Post on 14-Mar-2020
Estetisk-Filosofiska Fakulteten
Therése Frohm
Does more target language use by the
teacher encourage more target language use by the students?
Engelska C-uppsats
Datum/Termin: 09-05-25/VT-09 Handledare: Michael Wherrity
Examinator: Moira Linnarud
Karlstads universitet 651 88 Karlstad Tfn 054-700 10 00 Fax 054-700 14 60
Information@kau.se www.kau.se
Abstract Titel: Does more target language use by the teacher encourage more target language
use by the students? Författare: Frohm, Therése Engelska C, 2009 Antal sidor: 26 Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate how the target language is used in the
foreign language classroom and how different teachers combine the target language and the first language in their teaching. The study was conducted in three different Swedish schools at different levels: one at the intermediate level; one at the secondary level; and two at the upper secondary level. The teachers were observed during class and interviewed. In addition to this, the students answered a questionnaire about their own and their teacher’s use of the target language.
The results showed that the teachers used the target language as the most common language in their teaching, although the first language was also used. The intermediate teacher used the first language when she did not have enough language herself, when she explained grammar or went through important information. The secondary teacher used the first language when she explained grammar as well as the upper secondary teacher, who also used the first language when she had important information. The results showed that the teacher’s choice of language in the classroom had an impact on the students since more teacher target language use encouraged more student target language use in the classroom, and that it is important to start the lesson in the target language to encourage more target language use by the students. Both the teachers and the students thought that the target language was important during language teaching.
Nyckelord: Second language teaching, Second language acquisition, Second language use
Table of contents 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 2. Background ...................................................................................................................................... 1
2.1 Teaching methods ..................................................................................................................... 2 2.2 L2 teaching ................................................................................................................................ 3 2.3 Motivating the students to use the target language ............................................................... 4 2.4 When does the use of mother tongue occur?.......................................................................... 5 2.5 What impact has the first language use on the L2 learning?................................................... 6
3. Methods .......................................................................................................................................... 7 3.1 Interviews with teachers ........................................................................................................... 7 3.2 Classroom observations ............................................................................................................ 7 3.3 Questionnaire............................................................................................................................ 8
4. Results and analysis......................................................................................................................... 8 4.1 Interviews with teachers ........................................................................................................... 8 4.1.1 Interview with teacher 1................................................................................................ 8 4.1.2 Interview with teacher 2................................................................................................ 9 4.1.3 Interview with teacher 3.............................................................................................. 10 4.2 Classroom observations .......................................................................................................... 10 4.2.1 Observation of teacher 1.............................................................................................. 10 4.2.2 Observation of teacher 2 ............................................................................................. 11 4.2.3 Observation of teacher 3 ............................................................................................. 11 4.3 Student questionnaires .......................................................................................................... 12 4.3.1 Sixth grade questionnaire ............................................................................................ 12
4.3.2 Eighth grade questionnaire………..…………………………………………………………………………… 13 4.3.3 Upper secondary school questionnaire, students in the first year…………………….…… 13
4.3.4 Upper secondary school questionnaire, students in the second year....................... 13 5. Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 14 6. Conclusion...................................................................................................................................... 17
References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………. 18 Appendix 1 – Teacher questionnaire……………………………………………………………………………………….. 19 Appendix 2 – Student questionnaire……………………………………………………………………………………….. 21 Appendix 3 – Teacher questionnaire in Swedish………………………………………………………………………… 23 Appendix 4 – Student questionnaire in Swedish………………………………………………………………………… 25
1. Introduction and aim
A language teacher has the task of teaching the students to become L2 (second
language) users which means that the students have to learn to speak, listen, read and write in
the L2. But what does it mean to become a second language user? Is it the same as being able
to speak like a native speaker? According to Vivian Cook (2008:171) a L2 user will never be
mistaken for a native speaker since the L2 never will be the native language regardless of how
long or how well one speaks the L2. In this paper, I will examine how different language
teachers at different levels use the L2 (second language), in this case English, in their
teaching. Do they use the L2 throughout the lessons or do they also use the L1, in this case
Swedish? If they use the L1, when do they use it and why do they choose to use it during a L2
class? This will be investigated through interviews with different teachers and by classroom
observations. A questionnaire will also be used as a means to learn how students think about
L2 use and their opinion about the use of the L1 in L2 teaching. Sometimes it seems as if
teachers have preconceived ideas of how students would react to the idea of lessons given
only in the L2. The reason I have chosen to write about the L2 use is because I am studying to
become a language teacher and have thoughts concerning the usage of the L2. I like the idea
of using the L2 throughout the class, regardless of whether I am teaching grammar or
introducing something new. For that reason I am interested in teachers’ opinions about the use
of the L2. Another reason is that little research has been conducted on how much the L2 is
used in the L2 classrooms (Duff & Polio, 1990). I think it is important to examine the pros
and cons of this issue.
The aim of this essay is to discuss arguments for and against the use of the L2 in
class. Perhaps this study may help future L2 teachers in their teaching. My hypothesis is that
teachers choose to use the L1 during grammar lessons and when giving explanations where
the students’ knowledge of the L2 is limited. I also believe that the use of the L1 is a means of
simplifying the communication between teacher and students and that the more teacher L2 use
in the classroom encourages more students L2 use.
2. Background
When we learn our native language, we are usually surrounded by it. Even if there is no
agreement as to how we learn languages, we know that this language environment will
contribute to our acquiring the native language. The ideal would be to have L2 learners
acquire the L2 in the same way as children acquire their first language, without using another
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language (Cook, 2008:181). Accordingly, they would not have any other language to fall back
on. Obviously, this is not a feasible scenario since all the L2 learners have learnt a first
language and furthermore, they all usually have the same first language in common.
