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The Second Intifada and the "Day of Wrath": Safar al-ḥawālī and His Anti-Semitic Reading of Biblical Prophecy Author(s): Stefan Reichmuth Source: Die Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol. 46, Issue 3, Anti-Semitism in the Arab World (2006
), pp. 331-351Published by: BRILLStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20140741Accessed: 24-08-2015 14:44 UTC
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND THE "DAY OF WRATH": SAFAR AL-HAW?L? AND HIS ANTI-SEMITIC READING OF
BIBLICAL PROPHECY
BY
STEFAN REICHMUTH Bochum1
"Though this be madness, yet there is method in't"
Polonius in W. Shakespeare, Hamlet
"Put on your seat belts and prepare for an action-packed apocalyptic thrill
er!"
Internet blurb for Blood Moon, an Apocalyptic Novel by Hal Lindsey (one of the authors referred to by al-Haw?l?), http://armageddonbooks.com/hal.html
(3 September 06)
Abstract
Few months after the outbreak of the al-Aqsa Intifada, Safar al-Haw?l?, one of the most prominent and controversial Islamic scholars of Saudi
Arabia, published his book Yawm al-gadab, "The Day of Wrath", which
has enjoyed a wide readership both for its Arabic and English versions in the internet. Engaging with the current wave of Christian and Jewish
apocalyptical literature, he challenges the widespread view that the bibli
cal prophecies predict the final victory of the Israel over its neighbours. The book claims that, quite to the contrary, they can be read as indica
tions of the violent end of that state and its allies. The article analyses Safar al-Haw?l?'s unusually close reading of the Bible which even trans
fers the biblical promises of return to the Palestinians. His fierce accusa
tions against Israel and the U.S.A., which are orchestrated with extensive
quotes from the biblical Prophets, testify to a new stage of the sacralisa
tion of political language in the Middle East.
On Friday, 29 September, 2000/29 Jumada II, 1421, the eve
1 I am grateful to Gudrun Kr?mer, Alexander Flores, Werner Ende and Stefan
Wild for their valuable comments and suggestions, and also to Bj?rn Bentlage for
his technical help with the Arabic internet sources of this article.
? Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2006 Die Welt des Islams 46, 3
Also available online?www.brill.nl
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332 STEFAN REICHMUTH
of the Jewish New Year 5761, a bloody confrontation developed on the Haram al-sar?f in Jerusalem after Friday prayer, between
the participants in the prayer and the Israeli police. Several Pal
estinians were killed and many others wounded. Violent demon
strations erupted in the following days in most of the towns and
villages of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. This was the be
ginning of the Second Intifada. The violent protests had been
sparked by the visit of the head of the Likud Party, Ariel Sharon, on the Temple Mount which he had undertaken with a group of
other Likud politicians under massive police protection on the
preceding day, 28 September. The visit was regarded as a provo cation by both Palestinian and international observers, falling as
it did into a period of growing tensions between Israelis and Pal
estinians after the failure of the Camp David negotiations (11-25
July) and the suspension of bilateral talks (19 September). Nego tiations had failed mainly because of the unresolved question of
future sovereignty over Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. The
offer of a limited Palestinian sovereignty over the area, as sug
gested by the U.S. delegation and the incumbent Israeli Prime
Minister Ehud Barak, had enraged the Likud Party and the reli
gious camp in Israel. Sharon's visit was generally
seen as an ex
pression of support for lasting Israeli control over the Temple Mount as a site sacred to Judaism, and as a move to increase his
popularity during the imminent elections. The approaching Jew ish New Year's eve added to its symbolic meaning.2
Among Palestinian Muslims, protest was increasingly expressed in religious terms, contributing to a growing radicalisation on
both sides. Already on the subsequent Friday (6 October/7 Ra
2 On the beginnings of the Second Intifada, see Rema Hammami, Salim Tamari,
"Anatomy of Another Rebellion", MEEIP Report 217, Winter 2000 (http://www.meup.
org/mer/mer217/217_hammami-tamari.html (20. 9. 06); also in Joel Beinin, Rebecca L.
Stein (eds.), The Struggle for Sovereignty. Palestine and Israel, 1993-2005; Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press, 2006, 263-281; Ramzy Baroud, The second Palestinian Inti
fada: a chronicle of a people s struggle, London: Pluto Press, 2006; a detailed chronology
compiled by the Institute of Palestine Studies can be found under "Killing fields.
Day by day chronology of the second Intifada", http://www.leksikon.org/killingfields/ (20.09.06); www.aijac.org.au/updates/Oct-00/121000.html (03.12.05) describes the be
ginnings of the Intifada from an Israeli point of view.
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 333
jab), Hamas called for a "Day of Anger" (yawm al-gadab), which led to fresh riots in Old Jerusalem after Friday prayers.3 The "Day of Anger" was repeated over the following months and became
established as an occasion for violent rallies of protest against the massive use of military force by the Israeli army and police all over the West Bank and Gaza. These rallies gradually led to
armed resistance and finally to the suicide attacks on Israeli mil
itary and civilian targets which began on 26 October and soon came to dominate the public image of the Second Intifada.
The "Day of Anger" comes out as a remarkable phrase, saturat
ed with religious connotations. It seems to fuse the expression of
popular anger with a reference to God's anger and wrath, as it is mentioned in the Qur'?n and in the Hadit.4 At the same time it can be understood as an allusion to a biblical expression. The
"Day of Wrath" (Hebr. y?m evr?h) occurs with several variants as a term for the day of divine judgement or punishment in the
Psalms, the Proverbs and some of the Prophets (Ezekiel, Zeph aniah).5 Zephaniah in particular announces the "Day of God's
Wrath" as the imminent judgement which will be meted out by God to Judah and the whole world, "a day of distress and hard
ship, a day of devastation and ruin, a day of darkness and gloom, a day of clouds and dark skies, a day of trumpet blasts and battle cries". Punishment will fall upon the towns and countries which have sinned against the Lord. This is followed by a prophecy on
the restoration of Jerusalem to the humbled and purified rem nant of Israel, and on the in gathering and return of the dis
persed servants of God.6 The apocalyptic colouring of the term
3 Described in an article written from Ramallah by Arian Fariborz, ?Die Schlacht um Jerusalem. Eine Einheitsfront aller Islamisten freut sich ?ber das Ende des
Friedensprozesses", Jungle World 42, 11 October 2000 (http://www.nadir.org/nadir/ periodika/jungle_world/J2000/42/21.html, 29.11.2005).
