Abbasid Decline and the Spread of Islam in India & Southeast Asia

Spread of Islam: Early History

Spread of Islam: Abbasid Dynasty

The Late Abbasid EraAs early as the third Abbasid Caliph, al-Mahdi (775-785), issues related to the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate were apparent.Somewhat typical pattern:Caliph abandons frugal ways of predecessorsCaliph does NOT establish clear pattern of succession

The Late Abbasid EraHarun al-Rashid (786-809) ascended to the throne after the death of al-Mahdi (and the poisoning of his eldest son)Harun al-Rashid enjoyed the sumptuous palace living like his dad. Charlemagnes emissaries sent in the 9th century were dazzled with the splendor of Baghdad

Harun al-RashidPower of Royal Advisors grew throughout the rule of Harun al-Rashid.Upon al-Rashids death, full-scale civil war broke out amongst those vying for power.While al-Mamum (813-833) was the victorwhat he did next truly changed the nature of the Caliphate

Slave ArmiesAl-Mamum was convinced to conscript thousands of mostly Turkic-speaking slaves as his personal bodyguards.As the number eclipsed 70,000 the slave regiment became a power center, in its own right.By 846, they had murdered the reigning caliph, and in the coming decades would murder at least four more

Abbasid DeclineCaliphs struggle to control the Slave RegimentsSome Caliphs want to move capital away from Baghdad turmoilIncreased spendingPublic works fall into disrepairSpiraling taxation/pillaging, etc

Late Abbasid DeclinewomenThe Harem and the Veil are the twin emblems of womens increasing subjugation to men and confinement.The Abbasid court created the concept of the Harem for the Caliphate.

Further Abbasid DeclineEgypt and Syria break away from Abbasid ruleIn once-provincial areas of the Islamic Caliphate, independent kingdoms had arose to challenge the AbbasidsIn 945, the Buyids of Persia invade and capture Baghdad.Caliphs became puppets controlled by families, like the Buyids.Buyid leaders took the title of sultan meaning victorious in Arabic, which will designate Muslim rulers.

The SeljuksBy 1055, the Buyid control over the Caliphate was brokenIn 1055, Central Asian Nomadic warriors known as the Seljuk Turks ruled over the Abbasid lands.Staunch Sunniskick Shias out of governmental positions

Seljuk TurksDefeat of the Byzantines led to the settlement of Asia Minor which would eventually become the seat of the Ottoman Empire

The Crusades

The CrusadesKnights from Western Europe launched crusades to capture portions of the Islamic world that made up the Holy Land of Biblical times.Muslim divisions and the element of surprise made the first Crusade a Christian success.1099: Christian knights took Jerusalem.Muslim and Jewish inhabitants were massacred

First Crusade

The CrusadesFor the next two centuries, Europeans would mount 8 crusades.Varying degrees of successWhen Muslim were united under powerful rule like Salah-ud-Din (Saladin) they re-conquer most of the lands they lost.The last crusader kingdom fell in Acre in 1291

Impact of CrusadesThe Crusaders experiences in the Eastern Mediterranean intensified European borrowing from the Muslim world. Through increased cultural contacts, Europeans began to recover much of the Greek learning lost during the waves of nomadic invasions after the fall of the Roman Empire

Age of Muslim Learning and RefinementIronically, even though the caliphate was steeped in political turmoil, the Muslim Empire still experienced growth and prosperity until late in the Abbasid era.Muslim/Jewish/Christian entrepreneurs amass great fortunes supplying cities with staples (grain/barley), essentials (cotton, woolen textiles for clothing), and luxury items.Long-Distance trade flourishes

Age of Muslim Learning and RefinementArtists and Artisans benefitMosques and palaces became more ornate.Tapestries and rugs from Persia were in great demand from Europe to China.Persian becomes the language of high culture.Arabic remains language of religion, law, and natural sciencesPersian was language of literary expression, administration, and scholarship.