Both L1 (first language) learners and L2 learners need exposure to the language
to learn it (Macaro, 1997). However, there are great differences between the conditions of
exposure to the L1 and the L2, which means that the exposure to the L2 is usually limited to
the L2 classrooms (Duff & Polio, 1990:154, Ericsson & Jacobsson 2004:54). Therefore the
use of the L2 in the classroom becomes even more important since this could well be the only
time students are exposed to it. Even if the use of English continues to increase in Sweden,
students’ opportunity to use the L2 will still, probably, be mostly limited to the classroom.
2.1 Teaching methods
In this section, I will discuss various approaches to L2 teaching since there are different
opinions concerning how languages are learnt. From a behaviouristic perspective, language is
learnt through repetition where the learner hears and repeats language patterns. Since the
learning occurs through repetition, errors should be corrected to prevent them from becoming
fossilized (Tholin, 1992:10). This behaviouristic view is not shared by Corder (1981:10). He
does not think that one learns language through repetition, but rather, through one’s own
assumptions about the language. He claims that learners form their own hypotheses about the
language and try them out in order to confirm them. If these hypotheses do not correspond to
the actual rule, they can be revised. In this case teacher correction is not crucial for learners’
further understanding of the language, since they will be corrected by the learners themselves.
Krashen’s (1991:409) comprehension hypothesis, also called the input
hypothesis, states that learners acquire language by understanding messages and that
comprehensible input is necessary, and the affective filter has to be low. Moreover, according
to Krashen (1991), the input (i) must contain material that the learner has not yet acquired, but
is ready to acquire (i+1). A learner needs to be ‘open’ for the input. He/she must have a low
affective filter, which means that the learner needs to be secure and comfortable in the group
to be able to take in the input. If this is not the case, the learner will not be able to take in and
acquire the input.
The audio-lingual method was a method widely used in the 1950’s and 60’s and
is still used today. The audio-lingual method is based on the structuralist view of language,
accordingly, a language is a system consisting of different elements such as phonological
units (phonemes), grammatical units (phrases, clauses, and sentences), grammatical
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operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming elements) and lexical items (function
words and structure words) (Orwig, 1999) and learning a language means that one has to
master these elements and be able to form sentences correctly with different grammatical
rules (Song & Andrews 2009). Moreover, the audio-lingual method assumes, like the
behaviourists, that language is learnt through repetition and that errors should be corrected to
prevent them from becoming fossilized. Another assumption is that in order to maximize
language skills, the L2 should be presented orally first and only later in written form. The
objectives of the audio-lingual method are for the learner to acquire accurate pronunciation
and grammar, to have the ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations and to
have sufficient knowledge of vocabulary to use with grammar patterns. Most commonly used
activities within the audio-lingual method are dialogues and drills (Orwig, 1999).
Another approach to teaching languages is the communicative approach. This
method, developed in Britain in the 1960’s, was partly in response to Chomsky’s criticism of
structural theories of language. The basic assumption here is that language is a tool for
communication. The semantic and communicative roles of language are more emphasized
than the grammatical correctness, though this is also included. The objective of the
communicative approach is for the learner to develop communicative skills (Orwig, 1999).
2.2 L2 teaching
According to Tholin’s students, the most important goal in L2 teaching is that the students
learn to speak (Tholin, 1992:47). To be able to speak a language, one has to use it. A common
belief in language teaching is that one’s competence in the L2 is achieved in a rich L2
environment provided by the teacher. The learners have to hear and be exposed to the
language to learn it. Therefore the teacher should use the L2 not only to give instructions and
to drill grammar, but in all communication, including when the teacher disciplines the
students (Duff & Polio, 1990:154).
The opportunities to learn the L2 will most certainly increase in classrooms
where the teacher uses the L2 most of the time, and the understanding of the L2 is facilitated
by using body language, translations of occasional words or expressions, rephrases, or
pictures and drawings on the blackboard (Ericsson & Jacobsson 2004:53). Using the L2
continuously should result in the increased use of the L2 by the students as well. When
students find that there are different ways of explaining words or expressions without using
the L1, L2 use may be further facilitated.
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There are different types of language use in the L2 classroom, since teachers and
students use the L2 in a “make-believe world” (Macaro, 1997:95). The L2 classroom is an
instructional setting and differs from other settings where languages can be taught in a non-
instructional manner, like in an English speaking country (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). In a L2
classroom, L2 use is not always a means to genuine communication; it is more a means of
creating an environment where the L2 is used in a make-believe world. McTear (in Ellis,
1994:577) identifies four types of language use: 1) Mechanical. No exchange of meaning is
involved and the language is only used to learn specific rules or phrases in mechanical drills,
not as a means for genuine communication. The answer is already stated and the only reason
for asking the question is to practice a particular language area, as for example, when
practicing how to introduce oneself: My name is.., I am ... years old; 2) Meaningful. The main
focus is still on the form, but some new information from the speaker is given; 3) Pseudo-
communicative. The focus is both on form and meaning, but is not as natural and spontaneous
as real communication; 4) Real communication. This consists of spontaneous speech like
opinions, jokes, classroom management. Real communication is rare in the L2 classroom
since the classroom setting is not a genuine one, but Tholin (1992:48) thinks that the
communication between teacher and students becomes more meaningful if the teacher asks
questions he/she is genuinely interested in. This way the teacher can prepare the students for
using the L2 outside the classroom where they must be able to hear the question, translate the
meaning into something comprehensible and then produce an answer.