4 In the Qur'?n as "God's wrath" (gadaba ll?hi, Q 23:9) or "by a wrath from God"
(bi-gadabin mini ll?hi, Q 2:61, 3: 112, 8:16, and others), or even "My wrath" (gadabi, Q 20:81); for similar references in the Hadtt, see A. J. Wensinck et al., Concordance et indices de la Tradition Musulmane, Leiden: Brill, 1936-1988, IV, 524ff. (gadabun). 5 Psalm 110:5; Proverbs 11:4; Ezekiel 7:19; Zephaniah 1:15.
6 Zephaniah 2:3.
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334 STEFAN REICHMUTH
is further illustrated by a passage in Daniel7 and another one
in the Book of Revelation8 of the New Testament, where on the
"Day of His Wrath" (i.e., of Christ) the dramatic events of the
end of the world will unfold. The dies irae of the Latin Catholic
tradition seems to go back to these texts.9
The "Day of Wrath" does not appear to belong to the Islam
ic apocalyptical tradition. It will be hard to prove that the Pal
estinian initiators of the protest rallies had biblical connotations
in mind. But evoking religious motifs and symbols of both Jew ish and Christian origins certainly has a long tradition in modern
Palestinian poetry and literature.10 Palestinian political organisa tions equally did not hesitate to marshal biblical texts and images
when the issues of the holy sites or of Palestinian national unity were at stake. The Islamic organisations,
on the other hand, un
til then had hardly ever done so.
The apocalyptic dimension of the term was highlighted by the
Saudi Islamic scholar Safar al-Haw?li in a book on the Intifada
and its significance, which he published in late 2000 or early 2001. It was soon translated into English, and both Arabic and
English versions began to be distributed by different internet sites
before 11 September 2001. Its title already indicates a claim to
unravel the eschatological significance of the Intifada: "The Day of Wrath. Is the Raj ab Intifada only the Beginning? An exegeti cal reading of the prophecies of the Bible concerning the end of
the State of Israel" ( Yawm al-gadab. Hal bada3a bi-intif?dat Rajab ?!
Qiraa tafslriyya li-nubu?t al-tawr?t can n?h?yat dawlat Isral?)}1 The
7 Daniel 8:19, "in the last time ofwrath". 8 Revelation 6:17. 9 For a general overview of apocalyptic concepts in Judaism, Christianity and Islam,
see, e.g., the article "Apokalyptik" in RGG (Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Hand
w?rterbuchf?r Theologie und Religionswissenschaft), 4th ed., T?bingen: Mohr, 1998, vol.
1, 590-602; Frederik Leemhuis, "Apocalypse", in Encyclopaedia of the Qur?n, vol. 1,
111-114, with further references. io por Palestinian poetry, see notably Stefan Wild, "Judentum, Christentum und Is
lam in der pal?stinensischen Poesie", WI, 23-24, 1984, 259-297. 11 Arabic version available on the website which contains Safar al-Haw?l?'s writings,
http://saaid.net/warathah/safar (last checked 30 August, 2006). Also on al-Haw?l?'s
Arabic website, (22.9.2006). English version titled The Day of Wrath. Is the Intifadha
of Rajah only the Beginning?, first downloaded 13 September, 2001 from a well-known
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 335
cover page of the Arabic version shows an American flag with an
attached Star of David, whose staff breaks under a shower of fist
shaped stones hurled against it.
The author is at present one of the most prominent and contro
versial Salafi scholars in Saudi Arabia who through his polemical
writings against other Islamic currents as well as against Judaism,
Christianity and western secularism, and even more through his
critique of the pro-American politicies of the Saudi government, exerted a strong influence on Us?ma Bin L?din and on what he
himself calls the Islamic "awakening" (sahwa) in his country. Safar
b. cAbd al-Rahm?n al-Haw?l?12 (b. ca. 1950 in the G?mid region of south western Saudi Arabia) was professor of kal?m and dean
of the Faculty of Islamic Studies at the Umm al-Qur? Universi
ty in Mecca. He was dismissed and arrested together with other scholars and preachers in 1994, after they had sharply criticized the Saudi government for allying itself with "the American un
believers" and allowing them to establish a military base in the
country. He was released after five years in 1999 and allowed to
Islamic militant website, www.azzam.com; still available, e.g. under http://www.islam, com/books/0_preface.htm, under al-Haw?l?'s English web site http://www.alhawali.com/ en/ (both last checked 1 September 2006), and also under http://'www.as-sahwah.com/
viewarticle.php?articleID=9088c (22 September 2006). A printed edition remains to be
identified. A first overview of its content was given by Victor and Victoria Trimondi,
Krieg der Religionen. Politik, Glaube und Terror im Zeichen der Apokalypse, M?nchen: W.
Fink, 2006, 393-408. 12 For information on him and access to many of his works, see especially the
Saudi web site already mentioned above, http//saaid.net/waratha/safar, which includes a long personal note by one of his students, Hadir S?lih Sanad, written after al-Haw?l? was hospitalized because of a stroke in 2005 (http//saaid.net/waratha/safar/02.htm). For his role in Saudi politics since the 1990's, see the overviews by Guido Steinberg, "Islamistische Opposition in Saudiarabien. Eine Spurensuche im Lande Usama Bin
Ladins", ami. Antimilitarismus-Information, 31.Jg., Heft 10, October2001, 94-106 (www.
antimilitarismus-information.de/ami_homepage/ami_archiv/2001/10-01/pdf/0-01/8-saudi neu-10-01.pdf, 29 August, 2006), and more recent but also more sensationalist, by Trimondi, Krieg der Religionen, 393ff. A one-page entry on al-Haw?l? even found its
way into Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safar_al-Hawali) (29 November 2005, last modified 01:18, 17 November, 2005). He has also roused the interest of Ameri can "counterterrorism research"; cf. Erick Stakelbeck, "The Saudi Hate Machine", In the National Interest, December 19, 2003 (http://frontpagemag.com/Articles/Printable.asp?
