis comparing Ferrol to Odiongan when looking at the significance of

the age ranges is reported in Table 9 and Table 10. Using Tukey’s Studentized Range Test,

the results for Odiongan’s age ranges are significantly different when comparing the younger

(18-29 years) age range to both the 30-49 years and 50+ participants in Odiongan.

Examining all 195 participants age ranges and Odiongan’s age ranges produce the same

results as when looking at the entire dataset when classifying which age ranges are

significant when compared to each other.

32

Table 9 Odiongan Age Ranges Comparison



Age Ranges

Comparison

Difference

Between

Means

Simultaneous 95%

Confidence Limits

30-49 vs 50+ -0.4798 -3.0487 2.0891

18-29 vs 50+ -3.0324 -5.6081 -0.4567 ***

18-29 vs 30-49 -2.5526 -4.5218 -0.5834 ***

Table 10 Ferrol Age Ranges Comparison



Age Ranges

Comparison

Difference

Between

Means

Simultaneous 95%

Confidence Limits

30-49 vs 50+ -0.385 -4.508 3.789

18-29 vs 50+ -3.662 -7.716 0.391

18-29 vs 30-49 -3.278 -7.749 1.193

Table 10 shows that there is no statistical significant difference (p > 0.05) in the

number of medicinal plants used when examining the participants age for people living in

Ferrol; yet, Table 9 shows significance within the age ranges. These results suggest that

younger people in a rural site such as Ferrol, will learn and use more medicinal plants than a

younger population living in an urban site.

Examining the results with Odiongan vs Ferrol in the survey questions, the response

summaries are shown in Table 11. Each municipality is compared side-by-side to show the

percentage representation of the survey questions. The “Receives medicine from where?”

represents the survey question “Where do you typically get medicine from?” with the choices

being either from a drug store, local plants, or both. “Would you rather use western medicine

or plants for medicine” answers are shown under the “Preference” row with the percentages.

33

Table 11 Survey questions answered with Odiongan vs Ferrol Results

Odiongan Ferrol

Receives

Medicine from

where?

58% Drug Store

17% Plants

25% Both

28% Drug Store

28% Plants

44% Both

Preference 28% Western Medicine

72% Local Plants

31% Western Medicine

69% Local Plants

More people in Odiongan typically get their medicine from a drug store (58%)

compared to the 28% of the Ferrol population sample. Ferrol is evenly distributed in

receiving medicines from the drug store and plants each at 28%. More people in Odiongan

rely on a drug store than people in Ferrol, yet more people in Odiongan would prefer to have

more local plants for medicine at 72% compared to Ferrol at 69%. Respondents of both

municipalities indicated they would prefer to use plant medicine over western medicine.

34

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

RESULTS SUMMARY

The results of plant use were examined using the variables age, gender, and location.

Gender and location appear to have no effect on the number of medicinal plants used by

participants in the municipalities of Odiongan and Ferrol. Age difference did affect the

number of medicinal plants used. Survey results from people age 30 and older showed more

plant use for medicine than those age 29 and below.

The people of Odiongan and Ferrol predominantly (88%) use medicinal plants only

when sick. Access to western medicine has provided an alternative to local medicinal plants;

48% of people surveyed purchase western medicine at local drug stores. However, the

majority of people (71%) would still rather use local plants for medicine.

Location is not significant in the amount of medicinal plants used in each

municipality. Odiongan, representing an urban site, and Ferrol, representing a rural site,

show no difference in the number of medicinal plants used. Age, gender and location all

factored together do not show any significance in the number of plants used.

The top three used medicinal plants are lagundi, oregano, and malunggay; the least

common are bitaog, ikmo, and makahiya. Each plant is used to cure different ailments and

has different preparation methods shown in Table 3.

PLANTS

Lagundi (Vitex negundo), oregano (Origanum vulgare), and malunggay (Moringa

oleifera) are the top most frequently used plants for medicine, out of the 22 listed common

medicinal plants. Lagundi is the least popular of the top three, used by 144 participants out

of 195. The lagundi’s leaves are boiled to create a tea to help treat coughs and remove

35

phlegm or mucus. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015) most

adults on average get the common cold 2 to 3 times a year. A symptom of the common cold

is coughing and mucus production, which is one possible reason for the high use of lagundi

leaves. The Philippine Department of Health also endorses the medicinal use of lagundi for

respiratory relief. Lagundi is also a commonly found tree providing easy access to the leaves

for medicine.