2.3 Motivating the students to use the target language
One important reason for teachers to use the L2 in the classroom is to encourage them to use
the L2 even when they are talking among themselves. In a classroom where the teacher uses
the L2 throughout, the lesson will result in more L2 use for the students (Ericsson &
Jacobsson 2004:53). Another reason is to maximize the amount of time the students hear the
L2. Even though spoken English is available through the media, the classroom may be the
only opportunity for students to use the language for themselves. A miracle medicine to make
the students start to talk English to each other in groups does not exist (Tholin 1992:132).
There are elements that can facilitate L2 use for the students in the classroom
environment. The environment in the classroom and the class composition are determining
factors. If the students feel secure in the group and know that they will not be judged, even if
they make mistakes or pronounce incorrectly, it is easier for the teacher to motivate them to
use the L2 (Ericsson & Jacobsson 2004:53).
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According to Tholin (1992:132) a teacher that manages to get the students to use
the L2 at the beginning of the class may make it easier for the students to continue using the
L2 during the whole class. The first minutes are ‘crucial’ and it is in those first minutes when
the teacher has to inspire the students to use the L2. Furthermore, the teacher has to be
consistent in his/her own use of the L2 in order to motivate the students to also use it. Cook
(2008:181) observes that the teacher’s language in the classroom is the primary model and if
the teacher uses the first language, it may make it even more difficult for the students to use
the L2. This has been confirmed in a study by Zilm (in Tornberg 2005:45) who reported that
teachers’ use of the L2 correlated positively with increased student use.
At the same time, teachers must ask themselves what kind of L2 use they are
expecting. Often, when students are working in groups there is constant communication
between them (Tholin 1992:48). If this communication is mostly performed in the L2,
whether the subjects are relevant or not, the students will have used the L2 and produced
genuine communication.
2.4 When does the use of L1 occur?
In a study conducted by Franklin (in Cook, 2008:181) 90 per cent of the teachers interviewed
thought that teaching in the L2 was important. However, based on my own experience, the
use of the first language does occur during L2 teaching. Teachers sometimes prefer to use the
students’ first language to explain and organize a task in order to facilitate the understanding
of the information. By doing this, however, they deprive the students of valuable input in the
L2 (Duff & Polio, 1990:154). Traditionally, teachers that have used the grammar-translation
academic style have always received bad press since they have used L1 in their teaching. That
is the reason why teachers that are using the other methods (section 2.1) have insisted that the
less the first language is used in the classroom, the better the teaching (Cook, 2008:180).
Macaro (1997) has observed several language teachers and has done studies on
when and why teachers tend to use the first language. Macaro (1997:77) found four reasons
that most commonly led to use of the first language. Firstly, it was used to explain grammar.
Franklin (in Cook 2008:182) found that teaching grammar was conducted in the first language
by 80 per cent of teachers in her study. Explaining grammar in a L2 requires that both
teachers and students know the grammatical terms. Two teachers in a study conducted by
Duff & Polio (1990:163) said that they did not feel comfortable using the L2 when teaching
grammar since the students did not always know the grammatical term in the L2. If the
students do not know the terms, the learning process will not take place. Tholin (1992:133)
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has a simple solution which is to translate the grammatical terms on the blackboard in order to
avoid the L1 use during the grammar classes. Secondly, the L1 was frequently used when
disciplining students. Tholin (1992:133) however, believes that teachers can manage to
discipline students in the L2. Even though the students do not understand everything that is
said, Tholin (1992) considers that students understand the message when the teacher is truly
upset. Thirdly, the first language was used when giving instructions. To give instructions in
the second language was seen as something that could be done, but with difficulty (Macaro
1997:77). Moreover, trying to explain a complicated task in the L2 may consume the entire
lesson. Consequently, the students might not have time to actually do the exercises (Macaro
1997:83). In a structure-based instructional setting, teachers often use the first language or
simplify the L2 to ensure comprehension by the students (Lightbown & Spada 2006:112).
Lastly, the first language was used when teaching the culture of the country.
2.5 What impact has first language use on L2 learning?
Even though most teachers agree that the first language should be avoided during L2 teaching,
Cook (2008:171) reminds us that L2 learners are not the same as native speakers. Teachers in
the L2 classrooms are teaching the students to become L2 users; not first language users. If
teachers want students to become efficient L2 users, instead of imitations of native speakers,
textbooks should include examples of successful L2 users for students to identify with.
Letting the students identify with L2 users may help them feel comfortable while speaking
English.
Krashen’s comprehension hypothesis (section 2.1) does not forbid first language
use in the L2 classroom, but it provides guidelines. The first language can be used as a means
for providing quick explanations and to make the L2 input more comprehensible. Krashen
(2006:9) explains that teachers misuse the first language when they provide so much
information in it that there is no reason to continue a discussion in the L2. In this case the
language use interferes with L2 teaching and L2 acquisition. Furthermore, when the teacher is
using the L2 but provides too many short explanations and translations in the L1, the first
language will interfere with the message in the L2 and make it more difficult to understand.
Nevertheless, in discussions in the L2 classroom quick translations of word might be
necessary and might also make the entire discussion more comprehensible, especially for
students who are having difficulties understanding the context of the discussion (Krashen
2006:9).