ID=11388, 29 November 2005); "Saudi Double Talk", In the National Interest, August 4, 2004 (http://www.inthenationalinterest.com/Articles/Vol3 Issue31 /Vol3Issue31 Stakelbeck,
html) (29 November 2005). For a list of his publications, see the appendix below.
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336 STEFAN REICHMUTH
resume teaching which he continued with interruptions until
2005. His influence on the younger generation of Saudi scholars and academicians has been considerable, and Us?ma bin L?din
repeatedly referred to him in his declarations. After 11 Septem ber 2001, al-Haw?l? engaged in other political activities, publish
ing an open letter to the U.S. president and initiating a response to the declaration "What we're fighting for", which had been is
sued by 60 American intellectuals under the auspices of the In
stitute of American Values and addressed mainly to the Muslim
world.13 He also commented upon events in Palestine and in
Iraq and is reported to have founded a "Global Campaign Against
Aggression".14 Since October 2003/Sacb?n 1424 his books, book
lets and articles have been made available for downloading by the Saudi dacwa web site Sayd al-naw?fir.15 According to this web
site, readership numbers range for most of them over 10.000 us
ers which would seem to surpass by far the reach of his printed
publications, most of which still remain to be traced. Al-Haw?l?
is thus one of several prominent representatives of Islamic learn
ing in the Arab world who along with their personal teaching have come to rely on the internet to circulate their books, arti
cles, fatw?s and statements, rather than on the established ways of printed publication.16
Yawm al-gadab challenges the view, propagated by religious cir cles within the Zionist movement and their Christian evangelical
sympathizers, that the biblical prophecies predict the final victory
13 "Open Letter to President Bush", first downloaded from http://66.96.205.195/
-azzam/afghan/htmfatawaopen letter.htm (7 December 2001 ), still widely available in the
net; Arabic version under http://saaid.net/warathah/safar: Bay?n li-l-umma can al-ahd?t
wa-hit?b il?B?s; "How we Can Coexist", http://americanvalues.org/html/saudi_statement. html (12 November 2002); Arabic: loc. cit., Ris?la min Makka.. can ayyi say' nud?fic. 14 Reuven Paz, "The 'Global Campaign Against Aggression': The Supreme Council
of Global Jihad?", Intelligence and Terrorism Information Centre at the Center for
Special Studies (C. S. S), http://www. intelligence.org.il/eng/g_j/rp_f_ll_03.htm.org.il/eng/
gj/rpJLll-03.htm (29 November, 2005). 15
http://saaid.net/ warathah/safar/ (30 August, 2006). 16 The best known example is, of course, Y?suf al-Qarad?w?; see Gudrun Kr?mer,
"Drawing Boundaries: Y?suf al-Qarad?w? on Apostasy", in Gudrun Kr?mer and Sabi ne Schmidtke (eds.), Speaking for Islam. Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies, Leiden:
Brill, 2006, 181-217, with further reference.
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 337
of the Israel over its neighbours. The book claims that, quite to
the contrary, they can be read as indications of the violent end
of that state and its allies. It was explicitly written in reaction to
the publications of important evangelical groups in the United
States who have entered into a close alliance with the Orthodox
wing of the Zionist movement since the 1980s.17 The apocalyp tical visions of these groups focus on the state of Israel and its
special place in God's plans which He holds for the end of the
world. Arabs and Muslims figure in these visions as the eternal
enemies who will be finally defeated in the decisive battle of Ar
mageddon.18
Visions of the final battle and the impending end of the world, often illustrated by dramatic book covers and web site images, can also be found in evangelical web sites in other countries. A
German example shows the globe with a wild red dragon cover
ing the Middle East and facing three apocalyptic trumpets blow
ing from the west. A flag with the Star of David flies on the
longest trumpet. The author of this site, owner of an "Internet
Bible School"19, also dwells upon the "time of wrath" that will
lead to the destruction of the world which is dominated by Sa
tan. God's punishment will be meted out to all nations who in
tend to fight a total war against Israel, in particular to the Arab
people. The author even reads the final expulsion of the Ar
abs from Palestine and their deportation to the Yemen into the
biblical prophecies. Al-Haw?l? himself mentions one of the best
known apocalyptic writers, Hal Lindsey, whose essays and novels
17 See e.g. Allan Mittleman, "Religion, Politik und die Neo-Konservativen. Eine
Stellungnahme aus j?discher Sicht", in Klaus-M. Kodalle (ed.), Gott und Politik in USA.
?ber den Einflue des Religi?sen. Eine Bestandsaufnahme, Frankfurt a.M.: Athen?um, 1988, 126-145. For the historical background, and the role played by Christian Zionism
in British and American Middle Eastern policy, see Paul C. Merkley, The Politics of Christian Zionism 1891-1948, London: Frank Cass, 1998; Irvine H. Anderson, Biblical
interpretation and Middle East policy: The promised land, America, and Israel, 1917-2002, Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2005.
18 See in particular the large number of books offered by Armageddon Books, "World's Largest Bible Prophecy Bookstore", www.armageddonbooks.com (last checked
1 September 2006). 19 Cf. ?Internet-Bibelschule", http://www.internet-bibelschule.de/index.htm (29 No
vember 2005).
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338 STEFAN REICHMUTH
offer vivid and imaginative scenarios of the world's final days. In
his books, too, Islam often represents the major enemy in the fi
nal struggle of the righteous. Only the elect few can hope for re
demption. In a final "rapture" they will be taken away from earth
which will then be completely destroyed.20
Against this current of Christian Zionism strongly supportive of
Israel, and its growing popularity especially in the United States, al-Haw?l? with grim sarcasm presents his own reading of the bib
lical prophecies. As is to be expected from an Islamic scholar, he comes to entirely opposite conclusions.