Ranking second highest for medicinal plant use was oregano, with 147 cited users out

of 195 participants. Oregano is a common herb found in most parts of the world. Most

studies of oregano focus on oregano oil, which is used primarily as an external health

treatement for fungal infections, parasites, and yeast infections, as suggested by Erickson

(2009), or an antioxidant and antimicrobial, as suggested by Challem (2008). In the

Philippines the common use is to treat coughs; the oregano leaves are steamed and then

squeezed to extract a liquid, which is then ingested. Oregano is also used as a cooking herb

to add flavor to food dishes. Because the plant is used for cooking, it is highly accessible,

which could explain its high medicinal use.

Oregano is not the only medicinal plant used for cooking; malunggay is commonly

used in Filipino food dishes. Malunggay was the most popular medicinal plant, with 156

cited users out of 195 participants. Originally this plant was used only for lactating mothers,

as Ernie, a Filipino medicinal plant expert, suggested. Malunggay has been studied by

scientists for different uses and, for the past 20 years, it has been promoted by the World

Health Organization and by the Philippines government as a health enhancer for poor

countries around the globe (Ples & Ho). The medicinal properties of the plant parts of

malunggay have been long documented and used in Filipino folk medicine (Quisumbing,

36

1978). Many Filipinos also used malunggay leaves in cooking traditional Filipino food

dishes. It is very common that most Filipinos know and use malunggay just as most

Americans use and know the healthier benefits of eating a salad. The average Filipino diet

contains a lot of meats and high sugar uses, which can lead to high blood sugar in the body.

The Philippine government Department of Health suggests that using malunggay may help

lower sugar blood levels (Ples & Ho). This benefit has become common knowledge in the

Philippines.

The reason for the popularity of these high-use medicinal plants in the Philippines

may be a result of their widely-accepted health benefits, their frequent use as a cooking

ingredient, and their effectiveness in treating most common ailments. Lagundi helps with the

common cold, while oregano adds more flavor to the food dish, and malunggay has been

promoted for many years for its health benefits. All these plants are also commonly found

growing wild, and so most of the time are free of cost.

SURVEY RESULTS

Studies have shown a difference in the knowledge of medicinal plant use between

genders (Voeks, 2007). Voeks (2007) presents results showing that women are more likely

to have medicinal plant knowledge in Brazil, and Teklehaymanot (2009) reported that men

show more knowledge with medicinal plant use in Ethiopia. In the case of the Philippines,

this study shows no significant difference (p > .05) in the medicinal plant use in relation to

gender. In some cultures, gender is an important factor in determining who is responsible for

understanding how to use plants for medicine (Cheikhyoussef, et. al., 2011). Most people

learn different medicinal plant use either through their parents or the practicing of gardening

and farming.

37

Ramos et. al. (2007) suggest that men tend to experience a greater number of plant

species compared to women because men are responsible for pasture management and the

collection of plant resources in Brazil. This does not seem to be the case in the Philippines in

the communities in the province of Romblon. While men tend to be responsible for the

agriculture (i.e. growing crops such as rice and corn), women typically grow vegetables in

smaller gardens. A Filipino man working in the rice fields all day may opt to use a plant

growing nearby to help cure a headache. The women might also use a plant near their place

of work, rather than find a western drug in the home for the sake of saving time. Both

genders work and interact with the natural environment outside of the home, which aids in

learning about how to use plants for medicine. This equality in medicinal plant knowledge

between the genders contradicts some studies done in other cultures that show greater plant

knowledge and use on the part of men, as shown by Case et. al. (2005).

The majority of studies do not touch upon the preference of the local people in what

type of medicine they use. The survey question “Would you rather use western medicine or

plants for medicine?” directly inquired upon preference, and 71% of respondents prefer to

use local plants rather than western medicine. Both Odiongan and Ferrol municipalities have

access to western medicine at a drug store found in Odiongan, hence the question “Where do

you typically get medicine from?” Out of the entire sample population 69% answered “at a

drug store”. The preference is for medicinal plants, yet the practice is to purchase western

medicines from the drug store. Previous studies have not examined this phenomenon and

therefore have not tested for it. This finding could contribute to evidence of plant knowledge

declining worldwide due to increased access to western medicine. Convenience of taking a

38

pill rather than preparing an herbal remedy may also contribute to the decline of medicinal

plant use. Only 18% of the population sampled use plants more than western medicine.