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3. Methods
My investigation was carried out in three different schools and included students from four
levels: the sixth grade (11-12 years old), the eighth grade (14-15 years old) and two levels in
the upper secondary school; the first (16 years old) and the second (17 years old). The reason
why I chose two different levels at the upper secondary school was because the same teacher
teaches both groups, and I wanted to investigate if she changed her L2 use depending on the
group. Teacher 1 is an intermediate level teacher and teaches the sixth grade. Her 20 students
are between 11-12 years old. Teacher 2 is a teacher in the secondary school and teaches
students in the eighth grade. This group consisted of 21 students between the ages of 14 and
15. Teacher 3 teaches two different groups at two different levels in the upper secondary
school. The first group consisted of 20 students between the ages of 16 and 17 who were in
the first year. The other group consisted of 22 students between the ages of 17 and 18 who
were in the second year. In total, approximately 80 students (four different groups) and three
teachers participated in my study and all of them have the same L1 in common. All three
schools are situated in a middle-sized town in central Sweden. For my study I have used
teacher interviews, classroom observations and student questionnaires. Since this is a
qualitative, not a quantitative study, I have used more than one method for collecting data in
order to get more reliable results.
3.1 Interviews with teachers
Since I wanted to investigate what opinions different teachers at different levels had about the
L2 use I wanted to interview teachers. I also thought it would be easier to meet people for
interviews than to just send a questionnaire to them since it is easier to have a discussion this
way and to add more questions if necessary. The questions for the teachers were the same,
regardless of what level they taught, and are attached as an appendix (see appendix 1). I have
taken some questions from an essay written by Ingela Bolander (2008).
3.2 Classroom observations
Sometimes it may be difficult to be truly aware of when and why one uses the L2 or the first
language during classes and that is the reason why I also chose to observe the teachers when
teaching. For this I asked the teachers to give a lesson containing as many areas as possible
(grammar, group work, instructions) in order to be able to observe when they were using the
L2 and when they chose to use the first language. One lesson for each of the four groups was
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observed. During my investigation, I took notes instead of recording the lessons, since the aim
was to observe when the teacher used the L2 and when she used the L1. Notes were also
easier since recording needs permission from parents.
3.3 Questionnaire
When the classroom observation was completed the students were asked to complete a
questionnaire containing eight questions about their language use in the classroom, their
teacher’s language use and their opinions about L2 use in the classroom. The reason for the
questionnaire was to hear students’ opinion about the L2 use during lessons, and to obtain
more information about the teacher’s use of it (since the teacher might be aware of her L2 use
when I observe her). The questionnaire is attached as an appendix (see appendix 2). Here I
have also used some questions from Ingela Bolander (2008).
4. Results and analysis
This section contains the results of my investigation from the four different groups.
4.1 Interviews with the teachers
Here I will present the results from the interviews with three different teachers. The aim is not
to compare different teachers, but rather, to discuss and investigate what opinions different
teachers have about L2 use. I have chosen to discuss the teachers in separate sections for
clarity.
4.1.1 Interview with teacher 1
Teacher 1 explained that she uses mostly English during her lessons. Even though she is not
specialized in teaching English and she has not had experience at using English in any other
country than Sweden, she wants her students to hear as much English as possible during her
lessons. Teacher 1 sees it as her task to give the students encouragement and enough self-
confidence to use the L2 themselves, regardless if errors sometimes occur. She argues that the
students will learn grammar and rules in the secondary school, and that she does not want to
inhibit them, but rather, make them feel comfortable in using the L2. Moreover, she has been
told by teachers at the secondary school that students are afraid to use the L2, often because
they are inhibited by all the grammar in the intermediate level.
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Teacher 1 uses the L1 during grammar explanations and when she explains
difficult tasks or when she goes through exams or homework. The reason she gave for using
the L1 to explain grammar was that she did not know the grammatical terms in the L2. She
uses the L1 for difficult explanations and instructions regarding exams and homework to be
sure that all the students understand the information.
She thinks that although students want to use as much English as possible during
the lessons, they want to have the option of using the L1 in situations when they cannot make
themselves understood in the L2. She also thinks that students want their teacher to use the L2
as much as possible to make the lesson more authentic and to expose them to the language as
much as possible.
4.1.2 Interview with teacher 2
Teacher 2 tries to use as much English as possible and always starts her lessons in the L2 to
inspire the students to use the L2 as well as expose them to it.
She uses the L1 when she explains grammar and has always received good
grammar results from the students by doing this. She wants all the students to have the same
opportunity to learn grammar, regardless of their level. She also believes that it is easier for
the students to stay focused during grammar lessons if they hear it in their L1.
Teacher 2 believes that students want to use the L2 more during their lessons but
become frustrated that they do not have sufficient vocabulary or cannot pronounce correctly.
Then it becomes easier for them to use the L1 and this affects the whole class. She also thinks
that students want to hear the L2 as much as possible during the lesson, even though students
often complain at first that they do not understand her when she uses the L2. If she is
consistent in her use and simplifies her language, the students will get used to hearing the L2
and appreciate to hear it. She thinks that the students prefer grammar explanations as well as
important information about exams in their L1 in order to be sure that they understand
everything. Teacher 2 wants her students in the eighth grade to acquire enough grammar to be
able to use the L2 correctly, and, at the same time, feel secure when using it.
4.1.3 Interview with teacher 3
Teacher 3 explained during the interview that she uses mostly English during her lessons but
switches to the L1 when she has grammar introductions. The reason for this is to make sure
that all the students understand the grammar. Moreover, she explained that she was told at the
university when she studied in the teacher-training program that grammar is impossible to
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explain in the L2. Another reason for using the L1 during grammar introductions is because
some grammar teaching methods require both languages to be comprehensible. For example,
when she has inductive grammar lessons, the lesson and introduction starts in English and
then some explanations at the end occur in Swedish. Her L2 use also differs depending on the
level of the students. For example, when she teaches students in the third year (not observed
in my study) all parts of the lesson are in the L2, even the grammar introductions. Some
groups become more motivated by hearing the L2 than others, and this is something she takes
into account when she uses the L2.