Apocalyptical literature in general draws to a considerable ex
tent on the political positions taken by its authors, and their pro
phetic arguments are largely framed by these positions for which
they claim a special place in the divine plan. Safar al-Haw?l? is no exception to this rule. His introductory chapter begins with a
ruthless critique of the Middle Eastern peace process during the
1990s. According to him it was an illusionary undertaking from
the very start. He pours ridicule on the proposal of a vertically divided sovereignty over the Temple Mount which was offered by the Israeli delegation. According to this proposal the Palestinians
would control only the surface area of the Haram al-sar?f, and Is
rael would retain control of the areas below21, "a strange project [...] which was nevertheless in harmony with the Jewish mind."
(p. 7/4).22 But, he continues, even this minor concession was
20 See, e.g. Hal Lindsey, Late Great Planet Earth, Grand Rapids: Zondervan 1970;
The rapture: truth or consequences, Toronto, New York: Bantam Books, 1983; The Final
Battle, Palos Verdes: Western Front Publ., 1996; Vanished Into Thin Air: The Hope of
Every Believer, Beverly Hills: Western Front, 1999; The Everlasting Hatred, Murrieta:
Oracle House, 2002, and many others, all available at Armaggeddon Books and often
also at Amazon.com. On Hal Lindsey and other Christian Zionists, see especially Ste
phen Sizer, Christian Zionism. Road map to Armageddon f Leicester: InterVarsity Press, 2004.
21 Hammami, Tamari, "Anatomy of Another Rebellion", 4. Al-Haw?l? even men
tions the aerial space above the Haram as a third area of remaining Israeli sovereignty as provided by the proposal. 22 In this and the following references to al-Haw?l?'s Yawm al-gadab, the first num
ber refers to the Arabic paginated text, the second to the English translation. As the
latter is without pagination the indicated numbers might vary according to download
format and can only provide an approximative location of the quoted text.
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 339
met with outrage by the Jews, revealing the futility of any agree ment based on secular grounds. Al-Haw?l? therefore welcomes
the Intifada with its strong Islamic overtones, as it expresses what
he sees as the "spiritual strength of the blessed Islamic revival, which is the only remaining path after the exposure of the futil
ity of all the secular slogans." (p. 8/5).
According to al-Haw?l? the challenge of Jewish and Christian Zionism and their eschatological claims, with which Muslims have
been increasingly confronted, can be countered by their own in
terpretations of the biblical prophecies. He sees this is a legit imate undertaking since the books which were revealed before
the Qur'?n may still contain some truth, despite their distort
ed transmission. Even today's Jewish and Christian apocalyptic authors, he argues, are not always in agreement with each oth
er. Some expect the coming of Christ, others that of the Anti
christ, yet others the battle of Armageddon. Some even predict the end of Israel through the Intifada. This last group seems to
refer to those parts of the ultra-Orthodox haredim who even re
ject the state of Israel and who believe that the neglect of the
religious law, the halakha, was a sacrilege which led to the Ho
locaust and which might yet bring about severe punishments for
the heedless Jews in the future.23 Al-Haw?l? considers this be
lief as highly attractive, since the end of Israel is of outmost rel evance to the "real life situation" of his readers (p. 13/8). The sense of urgency constitutes a typical element of nearly all apoc
alyptic writing. Al-Haw?l? is clearly fascinated with the results of a positivist read
ing of the biblical texts. To him, it counts as an assessment of his
torical processes that is basically as valid as other kinds of analysis:
"Any secular strategic study can arrive at conclusions which are
similar or nearly identical to that which biblical prophecy states
concerning the end of the State of Israel." (p. 13/8). Its great
strength lies in its specification of exact times, which makes it a
matter of faith for the believer, not just a research opinion. He
23 See e.g. Gilles Kepel, Die Rache Gottes. Radikale Moslems, Christen und Juden auf dem Vormarsch, Munich: Piper, 1991, 245f.
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340 STEFAN REICHMUTH
sees the need to refute and destroy the current versions of these
prophecies as they present a grave danger to the world and could
be used by religious Zionists of Jewish and Christian background. Here he seems to think of the plans of the extremist Gush Emu
nim to blast the al-Aqsa Mosque during the 1980s.24
This is followed by a full chapter devoted to the "Jewish psyche", which in his eyes is marked by corruption and the lust for pow er. To him, the Jews have always remained the same, from the
times of the Prophet to present-day America where they continue
to exert control over large portions of the economy, the media, and politics (p. 26/13). But their hope that through the peace
process they would be able to break through their neighbours'
psychological barriers and to gain control over Middle Eastern
markets has not been fulfilled. They continue as a nation living under the wrath of God, showing no interest in peace, but surviv
ing solely through enmity, barbarism and racism (pp. 27f./14f.). Al-Haw?l? is quite conscious of the accusations of racism and anti
Semitism which he might have to face. In order to avoid the fate
of Roger Garaudy who was taken to court because of his anti-Se
mitic statements, al-Haw?l? decided to base his writings entirely on the evidence of the Bible, which, according to him, time and
again exposes the evil character of the Jews: "If the discussion of the criminal characteristics and behaviour of the Jews is anti-Se
mitic, as the Zionists claim, then the most anti-Semitic book on
earth is the Bible itself (p. 102/55). Al-Haw?l? quotes the fierce accusations, threats and curses di
rected by the biblical prophets against their people at length and
with relish, and turns them against the contemporary Jews and the state of Israel. The English version even subsumes all who re
fuse to believe in one of the divine messengers under the rubric
of "Jews" (p. 16, n. 9). Not surprisingly, he also mentions their
punishment of being transformed into apes and pigs (30/16).25
According to him, today's Jews have no right to the legacy of
Abraham (p. 112/63). Still, the biblical threats apply to them.