Age of Muslim Learning and RefinementNot only did Muslims revive Greco-Roman scientific traditionsthey developed their own theories as well!Major corrections to algebraic and geometric theoriesAdvances in trigonometry

Age of Muslim Learning and RefinementCairo: best hospitals in the worldMuslim traders introduce techniques like papermaking and silk-weaving that was developed in China.

Age of Muslim Learning and RefinementContradictory trends in Islamic CivilizationSocial strife and political divisionsVsExpanded trading links and intellectual creativityThis was felt in the religious world, as wellA resurgence of mysticism VsOrthodox religious scholars become wary of non-Islamic ideas and scientific thinking (crusades)

Religious contradictionsOrthodox religious scholars felt that the revival of Greco-Roman philosophical traditions would erode the absolute authority of the QuranSufi movementSufis are wandering mystics who sought a personal union with AllahA reaction against the abstract divinity of the QuranSufis gain reputations as healers and miracle workersgain sizeable followings

The End of the CaliphateBy the 10th and 11th centuries, the Abbasid Caliphate was compromised by many different factionsIn the early 13th century, the Mongols, united under Chinggis Khan became a powerful force in Asia, smashing through Turko-Persian kingdoms to the east of Baghdad by 1220 CE.

The End of the CaliphateGenghis dies before conquest of the Islamic Heartlands, but his grandson, renewed the assault on the Islamic lands in the 1250s.By 1258, the Abbasid capital of Baghdad was taken by the Mongols

The End of the CaliphateThe 37th and last Abbasid Caliph was put to death by the Mongols.The Mongol advance was stopped by the Mamluks, or Turkic Slaves who ruled Egypt.In 1401, Baghdad suffers from another capture and round of pillaging by the forces of Tamerlane.Baghdads glory becomes supplanted by Cairo to the west and Istanbul to the North

The Spread of Islam

Islams arrival in South AsiaIndia through the Gupta Empire had been a crossroads of migration for Central Asian nomads seeking refugeGenerally, those people were accepted, and assimilated into Indian Society.The arrival of the Muslims in the 7th Century CE, will alter that.

The Hindu/Islam mixIndiaHinduismOpen, tolerant, and inclusive of varying forms of religious devotion.Search of union with spiritual source of all creation.Social hierarchy structured on the caste systemIndiaIslamBased on doctrines, practices (specific) and exclusive worship of a single god.Highly egalitarian in the sight of god.Religious practices are mandatory and obvious

The Hindu/Islam mixEarly centuries were characterized by violent conflict.However, a good deal of trade and religious interchange.In time, peaceful interactions became the normThere were contacts via traders in the Indian Ocean Trade network as early as 711 CEIndian overlords who took over land in South Asia brought little change to most inhabitants of the Indian Subcontinent.Many people welcomed the Arabs because they promised lighter taxation and religious tolerance

Early Muslim encounters in IndiaMuslim leaders decided to treat Hindus and Buddhists as the dhimmi, or people of the book even though they had no connection to the Bible.This meant that Hindus and Buddhists had to pay the tax on non-believers, but they enjoyed the freedom to worship as they pleased.Little effort was put towards conversion, so most people remained Hindu or Buddhist.

Indian/Muslim cultural diffusionMuslims inherit the Indian scientific learning, which rivaled the Greeks as the most advanced in the world.Arabic numerals originated in IndiaIndian learning was transferred to Baghdad in the age of the Abbasids.Indian doctors, scientists, etc.Muslims adopt Indian styles of dress, food, and ride on elephants as the Hindu rajas (kings) did.Muslims also adopt and infuse Indian architectural styles

Move towards EmpireEarly interactions did little to add territory to the Muslim Empire, and in some cases, lost territoryBUT, in 962 CE, a Turkish slave dynasty seized power in Afghanistan. Their third ruler, Mahmud of Ghazni, began two CENTURIES of Muslim raiding and conquest in Northern IndiaThroughout the 11th century, Mahmud defeated one confederation of Hindu princes after another in the name of Islam.