Teacher 3 thinks that her students want to use Swedish in situations where they
cannot make themselves understood in the L2 and that they want to have their lessons in the
L2 as much as possible. She believes that the students want her to use the L1 when she
explains grammar, when she introduces tasks, and when she goes through exams and
important information. Her aim with her teaching is to expose the students to as much L2 as
possible, and to encourage them to use it.
4.2 Classroom observations
In addition to the interviews with the teachers I also observed the same teachers when they
taught their classes. Since it may sometimes be difficult for a teacher to be aware of precisely
when s/he uses the L2, I wanted to observe and compare the interviews with the observations.
I observed each teacher during one class, except Teacher 3 who had two lessons, one with
each of the two different groups. I will present the observations in separate sections as above.
4.2.1 Observation of teacher 1
Teacher 1 started her lesson in the L2 and explained why I was there and the plan for the
day’s lesson. She used the L2 when she talked about the previous week’s assignment and had
a discussion with the students about it. She asked questions in the L2 and every student that
answered her used the L2 as well. When one part of the task reminded the teacher of
something, she started to talk about this in the L2, but switched into the L1 when it became
too complicated. She explained afterwards that in such cases she tries to use the L2 as much
as possible, but sometimes her lack of knowledge of the L2 prevents her from using it.
Another reason for switching to the L1 was that it speeded up the communication of important
information. When she started to use the L1, the students used it as well when they wanted to
reflect on something she had said or if they had had a similar experience. When she switched
back into the L2, the students did the same.
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After the introduction and the discussion the students worked with the puppets
for their puppet theatre. The discussions between the students were in the L1 when they talked
about the theatre or had opinions about it. They used the L2 when they practiced their theatre
and helped each other with the pronunciation.
4.2.2 Observation of teacher 2
Teacher 2 started her lesson in the L1 when she did the attendance check. She switched to the
L2 and introduced me and I explained why I was there. She continued to use the L2 as soon as
the “lesson” started. She used the L2 to talk about the day’s assignment and to introduce the
grammar she had planned for the day. She and the students talked about the assignment that
contained the new grammar, and the majority of the students tried to use the L2. When the
teacher started to explain the grammar, by using difficult expressions and explanations, she
switched back to the L1. She commented on this afterwards and explained that many of the
students find it difficult to understand grammar explanations in the L2 and she wants every
student to have the same opportunity to understand. Afterwards some of the students worked
with their books and the others worked with a travel-assignment. The discussions between the
students were in the L1, except when the teacher asked them to use the L2. The language
switched again when the students had trouble finding words in the L2. The students asked
their teacher mostly in the L1 but questions in the L2 did occur. Whatever the case, the
teacher answered in the L2. After the introduction and grammar explanation, the teacher
spoke entirely in the L2.
4.2.3 Observation of teacher 3
Teacher 3 had two different classes at two different levels. The first class was in the second
year. The teacher started the lesson in the L2 and asked the students about their weekend.
Then she let me introduce myself. She continued to present the oral task in the L2 and, even
though the questions from the students were in the L1, she answered them in the L2. The
students did the oral task in the L2 but all other communication between them was in the L1,
except questions concerning the task. This task was conducted in small groups. Several
students arrived late to class and the teacher explained the task in the L2 to them. When the
students had finished the task, the teacher explained the differences between formal and
informal language to prepare them for the national test in English. Teacher 3 used the L2
when she introduced and explained the differences. When a student did not understand a
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word, she asked the other students to explain it in the L2 to the class. The entire lesson was
performed in the L2 by the teacher, and the majority of the class tried to use it as well.
The second class, in which the students were one or two years younger than
those in the first class, was in the first year. The teacher started her lesson in the L2. When the
students asked questions in the L1, they received answers in the L2. The communication
between students during the introduction was in the L1. The first task was to “Retell your
article” in small groups. The teacher reminded the students that this was an oral task and
asked them to use the L2. Group 1 started to retell their articles in the L2 and when they could
not find a particular word, they asked each other in the L1. Communication about other
subjects than the task was in the L1. The students switched back to the L2 when the teacher
commented on this. One student in group 2 started speaking in the L2 with the teacher, but
when he did not find the word he wanted, he continued the discussion in the L1. Group 3
asked the teacher questions in the L1 and continued the discussion in the L1 even after the
teacher asked them to use the L2. The teacher used the L2 throughout the lesson, and all the
groups used mostly the L1. They switched to the L2 when the teacher asked them to use it,
except group 3, which used the L1 during the entire lesson.
4.3 Student questionnaires
I also used a questionnaire because I wanted to hear student opinions about the L2 use in the
classroom; what they thought about using the L2; and their opinions about their teacher’s use
of it. In addition the questionnaire enabled me to obtain more information about the teacher’s
use of the L2.
4.3.1 Sixth grade questionnaire
16 students (65 %) said that they used mostly the L2 during the lessons, but this could not be
confirmed from the observation which showed me that the majority of the students used the
L1. To the question concerning which language the teacher preferred them to use during the
lesson, 11 students (55 %) answered that she prefers L2 use during the lesson, but that the L1
could be used as a complement. 13 students (65 %) were satisfied with how they used both
Swedish and English during classes, although 7 students (35 %) wanted their teacher to
encourage them more to use the L2 during lessons. All the students thought that L2 use was
important during the lesson, but that grammar, information about exams and clarifications
should be conducted in the L1. 2 students (10 %) had the opinion that hearing everything in
the L2 could be difficult.