24 Seee.g.Kepel,Rache Gottes, 203-243.
25 Q5:60.
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 341
These passages offer a mix of traditional Islamic anti-Judaism and of topics belonging to the common stock of modern anti
Semitism, including a world-wide Jewish conspiracy to control the
world, greed for money and power, impurity and lewdness.26 A
novel argument in this context is his denial that today's Jews can
claim authentic Semitic descent; according to him they represent a racial mixture of Europeans, Khazars, Persians, Africans, and
many others. This only adds to their depravity: "Therefore, their
descent is false, their mother will receive no mercy, and their de
scendants are not Allah's people" (pp. 114f./64f.). These statements are backed by an Islamic interpretation of the
biblical prophecies concerning the city of Jerusalem. First of all, al-Haw?l? reaffirms the priority of the Kacba in Mecca over the
sanctuary in Jerusalem. According to Islamic tradition the Kacba was built by Adam or even by the angels. The Kacba?called in
Arabic the "Ancient House" (al-bayt al-atlq)?made Arabia "the
font of human civilisation and the center of world leadership" (p. 41/23). Jerusalem's sanctuary came only second. It was the "dis tant place of worship" (al-masjid al-aqsa), which is mentioned in
the Qur'?n (Q 17:1) and which Muhammad visited in his famous
night journey (pp. 38ff./21ff.). It was renewed by Solomon with
the help of human and jinn? craftsmen, and the present mosque also bears its name (al-Aqsa). The name "Temple" (haykal) which
the Jews gave to it went along with the corruption of their reli
gion with paganism of which they are often accused in the To
rah. In accordance with widespread Palestinian views, the author
denies that there are remains of the Solomonic building beneath the al-Aqsa or in its vicinity, and he declares that archeological excavations have never revealed any traces of the supposed Tem
ple of Solomon.27 Al-Haw?l?'s stress upon the Solomonic building as a
predecessor of the al-Aqsa Mosque stands in marked contrast
to the medieval Islamic tradition concerning the sanctuary of Je
26 See the contributions of Kiefer and Kr?mer to this volume. 27 The Second Temple, of which only the platform and parts of the surrounding
wall remain, is not mentioned by the author; see for the two temples Gudrun Kr?mer, Geschichte Pal?stinas, 2nd ed., Munich: C. H. Beck, 2002, 34ff., 380 n. 12; Theodor A.
Busink, Der Tempel von Jerusalem von Salomo bis Herodes, 1, Leiden: Brill, 1970.
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342 STEFAN REICHMUTH
rusalem. These focused mainly on the Dome of the Rock whose
construction by the Umayyads had both revived and transformed
the ancient Jewish sanctuary.28 The change of the qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, he continues,
which the Prophet carried out in obedience to divine command,
again confirmed the priority of the Kacba. Jews and Christians did not heed God's command concerning the true direction of
prayer and were therefore excluded from the faith of Abraham
(p. 43/24). Al-Haw?l? also presents many scattered references from
the Bible as evidence that Mecca is the "New Jerusalem" of the
prophecies. Anybody watching the large crowds of worshippers in TV broadcasts from Mecca during Ramadan or the hajj sea
son, he argues, cannot but arrive at this conclusion (pp. 47/25f.). Even Jesus predicted a time when God would no longer be wor
shipped in Jerusalem or on Mount Garizim (John 4:21). Mecca as the biblical "New Jerusalem" is only one item on a long
list of Islamic interpretations of key terms of the biblical prophe cies. This list is offered with sarcastic generosity to the believers in
the Bible, as a tool which will allow them to solve their disputes (p. 49/27). As in Islamic tradition, Al-Haw?l? ascribes the bibli
cal notions of the "Paraclete", the "Head of Creation", and the
"Righteous One" to the Prophet of Islam. According to al-Haw?l?, he is also the "Son of Man" mentioned by Daniel. The use of this term for Jesus in the four Gospels is ignored by him. From the
English translation of the Arabic ibn al-ins?n, he derives a pecu liar distinction between Muhammad, the "Son of Man", and cIs?
(Jesus), the "Son of Woman" (p. 49/27): the fact that Muhammad
has a father where Jesus only has a (virgin) mother qualifies him
alone as the "Son of Man" and implies his superiority. Similar to the evangelical interpretations of the prophetic and
apocalyptic texts of the Bible, al-Haw?l? tries to find present-day identifications for most of the horrible creatures that figure in
these texts. The apocalyptic "beast" is Zionism in its Jewish and
28 Cf. O. Grabar, "Qubbatal-sakhra", EP II, 298f.; H. Russe, Jerusalemer Heiligtums traditionen in altkirchlicher und fr?hislamischer Zeit, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, I7ff.; 22
25.
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 343
Christian fundamentalist versions. "False prophets" were Paul, the
popes and all who claimed to be Christ or to receive revelations from him. The "little horn" and the "abomination of desolation"
mentioned by Daniel are identified with the state of Israel, and the "New Babylon" with modern Western, especially American cul
ture; not surprisingly, the United State are branded as the "New Roman Empire" (p. 50/27).
Equipped with these keys, al-Haw?l? approaches the Book of Daniel with its famous visions, which throughout the ages have
provided a major source of political and historical imagination to
the Christian world. Occasionally he also refers to the New Tes tament and more specifically to the Book of Revelation. The last he describes with some irony as a "horror film" to whose atroci
ties he does not want to expose his readers (p. 73/39). A central argument of al-Haw?l?'s book, as of Muslim polem
ics since the early period of Islam, is that many of the biblical
prophecies were fulfilled by the coming of Islam. This, howev
er, was denied and suppressed by Jews and Christians alike, who either projected that fulfilment back to the past or postponed it to an undefined future, disappointing the human longing for
redemption and for the triumph of goodness, truth, and peace. For al-Haw?l?, however, these are false views which are in obvi ous contradiction with divine wisdom, mercy, and justice. It be comes very clear from this argument that he is less interested in
the end of the world than in very tangible and this-worldly hopes of political?and military?liberation.