The knowledge of medicinal plants shows variance by age. In some rare cases a

younger population may show more cited plants used for medicine than older populations

(Hanazaki, Tamashiro, Leitao-Filho, & Begossi, 1999). Reviewing all respondents, the

dataset showed to be significant (p < .05) when comparing the age categories to each other in

relation to the number of medicinal plants used. The data showed 18-29 year old participants

use fewer medicinal plants as compared to both other age groupings (30-49 and 50+). This is

expected: the older the person, the more experience and knowledge the person will have

concerning medicinal plants. Other studies have found similar results (Caniago & Siebert,

1998; Luoga et al 2000).

URBAN VS RURAL

This study was designed to look at the difference in medicinal plant use between a

developing urban setting and a rural setting. The study also focused on the number of plants

used at the two sites, with Odiongan representing the developing urban municipality and

Ferrol representing the rural municipality. Participants in both municipalities (88%) say they

use plants for when they are sick, and do not show any comparative significance (p > .05) in

the number of plants they use for medicine. Therefore site location apparently does not affect

the number of medicinal plants used. Although comparing the number of plants used in a

rural site to a developing urban site has not been a focus of published research, Phillips and

Gentry (1993) assert that medicinal plant knowledge "is uniquely vulnerable to

acculturation." The current data contradict Phillips and Gentry’s assertion, suggesting some

39

additional factor may contribute to a developing urban site showing a significant change in

medicinal plant use.

Some other potential variables that impact how people use western medicine and

medicinal plants might include availability (i.e. how many drug stores are located in each

site), as well as the costs of pharmaceutical drugs. Many people in developing countries

sometimes do not have the financial capability to purchase western medicine, but they can

walk outside into the forest and find a plant they know how to use to cure a sickness. Given

these factors, it is unsurprising that the current data show 71% prefer to use plants over

western medicine.

Age is another variable analyzed separately within each municipality. Ferrol showed

no significant difference (p > .05) when comparing different age groups, yet Odiongan did.

Odiongan results showed that there is a significant difference (p < .05) between the younger

age group (18-29) and older age groups (30-49 and 50+) with relation to the number of plants

used, with the younger group using fewer medicinal plants than the older groups. Ferrol did

not show this difference, which may indicate that the younger population in Ferrol learn

more plants at an earlier age compared to the younger population living in Odiongan. The

rural site, Ferrol, has more limited to access western medicine, creating an incentive to learn

and use plants as medicine.

This study has sought to open the field to comparative research between sites in the

same country or different countries. The method employed represents a more rapid approach

to testing multiple communities’ knowledge by focusing primarily on participants rather than

the numerous potential plants that could be included in community interviews. Identifying

these plants involves, by necessity, sincere engagement with the community, connecting with

40

community members in relationships of mutual respect and understanding of background and

culture.

Observing and understanding culture is an integral part of ethnobotanical study.

While observing the people and culture, just as an anthropologist would, the ethnobotanist

develops new points of view through observation and interaction with the local community.

Ethnobotanists often work without the support of colleagues in other subject areas, which

may help them create close relationships with the communities in which they work (Martin,

2004).

CONCLUSION

The survey results show little difference between an urban site like Odiongan and a

rural site like Ferrol. The results show that in the two Filipino communities, a pattern of

plant-based medicine use still exists today. The rural site and urban site are comparable in

the number of plants used. On the whole, factors of age, gender, and location did not affect

the amount of plants used medicinally. There is no significant difference (p > .05) between

male or female medicinal plant use; both use about the same number of plants (male avg. =

7.67 & female avg. = 6.82). Only age is found to be significant when comparing the number

of medicinal plants used. The 18-29 year olds do not use as many plants in contract to the

30-49 and 50+ year old respondents.

Twenty-two used medicinal plants were collected and referenced for the survey. The

most frequently reported medicinal plants included malunggay, oregano, and lagundi. The

malunggay plant is widely known in the Philippines for its health benefits, and oregano is a

common cooking ingredient in Filipino food dishes, while lagundi is used to help clear

common cold symptoms. While the majority of people would prefer to use plants for

41

medicine (71%) almost half (48%) of people purchase western medicine from local drug

stores.

The ethnobotanical survey study conducted has reviewed not only what people know

about plant use, but also communities’ attitudes towards western medicine and local plant

medicine. This study introduced new research opportunities and techniques for studying

certain medicinal plants between cultures and locations. In the Philippines’ case, despite the

influence of outside cultures, people still want to use plants for medicine and so have

continued doing so. While some countries have suffered cultural erosion in the face of wide-

spread urbanization, this study suggests the Philippines might be more successful in

maintaining not only its use of medicinal plants but other traditional practices as well.

42

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