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4.3.2 Eighth grade questionnaire
The questionnaires for the eighth grade showed me that the majority of the students (70 %)
mostly used the L1 during their lessons. The students were agreed that their teacher wanted
them to use as much L2 as possible. To the question what they thought about their language
use in the classroom, 12 students (55 %) answered that they liked to use both languages
during the lessons, 5 students (25 %) wanted more encouragement from the teacher to use the
L2, and 4 students (20 %) wanted to use more L1 during the lessons. The students agreed that
their teacher only used the L2 during their lessons, even though I noticed that she used the L1
to check attendance and during grammar introductions. This was also confirmed in the next
answers where the students said that the teacher used the L1 when she explained grammar.
Perhaps they did not fully understand how to interpret the question about the teacher’s
language use. 13 students (60 %) thought that it was important that the teacher use the L2
during the lessons. The same number of students thought that it was important to hear as
much L2 as possible, even though 5 students (25 %) wanted more L1 use from the teacher.
4.3.3 Upper secondary school questionnaire, students in the first year.
12 students (60 %) in the first year answered that they mostly used the L1 during the lessons.
7 students (35 %) answered that they used the same amount of L2 as L1 and 1 student (5 %)
said that he/she mostly used the L2. 16 students (80 %) said that their teacher wanted them to
use the L2 as much as possible during lesson. 4 students (20 %) answered that this was
preferable, but that the L1 should be allowed as a complement. 12 students (60 %) said that
they were satisfied as to how and when they used English and Swedish during the lessons,
although 8 students (40 %) wanted more encouragement from the teacher to use the L2. This
is interesting since I found that the teacher encouraged the students to use the L2 every time
she heard them talk in the L1 during my observation. The students agreed that their teacher
used mostly the L2 during her lessons, but that the L1 did occur when she explained grammar
and informed them about important information. 15 students (75 %) thought that L2 use was
important in the L2 classroom and they were satisfied with the amount of time the teacher
used the L2 during lessons. At the same time 15 students (75 %) wanted grammar
explanations in the L1.
4.3.4 Upper secondary school questionnaire, students in the second year.
13 students (60 %) in the second year answered that they mostly used the L2 during the
lessons, but that the L1 did occur at times. 6 students (25 %) answered that they used the same
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amount of L2 as L1 during the lessons and the rest, 3 students (15 %), said that they used
mostly Swedish, sometimes English during the lessons. 19 students (85 %) agreed that their
teacher wanted them to use as much L2 as possible while 3 students (15 %) said that although
the teacher wanted them to use the L2, the L1 use was allowed. 14 students (65 %) liked that
they could use both English and Swedish during the lessons, although 8 students (35 %)
wanted more encouragement from the teacher to use the L2. This I found interesting since
during my observation, the teacher asked the students to use the L2 every time she heard them
use the L1 in the classroom. Despite this, some students continued to use the L1 when she was
out of hearing range. All the students were agreed that the teacher used mostly the L2 during
lessons, but that she uses the L1 when she explains grammar and when she gives information
about exams or other important information she does not want students to miss. According to
the questionnaires, the students were satisfied with the L1 use in these situations. 18 students
(80 %) had the opinion that L2 was important in the classroom even though a few, 4 students
(20 %), were of the opinion that it could be difficult to understand everything when the
teacher used the L2 all the time.
5. Discussion
The aim of this essay has been to discuss the pros and cons of L2 use during L2 classes. I
have always liked the idea of having lessons entirely in the L2, but after reading Cook (1998)
I have come to the conclusion that L1 support can be used as a means of simplifying the
learning of a L2 and does not have to signify bad language teaching. Even though Cook
(1998) has shown me another side of L1 use in the L2 classroom, I still am of the opinion that
the L2 should be the most commonly used language. Tholin (1992) supports this view when
he claims that the L2 can be used throughout the classes, sometimes with help of body
language or translations on the blackboard.
My investigation supported my hypothesis that the L1 would normally be used
during grammar introductions and when giving difficult explanations. My hypothesis that
teachers use the L1 as a means of simplifying the communication between teacher and
students was also supported by Teachers 1 and 2, although Teacher 3 used the L2 during her
entire lessons. When her students needed word explanations, she used the students as help.
Since all the students had the same L1, the L1 could be used as a tool to improve
the understanding of the L2. Even though Teacher 1 only had limited experience in English,
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she was convinced that hearing the L2 was important and necessary for the students’ further
understanding of it. Her goal with her teaching was to encourage the students to use the L2
even though errors could occur, and to convey the message that errors did not matter as long
as the students tried. She used the L1 when she explained grammar since she did not have
sufficient vocabulary in the L2. The students in the sixth grade were influenced by Teacher 1
and tried to use the L2 as long as she used it, but changed to the L1 when she did. None of the
students continued the conversation or the discussion in the L2 when Teacher 1 switched to
the L1, which could mean that her language was the primary model as Cook (2008)
mentioned in his study (2008:181).
I agree with Tholin (1998) that it is important to use the L2 during the first
minutes to encourage the students to use it since Teacher 2, although she tried to use the L2 as
much as possible, spent her first minutes speaking in Swedish, which resulted in fewer
students who tried to use the L2 during the lesson, even when she started to use it. I did not
observe as much interaction in the L2 between the students in the secondary school, as I
observed in the sixth grade, except when the teacher asked them to use it. This is in line with
Cook’s (2008) view that the teacher’s language influences the students.
I did not observe any L1 use by Teacher 3 during her two lessons. She used the
L2 even when she introduced and explained the differences between formal and informal
language. When a student did not understand a word, she asked the other students to explain it
in the L2 to the class. In this way, she never encouraged the students to use the L1. Rather,
she simply showed them ways of explaining word meanings in the L2. Teacher 3 said that she
used the L1 during her teaching, but I did not observe this during her lessons. When the
students asked her questions, they received the answer in the L2. Communication between the
students was both in the L2 and the L1 at the upper secondary school. The first-year students
said that they mostly used the L1 during their lessons and the students in the second year said
that they mostly used the L2, but that the L1 did occur sometimes. This shows me that the
teacher’s use of the L2 in the classroom is not sufficient; it is also necessary for the students
to start to use the L2 by themselves.