The Book of Daniel (Dan. 2) mentions a dream which disturbed
Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian king: he saw a huge figure with a golden head, with a chest and arms of silver, a belly and thighs of bronze, iron legs and feet of clay. A stone fell upon it, shat tered it and turned into a great mountain that filled the earth.
Daniel interpreted the dream to the king: four empires would follow upon each other and would finally be destroyed by a fifth one which would last forever. This prophecy was much discussed
by Jewish and Christian scholars. The first four empires were gen
erally assumed to represent Babylon, followed by the Persians, the Greek empire of Alexander the Great, and Rome. There was no
agreement about the fifth: in Christian tradition it was often seen
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344 STEFAN REICHMUTH
as indicating the rise of the Church; al-Haw?l? takes it as a clear
sign of the rise and final rule of Islam (pp. 61-73/33-39). Another famous vision of Daniel (Dan. 7) describes the rising
of four great beasts from the sea: a winged lion, a bear, a leop ard with four heads and four wings, and finally a beast with ten
horns, which killed and devoured all the others. An evil little horn
with human eyes and mouth appeared on it. This beast will be
defeated and put to judgement, and everlasting rule will be given to a fifth being, the "Son of Man" who will descend from heav en. He represents the chosen "People of the Saints of the Most
High" who will be given lasting power and rule over the whole
world (Dan. 7:27). Over time, the two prophecies of a fifth, ev
erlasting empire were variously interpreted in religious as well as in political terms, especially during the religious wars of the
post-Reformation period.29 Al-Haw?l? offers his own interpreta tion of the last vision: the lion stands for the British empire, the
bear for the Soviet Union. The multi-winged and multi-headed
leopard represents either France and the Catholic colonial em
pires, or perhaps the eight Asian tiger states. The fourth beast is
without doubt a symbol of the United States or NATO, with Is
rael as the little evil horn. For the saints who will destroy Amer
ica no interpretation is required for, as he says, "we will have to
wait only a short time to see" (p. 71/38). Here he clearly refers to the Muslim muj?hid?n, whom he also identifies with the vic
torious armies coming from the north or east, which are men
tioned elsewhere in the Book of Daniel (p. 81/42).30 Al-Haw?l? devotes an entire chapter (ch. 9, pp. 81-101/44-55)
to the vision of two evil animals mentioned in the Book of Reve
lation (Rev. 13), which appear on the shore of the sea. He takes
them to represent Jewish and Christian Zionism (p. 80/42). He
29 The "Fifth Monarchy Men", for example, were a powerful group within the anti
royalist party during the English Revolution of the seventeenth century, who were
convinced that the British Protestant nation with its Parliament was the rightful heir
to that prophecy; see, e.g., B. Capp, The Fifth Monarchy Men: a study in seventeenth
century English Millenarianism, London: Faber and Faber, 1972; Christopher Hill, The
World Turned Upside Down, London: Penguin, 1991 [1975]. 30 Reference here is apparently to Dan. 11:44.
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 345
also connects their evil activities with Daniel's prophecy on the abomination which will be effected by the little horn in Jerusa lem and which will last for 2.300 days.31 The "abomination of desolation" (rujsat al-har?b), which is also mentioned in the New Testament (Matth. 24:15), comes out as the most important sym bol for the depravity of the present state of Israel. Al-Haw?l? fires another volley of biblical accusations, threats and condemnations of the Jewish people in order to bring home this point (ch. 10,
pp. 102-107/55-59), dwelling upon their immorality and defile ment as mentioned in their own sacred book.
Al-Haw?l? then scrutinizes some Christian speculations on the
timing of this abomination in Jerusalem. He offers his own cal culation as to its beginning and the final "day of wrath" which will end it. Following those commentators who translate the num
ber of days mentioned in Daniel into years, he arrives at the year 1966/7 as the beginning of the time of evil: the "Abomination of Desolation" thus started with the Israeli occupation of the Haram in Jerusalem.32 The 45 days of duration for these evils derived from another enigmatic saying in Daniel33 are also in
terpreted by our author as years: the year 2012 might thus be
hoped for as the year of the "Day of Wrath". He shows himself convinced that the turning point has already been reached with the Intifada of Raj ab. Incidentally his prediction comes close to
that of his American antipodes: in Hal Lindsey's apocalyptic nov
el Blood Moon, the battle between the "futuristic namesakes" of Isaac and Ishmael unfolds in 2014.34
31 Dan. 8:14. In Christian exegesis of the Book of Daniel this vision is generally re
garded as referring to the desecration of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV (d. 163 BCE), which sparked the Maccabean revolt. On the his torical background of the Book of Daniel and its role in Jewish and Christian tradi
tion, see e.g. Jean Dani?lou, "Daniel", Reallexikon f?r Antike und Christentum, Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 1957, 3, 575-585.
32 This is not quite in accordance with his reference to Dan. 8:14 before, where the number of 2.300 days describes the duration, not the beginning of the desecration of the Temple. 33 This is based on Dan. 12:11, from which a period of 45 days between the end of the tribulations of the believers and the final restitution of the Temple cult can be inferred.
34 http://www.armageddonbooks.com/hal.html (3 September 2006).
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346 STEFAN REICHMUTH
That final day will bring judgement not reconciliation (muh?kama l? mus?laha, ch. 11, pp. 108-118/60-67). Al-Haw?li again emphat
ically rejects any peace process. On the "Day of Wrath", the state
of Israel and the United States will be defeated by the armies of
the Muslims, and Israel will be annihilated. This will be the fi
nal fulfilment of the biblical prophecies. The author dwells with
considerable enthusiasm on the prophetic calls to war, especial
ly those in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Joel (pp. 119ff./68ff.), which he
reads as calls to jihad and as a praise of the Muslim warriors. Af
ter this great victory the expelled Palestinians will return to their
homeland. The biblical promises are reserved for them, not for
the Jews who will be dispersed again, except those who convert
to Islam or choose to remain as dimmts under Muslim rule. As
al-Haw?l? attempts to dispossess the Jews of both their state and
their biblical heritage, his transfer of the biblical promises and
prophecies to the Palestinian Muslims conveys an engagement with the Bible which is rather unusual for an Islamic scholar.