The efforts of Mahmud of Ghazni were continued by Muhammad of GhurAssassinated in 1206A slave lieutenant seizes powerQutb-ud-din Aibak

The Delhi Sultanate A new Muslim empire was proclaimed with the capital at Delhi, on the Gengetic Plain.For the next 300 years, a succession of dynasties known as the Delhi Sultante (literally, princes of the heartland) ruled North and Central India

The Delhi SultanateThis was a period of clashing control between the sultanate princes themselves, as well as Mongol and Turkic invaders.MAPS OF DELHI SULTANATE OVER TIME

ConversionCarriers of the new faith on the subcontinent were often merchants and Sufi mysticsSufis shared many characteristics with Indian gurus and wandering ascetics.Belief in magical healing powersAccepted lower-caste and outcaste groups into Islamic faithMost Muslims were NOT from the Indo-Gangetic centers of the Delhi Sultanate, indicating low forced conversions

ConversionMost conversions came from low-caste or Buddhist groups.Buddhism became largely debased as a result of corrupt practicesBuddhist temples and monasteries became lucrative targets for raids, etc.Many lower-caste, untouchables, animistic tribes, and Buddhists were attracted to the egalitarian nature of Islam

AccommodationHindus were convinced that Muslims would soon be absorbed by the superior religions and more sophisticated cultures of IndiaMany things pointed that way!Muslim princes adopted regal stylesMuslim rulers claim divine descentMuslim rulers mint coins with Hindu imagesMuslim communities also became socially divided along Caste linesViolation of the original tenets of Islam!

Islam in South Asia at the end of the SultanateAttempts to fuse Hinduism and Islam soon were recognized as impossible.Brahmans soon denounce Muslim leaders, etc.Bhakti MovementAfter centuries of political domination though, South Asia remained one of the least converted and integrated of all the areas Islam reached.

Southeast Asia

ImportanceSoutheast Asia was CRITICAL to the connection of trade from Chinese ports to Indian vessels along the Indian Ocean Trade network

Southeast Asian contributionAromatic woods from rainforests of Borneo and SumatraSpices: cloves, nutmeg from IndonesiaFrom 8th Century onward, coastal trade in India became dominated by Muslims

SE ASIAAs a result, elements of Islam began to filter into the southeast Asian regionThe collapse of the Shrivijaya trading empire (Buddhist) in the 13th century opened the door for the widespread introduction of Islam

SE ASIATrading contacts paved the way for conversionNOT conquest and forceMuslim ships also carry Sufis to the various parts of SE AsiaConversion begins in Sumatra, then across the Strait of Malacca to Malaya

SE ASIAMuslims impressed SE Asians by telling them how much of the world had already been converted

MalaccaMainland conversion was centered on Malacca, a powerful trading citySpreads to east Sumatra and to DEMAK on the north coast of JavaFrom there, spread to the Celebes and then the Spice Islands, then to Mindanao and Southern Philippines

The Spice Island(s)

ConversionTrading was the key to conversion.Regulation of commonality in Muslim laws was good to regulate business.Conversion linked centers culturally, and economically to Indian merchants and ports in India, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean

SE Asian IslamSome areas (like Central Java) saw conversion take longer than othersHindu-Buddhist dynasties contested its spreadMainland Southeast Asia did NOT see wholesale conversion, and remained largely BuddhistBecause it was spread primarily by Sufis, SE Asian Islam was more dynamic than orthodox IslamInfused with mythical strainsTolerated animist, Hindu, and Buddhist beliefs and rituals.

Women in SE Asian Islamic SocietyWomen retained a strong position in the family and the communityTrading in local and regional markets was dominated by small-scale female merchantsAs in Western Sumatra, lineage and inheritance was traced through female linesMany cultural elements were blended from SE Asian Culture with Muslim Culture.

Adas, M., Gilbert, M.J., Schwartz, S.B., & Stearns, P.N. (2007). World civilizations: The global experience. (5th ed.). New York: Pearson Education. Neater, B. (2009). www.bneater.com

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