I did not ask the teachers what teaching method they used, but during my
observation it became clear to me that all the teachers used the communicative approach. The
most important thing for all of them seemed to be for the students to be able to communicate
in the L2 regardless of whether or not errors occurred. During their teaching, they all used real
communication with the students. They asked them genuine questions they wanted answers to
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and had discussions in the L2. Despite the real communication method being rare in the L2
classroom, I found three different teachers at different levels using it.
All of these teachers tried to encourage their students to use the L2 during the
lessons, mostly by using it themselves but also by reminding them to use it. When the
teachers heard the L1 during the lessons, they simply asked the students to use the L2 instead.
Still, many students at all levels wanted their teacher to encourage them more. Perhaps
reminders are not the best way to encourage the students, because they do not realize that their
teachers are trying to encourage them every time they ask them to use the L2. Another reason
could be that the students want to use the L2 but do not really know how to. Moreover, it may
feel uncomfortable and silly since all the students have the same L1.
The results from the questionnaires from the students support my belief that
students want to hear as much L2 as possible during their lessons. At the same time I do think
that it takes time for the students to appreciate the teacher’s L2 use, as Teacher 2 said in her
interview. Students might think it is difficult at the beginning to hear most of the information
in the L2 but when they get used to it, they learn to appreciate it.
I argue that as much L2 as possible is necessary during language teaching, but
that the L1 can be used as a tool to simplify the learning of the L2. I am not saying that the L1
should be the language mostly used during the lesson, but rather that it should not be seen,
when used correctly, as something that interferes with L2 learning. However, I do think that
too much L1 during the L2 teaching can have a negative effect on teaching the L2 and I agree
with Krashen (2006) that teachers can overuse it. Instead of being a means to simplify the
teaching of the L2, it can become a liability and interfere with the L2 acquisition.
My investigation and observations have convinced me that the more L2 use by
the teacher in the classroom, the more L2 use by the students. Teacher 1’s lesson was almost
entirely in the L2 and the students tried to use it as much as possible. Teacher 3’s students in
the second year tried to use the L2 during her lesson and indicated on the questionnaires that
this was the most commonly used language by the majority of them. L2 use makes the lesson
more authentic. Moreover, grammar is not everything; one has to be exposed to the language
as well and be able to use it to learn it. Since Teacher 2 started her lesson in the L1 she did not
receive as much L2 use by the students as Teachers 1 and 3.
To sum up, my hypothesis was supported by my investigation that
L1 support is used to teach grammar to simplify the communication between teachers and
students. My results also suggest that the more the L2 is spoken in the classroom by the
teacher, the more the students are encouraged to use it. Finally, L1 support should not be seen
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as something that necessarily interferes with the L2 teaching when it is used correctly; instead
it be seen as a means of simplifying and facilitating L2 teaching.
6. Conclusion
My conclusion is that the teachers I observed want to use the L2 during the lesson as much as
possible and that they are convinced that the more L2 use the better the teaching. It seems to
be difficult to encourage the students to use the L2 during the lesson, even though they say
that they want to use it. My observation showed me that there was more L2 use by the
students in classes where the teacher started her lesson in it and used it frequently. Teachers 1
and 2 used the L1 during grammar instructions, but for different reasons; Teacher 1 did not
have sufficient vocabulary to teach grammar in the L2, and Teacher 2 was convinced that
more students would understand the grammar and stay focused if the information was
conveyed in their L1. My conclusion is that the more L2 use by the teacher will motivate the
students to use it and that the L1, when used correctly, can be used as a means of simplifying
the learning of the L2.
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References Bolander, I. 2008. Code-switching in the classroom-A sign of deficiency or a part of the
learning process. Karlstad: Karlstad University Press. Ellis, R. 1999. The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ericsson, R & Jacobsson, A. 2004. Språk för livet. Falköping: Liber AB. Krashen, S. 1991. “The input hypothesis: An update”. In Linguistics and language pedagogy:
the state of the art. (ed.) James E. Alatis. Georgetown: Georgetown University Press. Krashen, S. 2006. Is first language use in the foreign language classroom good or bad? It
depends. The international journal of foreign language teaching. 2 (1, 9). [online] Available at
http://www.tprstories.com/ijflt/IJFLTWinter06.pdf (accessed April 14, 2009) Lightbown, P & Spada, N. 2006. How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. Macaro, E. 1997. Target language, collaborative learning and autonomy. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters. Orwig, J. Carol. 2003. Ways to approach language learning. [online] Available at
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/LANGUAGELEARNING/WaysToApproachLanguageLearning/contents.htm (accessed April 30, 2009)
Song, Y & Andrews S. 2009. The L1 in L2 learning-Teachers’ beliefs and practices. Munich:
Lincom GmbH. Tholin, J. 1992. Att lära sig för att lära – engelska: Om elevplanerad undervisning.
Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. Tornberg, U. 2005. Språkdidaktik. Kristianstad: Kristianstads Boktryckeri AB.