Taken in isolation, the "Day of Wrath" might appear as a blind
and vitriolic attack, built upon forced and distorted interpreta tions of biblical texts. But as has been shown, the book has to be
read in the framework of current Jewish and Christian apocalyp tic tendencies, since it engages with them to such an extent and
even owes many of its own concepts to their interpretations of the
Bible. Taken together they illustrate the general re-sacralisation
of the political language which could be observed in the Middle
East over the last decades. Within Israel, secularist Zionism was
strongly challenged after 1967 by the militant religious messian
ism of the Gush Emunim and other Orthodox Jewish groups, and
American political attitudes towards the region have increasing
ly come under the influence of Christian Zionism. For Muslims, the demise of secular patterns of political ideology and the grow
ing "Islamisation of nationalism" (L. Binder)35 have also opened the field for Islamist movements who have increasingly domin?t
35 On the beginnings of this process, see already Naseer Aruri, "Nationalism and
Religion in the Arab World: Allies or Enemies", Muslim World, 67, 1977, 266-279.
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 347
ed the "terrain of social utopia" (G. Kepel).36 Since the Iranian
revolution they have to a large extent
gained control over the ar
ticulation of social and political values in the Arab World.
As Safar al-Haw?l? makes rather creative use of the biblical texts
used by his Jewish and Christian opponents, he brings a new ele ment into the polemic interaction between Israelis and Palestin
ians. The "Day of Wrath" demonstrates how a Muslim polemicist finds in the Bible a promising resource for his anti-Israeli and anti
American views and aspirations. A comparison of the two camps thus reveals a striking convergence of their apocalyptic language. Even the Christian millenarian extremists, whom al-Haw?l? crit
icized so sharply as "madmen venturing some stupid stunt that
would end in an unthinkable catastrophe" (pp. 17f./10), have
apparently found their match. To remain within the appropriate
imagery: the apocalyptic horses (Rev. 6) are harnessed by both
sides to their own carriages and prepared for battle against each
other. This points to the political motives underlying the inflat
ed religious rhetoric. At least for al-Haw?l?, the "Day of Wrath"
is not doomsday37 but a day of this-worldly liberation, reckon
ing and revenge. It is not the Mahd? or Jesus who will bring it
about, but the muj?hid?n, the Muslim fighters gathering from all
parts of the world. He clearly separates the question of the end
of the state of Israel from any speculation on matters concern
ing the Day of Resurrection (p. 13/8) and never refers to Islam ic apocalyptical doctrines and traditions.
After September 11, al-Haw?l?'s book may be read as a key text
that provides important clues to the imagery which has guided Bin L?din and his Saudi followers in their militant activism. But
the "Day of Wrath" is also full of sarcasm and conveys a certain
36 Kepel, Prophet and Pharaoh, 154f.
37 To present al-Haw?l? as a ?doomsday prophet", as done by V. & V. Trimondi, Krieg der Religionen, 393ff, is thus misleading, especially when read together with his other
much more positive views of the Americans and their political and religious culture, which they also mention in their overview (see also below). His posture as "one of the heirs of the prophets" in his Open Letter to President Bush is equally misunderstood
by them (p. 396) as they take this reference to a famous Hadit about the scholars as
heirs of the prophets as indicating a claim of prophetical status for himself.
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348 STEFAN REICHMUTH
distance to its topic, occasionally leaving the reader with the im
pression of a grim play with the sacred texts of the enemy. At
the end the author confesses that there cannot be absolute cer
tainty about future events but proposes a bet with the Christian
and Jewish fundamentalists about their outcome (p. 130/76). This confirms the essentially political function of his argument. His way of treating biblical prophecy is in perfect accordance
with the largely political and this-worldly character of the wave
of Arabic apocalyptic literature which has been published in re
cent years.38 The recurring expressions of anti-Semitism, dressed
in biblical language, can also be related to the author's frame of
radical views about Israel and America.
In addition to his apocalyptic look at the future al-Haw?l? has
another string to his bow when it comes to America. In more re
cent articles he expressed considerable admiration for the Ameri can theology of Unitarianism that several U.S. presidents adhered
to, and for the historical beginnings of the United States as an
"enlightened monotheist nation". He regrets that they should
have ended up with "an evangelical, Zionist, and crusade gov ernment", and urges the Muslims to strive hard to convert that
nation to Islam.39 He sees much hope for dacwa work among the Americans many of whom he regards as second only to the
Muslims in their serious pursuit of justice.40 His Open Letter
to President Bush already dwelt upon the traditional sympathy of the Arabs for the United States, and on their disappointment with the changes of American politics since the 1970s. Even if al
Haw?l? has maintained his fierce criticism of present U.S. poli cies in the Middle East, his views of the Americans on the whole
appear now much more nuanced. This change is clearly related
38 See Sabine Damir-Geilsdorf, "Das Ende?eine politische Wende? Gegenw?rtige muslimische Erinnerungen an die Zukunft", Orient, 44, 2003, 257-279.
39 Al-Haw?l?, "al-Muwahhid?n min al-Nas?r?", al-Bay?n, no. 204, Sa'b?n 1425/
September 2004, http://al-bayan-magazine.com/bayan-204/bayan-19.htm (20 November,
2005), Engl. Transi. "The Monotheists Among the Christians", http://www.islamscience. com/monotheistsEA2.html (29 November, 2005).
40 Al-Haw?l?, "Nas?ha wa-dikr?", 14.4.1424, http://saaid.net/warathah/safar/5.htm,
"al-Sahwa wa-1-muw?jaha wa-azmat al-tahtit", http://saaid.net/warathah/safar/14.htm (n. d.) both last checked 30 August, 2006).
