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Organizational Development and Management Practices

• Before and during the 18th to the 20th centry

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Machiavelli1527

• The Prince offers managers practical advice for developing authoritarian structures within organizations. His justification is that “all men are bad and ever ready to display their vicious nature”

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Jean Jacques Rousseau1762

• In The Social Contract he postulates that governments work best when they are chosen and controlled by the governed. This concept furthers the idea of participatory management.

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Fredrick Taylor 1911

• The Principles of Scientific Management investigates the influence of salary, mechanical design, and work layout on individual job performance to discover the “one best way” of accomplishing a given task.

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Henry Fayol, 1916

• He publishes his Genera and Industrial Management, the first complete theory of mangement.

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Max Weber,1922

• His structural definition of bureaucracy is published posthumously; it uses an ”ideal-type” approach to extrapolate from the real world the central core of features characterizes the most fully developed form of bureaucratic organization.

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Mary Parker Follett1926

• “The Giving of orders” is one of the very first calls for the use of participatory leadership style, in which employees and employers co-operate to assess the situation and collaboratively decide what should be done.

• She calls for the “power with” as opposed to “power over”.

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Elton Mayo 1933

• Makes the first significant call for the human relations movements in his Hawthorne studies in his interim report entitled The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization.

• This is the first major report on the Hawthorne studies, the first significant call for a human relations movement.

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Luther Gulick 1937

“Notes on the Theory of organization” Summarises the seven

functional elements of the work of an executive in his mnemonic in his expression, POSDCORB:

• Planning

• Organizing

• Staffing

• Directing

• Coordinating

• Reporting and

• Budgeting

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Abraham Maslow1943

• His need hierarchy appears in his Psychological Review article, ”A Theory of Human Motivation.”

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Lester Coch & John French1948

• In their Human Relations article ”Overcoming Resistance to Change”: Employees resist change less when the need for it is effectively communicated to them and when the workers are involved in planning the changes.

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Ralph M. Stogdill1950

• In his Psychological Bulletin article, ”Leadership, Membership, and Organization”, identifies the leader’s role in influencing group efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement. His ideas become the basis for modern leadership research.

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Kurt Lewin1951

• Proposes a model of change consisting of three phases, unfreezing, change, and refreezing, in his Field Theory in Social Science. This model becomes the conceptual frame for organization development.

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Ludwig von Bertalanffy1951

• His article ”General Systems Theory: A New Approach to the Utility of Science,” is published in Human Biology. This becomes the intellectual foundation for the systems approach to organizational thinking.

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Peter F. Drucker1954

• In ”The Practice of Management”, he outlines his famous management by objectives (MBO) approach; a way that management might give ”full scope to individual strength and responsibility, and at the same time give direction of vision and effort, establish teamwork, and harmonize the goal of the individual.”

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Leon Festinger1957

• ”A theory of Cognitive Dissonance” suggests that dissonance is a motivator of human behavior.

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Robert Tannenbaum & Warren H. Schmidt 1958

• ”How to Choose a Leadership Pattern” describes ”democratic management” and devises a leadership continuum ranging from authoritarian to democratic.

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Leon Festinger1958

• The father of cognitive dissonance theory, writes ”The motivating Effect of Cognitive Dissonance,” which becomes the theoretical foundation for the ”inequity theories of motivation.”

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Charles A. Lindblom1959

• In his ”The Science of Muddling Through”, he rejects tha rational model of decision making in favour of incrementalism.

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March & Simon1958

• In Organizations, they seek to inventory and classify all that is worth knowing about the behavioral revolution in organization theory.

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Douglas M. McGregor1960

• ”The Human Side of Enterprise”, articulates the basic assumptions of the organizational behavior perspective and becomes perhaps the single most influential work in organizational behavior and organizational theory.

• Theory X and Theory Y applies the concept of “self-fulfilling prophesies” to organizational behavior. (1957)

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Eric Berne1964

• The father of Transactional Analysis (TA). His book ”Games People Play”: The Psychology of Human Relationships identifies three ego states: the parent, the adult, and the child; he further suggests that successful managers should strive for adult-adult relationships.

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Robert Blake & Jane Mouton1964

• The Managerial Grid: Key Orientations for Achieving Production Through People. This is a diagnostic device for leadership development programs which provide a grid of leadership style possibilities based on managerial assumptions about people and production.

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Fred Fiedler

• ”The Contingency Model; A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness,” argues that organizations should not try to change leaders to fit them, but instead should change their situations to mesh with the style of their leaders,

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Fredrick Herzberg1968

• Harvard Business Review article, ”One More Time, How Do You Motivate Employees,” catapults motivators or satisfiens and hygiene factors into the forefront of organizational motivation theory.

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Paul Hersey and Kenneth R. Blanchard, 1969

• ”The Cycle Theory of Leadership”, asserts that the appropriate leadership style for a given situation depends upon the employee’s education and experience levels, achievement motivation, and willingness to accept responsibility by the subordinates.

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Chris Argyris1970

• He writes ”Intervention Theory and Methods”, which becomes on of the most widely cited and enduring works on organizational consulting for change that is written from the organizational behavior/organizational development perspective.

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Victor H. Vroom1974

• In his article ”A New Look at Managerial Decision-Making,”, he develps a useful model whereby leaders can perform a diagnosis of a situation to determine which leadership style is most appropriate.

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Henry Mintzberg1979

• In his book, The Structuring of Organization, he defines ”the operating core, strategic apex, middle line, technostructure, and supprt staff” as the five basic components of an organization. This is his first book in an interactive series on ”the Theory of Management Policy.”

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J. Bernard Keys & Thomas Miller1984

• In their Academy of Management Review article, ”The Japanese Management Theory Jungle,” outline seven explanations for the success of Japanese management techniques: 1) superior manufacturing practices; 2) increased quality and quantity couipled with reduced cost factors; 3) participatory management practices; 4) employment of statistical quality control techniques; 5) consensus decision making; 6) life-time job security; and 7) long-term planning. These concepts become the basis for much of management training in the 1980s.

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Thomas Ouchi & Pascale and Athos, 1981

• Thomas Ouchi’s Theory Z and Pascale and Athos’ The Art of Japenese Management popularize the Japanese management ”movement.”

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Edgar Schein1985

• Writes his comprehensive and integrative statement of the organizational culture school in Organizational Culture and Leadership.