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Appendix 1 – Teacher questionnaire
1. What language do you use during Your English lessons? o Only Swedish o Mostly Swedish, sometimes English o The same amount of Swedish as of English o Mostly English, sometimes Swedish o Only English
2. If you use both English and Swedish during Your lessons, when do You use Swedish? o When explaining grammar o When introducing today’s exercise o When explaining exams/homework o When You want silence in the classroom o When You explain something incomprehensible to the students o Another situation: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Why do you choose to use Swedish at these times? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How important do you think it is to use English during the lesson? Why? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. According to you, what is the most important goal of the English lessons? o That the students can use the language correctly o That the students have confident to use the language o That the students are exposed to the language
6. What opinion do you think the students have about the language use? o They want to use more Swedish o They want to use Swedish when they cannot make themselves understood in English o They want to use more English
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7. How do you think students want their lessons?
o They want their teacher to use more Swedish o They want certain explanations in Swedish o They want their teacher to use English, but to use Swedish during introductions (For
example grammar introductions, explanations of exams and homework) o They want their teacher to use only English to make the lesson more authentic o They want their teacher to use English at first, but use Swedish to make the
information clearer
THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION!
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Appendix 2 – Student questionnaire
1. The language I use during English lessons is: o Only Swedish o Mostly Swedish, sometimes English o The same amount English as Swedish o Mostly English, sometimes Swedish o Only English
2. What opinion has your teacher about the language use?
o The teacher thinks we should use only English o The teacher thinks we should use mostly English, but it is OK to use Swedish o It is OK to use Swedish
3. What do you think about the language use in the classroom?
o The teacher should encourage us to use English more o The teacher should allow us to use Swedish more o It fine as it is today
4. During the English lessons my teacher uses:
o Only Swedish o Mostly Swedish, but sometimes English o Same amount English as Swedish o Mostly English, but sometimes Swedish o Only English
5. If your teacher uses both English and Swedish during lessons, when does he/she use
Swedish? o When he/she explains grammar o When he/she explains today´s assignment o When he/she explains exams/homework o When he/she explains something we do not understand in English o When he/she wants us to be quiet o Another situation:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6. If your teacher uses a lot of English during the lessons, what is Your opinion about this?
o It is very good since it is important to hear the language o It is good but it can be difficult as well o It is not so good since You do not understand everything o It would be better if he/she used more Swedish o Another opinion:
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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7. When would you like Your teacher to use Swedish during the lesson?
o When he/she explains grammar o When he/she introduces today’s assignment o When he/she explains exams/homework o When he/she explains something that is incomprehensible to us o I do not want my teacher to use Swedish during class
8. Do you have any other opinions about language use or language choice in the classroom?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION!
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Appendix 3 – Teacher questionnaire in Swedish 1. Vilket språk använder Du under engelsklektionerna?
o Bara svenska o Mest svenska, ibland engelska o Lika mycket engelska som svenska o Bara engelska
2. Om Du använder både svenska och engelska under lektionerna, när väljer DU att använda
svenska? o När Du förklarar grammatik o När Du går igenom dagens uppgift o När Du förklarar någonting eleverna inte förstår o Annat tillfälle, ange vilket/vilka:
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Varför väljer Du att använda svenska vid dessa tillfällen?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Hur viktigt tycker Du att det är att använda engelska under lektionen? Varför? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Vad är viktigast för dig med engelskundervisningen? o Att eleverna kan använda språket korrekt o Att eleverna vågar använda språket o Att eleverna hör språket
6. Hur tror Du eleverna ser på språkanvändandet?
o De vill använda svenska mer o De vill använda svenska när de inte kan göra sig förstådda på engelska o De vill använda mer engelska
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7. Hur tror Du eleverna vill ha engelskundervisningen?
o De vill att läraren använder mer svenska o De vill att vissa saker ska bli förklarat på svenska o De vill arr läraren använder engelska, men svenska under genomgångar (Tex.
Grammatik, prov, nya uppgifter). o De vill att läraren använder bara engelska så att det blir mer autentiskt o Att läraren först använder sig av engelska, men förtydligar på svenska om det behövs
Tack för din medverkan!
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Appendix 4 – Student questionnaire in Swedish 1. Under engelsklektionerna använder jag: O Bara svenska O Mest svenska, ibland engelska O Lika mycket svenska som engelska O Mest engelska, ibland svenska O Bara engelska 2. Vad tycker läraren om språkvalet? O Tycker att vi ska använda bara engelska O Vi ska helst använda engelska, men det är OK att använda svenska O Det är helt OK att använda svenska 3. Vad tycker du om språkanvändandet i klassrummet? O Vi borde uppmanas att prata mer engelska O Vi borde få prata svenska oftare O Det är bra som det är 4. Under engelsklektionerna använder min lärare: O Bara svenska O Mest svenska, ibland engelska O Lika mycket svenska som engelska O Mest engelska, ibland svenska O Bara engelska 5. Om din lärare använder både svenska och engelska under lektionerna, när använder han/hon svenska? (Välj ett eller flera alternativ) O När han/hon förklarar grammatik O När han/hon ger dagens uppgifter O När han/hon går igenom läxan O När han/hon förklarar någonting vi inte förstår O När han/hon vill få ordning i klassrummet O Annat tillfälle, ange vilket/vilka: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Om din lärare använder mycket engelska under lektionen, vad tycker du om det? O Det är mycket bra eftersom det är viktigt att höra språket. O Det är bra men det kan vara lite jobbigt också. O Det är mindre bra eftersom man inte förstår allt. O Det skulle vara bättre med mer svenska i undervisningen. O Annan åsikt: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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7. När skulle du vilja att din lärare använde sig av svenska under lektionen? O När han/hon undervisar grammatik? O När han/hon ger dagens uppgift? O När han/hon går igenom läxor eller prov? O När han/hon förklarar något vi inte förstår på engelska? O Jag vill helst inte att läraren ska använda sig av svenska under lektionen. 8. Har du några övriga synpunkter på språkval eller språkanvändandet i klassrummet? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Tack för din medverkan!
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