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 349
to his growing critique of a blind and arbitrary Islamic activism which can be noticed in his recent articles. To some extent this
may have resulted from increased political pressure which appar
ently was brought to bear upon al-Haw?l? over the last years.41 It
also certainly follows from a line of historical interest which can
be identified his writings. But "The Day of Wrath" with its fiery message is still available on different web sites, and for both its
Arabic and English versions large numbers of users have been
counted.42 This testifies to its persisting impact upon readers in
and beyond the Middle East.
Appendix
List of books written by Safar al-Haw?l? as available on the web
site http://saaid.net/warathah/safar/(4 September, 2006), with add
ed reference to printed versions which could as yet be identified.
This seems to be the most comprehensive collection. Some are
also available under al-Haw?l?'s own website http://www.alhawali. com (22 September 2006).
- al-Taliq cal? maw?di min kit?b <Fath al-maj?d> (Lectures on Tawh?d,
commenting upon cAbd al-Rahm?n b. Hasan ?l al-Sayh, Fath al
maj?d, itself a commentary upon Muhammad b. cAbd al-Wahh?b, Kit?b al-tawh?d).
- Sarh <al-Aq?da al~Tah?wiyya> (Long commentary on the creed of
the early Hanafi scholar at-Tah?w?, d. 321/933). -
al-Intif?da wa-1-Tat?r al-judud (dated 1 Safar 1424/4 April 2003)
(On Israel, America, and the Second Intifada). -
al-:Alm?niyya..nas'atuh? wa-tatawwuruh? wa-?t?ruh? fi l-hay?t al-isl?miyya al-mu?sira. (A study on the origins of secularism and its influence
upon the Islamic world). - Ris?la min Makka./an ayyi say3 nud?fic7?(Reply to the Open letter of the American Intellectuals, 2001).
41 The biographical account of his student, Hadir S?lih Sanad (http//saaid.net/
waratha/safar/02.htm, see above n. 12), mentions a ban from teaching which was im
posed on him in recent years. 42
Http://saaid.net/Warathah/safar (30.8.2006) indicates a number of 10.412 reads for the Arabic version since 12.8.1424/9.10.2003 when it was first placed on this
site. For the English version available under http://www.as-sahwah.com/viewarticle.
php?articleID=9088c (22.9.2006), 23.060 reads are given.
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350 STEFAN REICHMUTH
- 42 muh?dar?t mufarraga [sie] li-l-sayh Safar al-Haw?l? (Collection of
lectures). - 43 muh?dar?t mufarraga [sic] li-l-sayh Safar al-Haw?l? (Collection of
lectures). - Z?hirat al-irj?3 f? l-fikr al-isl?ml (His Ph. D. thesis: a theological and
historical critique of the Murji'a and of related tendencies in Islam, directed against all those who separate belief and practice in Islam,
including many contemporary scholars and religious movements). -
al-Quds bayna l-wacd al-haqq.. wa-l-wacd al-muftar? (al-Q?hira: Mak
tabat al-Sunna, 1414/1994). (A political and theological study on the truth of the prophecies transmitted by Jews, Christians and
Muslims concerning Jerusalem). - Yawm al-gadab hal bada3a bi-intif?dat Rajaba! (2000/2001, before 11
September). - Wasatiyyat ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamaa (Short lecture on the middle
position taken by the Ahl al-sunna wa-l-jam?ca in religious issues). -
Manhaj al-As?cira fi l-aq?da (A theological critique of the As'arite
school). -
Muqaddima f? tatawwur al-fikr al-garb? wa-1-had?ta (On Europe and
the roots of her long-drawn struggle against religion and belief) -
Bay an li-l-umma can al-ahd?t wa-hit?b il? Bus (2001, after 11 Septem ber, including the Open Letter directed to President Bush).
- al-Im?n wa-naw?qiduhu (Dogmatic tract on belief and its deficien
cies). -
al-Qawmiyya (Lecture on Nationalism). - al-Muslim?n wa-dir?sat al-mustaqbal (Lecture on sound and unsound
ways and methods of studying the future). -
Mujaddid millat cAmr b. Luhayy wa-d?ciyat al-sirk f? h?d? l-zam?n.
(Polemic against the prominent Hij?zi scholar Muhammad cAlaw?
M?lik?, one of the co-founders of the Muslim World League, and
his book Sif?3 al-fu?d bi-ziy?rat hayr al-ib?d). - Sarh <Ris?lat tahk?m al-qawan?n> li-l-sayh Muhammad b. Ibrah?m (rahimahu
ll?h). (Extensive commentary on a fatw? of the former Mufti of Saudi
Arabia, Muhammad b. Ibrahim ?1 as-Sayh, on man-made laws and
their necessary accordance with the sari a, dated 1380/1960). -
Kasf al-gumma can culam?3 al-umma. Ris?la min al-sayh Safar al-Haw?l?
il? al-sayh cAbd al-Az?z b. B?z (n.l. [Saudiarabia], Dar al-Hikma,
1412/1991) (Long pamphlet addressed to the leading Saudi scholar; critique of the decision to grant the Americans a military base in
the country, and complaint about the erosion of the Islamic char
acter of the Saudi state). - Al-Radd cal? l-hurafiyy?n (Muhammad 'Alaw? M?lik?) (another polemic against Muhammad cAlaw? M?lik? blaming him for his Sufi opinions).
- Malhamat al-S?m (Long poem on Syria and its glorious role in the
defence of Islam and of Jerusalem, mentioning in particular Sal?h
al-Din's victories and Ibn Taymiyya's writings and activities). - Also the following important article from another web source:
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THE SECOND INTIFADA AND "THE DAY OF WRATH" 351
"Al-Muwahhid?n min al-nas?r?. Us?luhum..w?qicuhum..mu?n?tuhum",
al-Bay?n, Sacb?n 1425/Sept-Oct. 2004 http://albayan-magazine.com/
bayan-204/bayan-19.htm (29 November 2005); English version: "The Monotheists Among the Christians", http://www.islamscience.com/mono theistsEA2.html (29 November 2005).
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